Perennial Merzlotus is distributed in the territory Medium Siberia Almost everywhere. It is the result of a long and deep salting surface. The formation of permits occurred in the glacial time when a harsh, slightly discovered continental climate was expressed even more sharp than at present. The formation of permits is associated with losses of a large amount of heat in the anticyclonal conditions of the cold period and a deep freezing of rocks. In the summer of the breed did not have time to fully utter. So for hundreds and thousands of years there was a gradual "cold accumulation". The temperature of frozen rocks decreased, their power increased. Hence, merzlota heritage of the glacial period, a kind of relic. But on the North-Siberian lowland, the Merzlot covered and holocene alluvial deposits, and on the dumps of the mining industry in the area of \u200b\u200bNorilsk Merzlota is formed literally in front of a person. This suggests that in the northern part of Central Siberia, modern climatic conditions favors the formation of a permissal.
The powerful factor in the preservation of many years of permits in Medium Siberia is harsh sharply continental climate. Low average annual temperatures are favored by the preservation of the permissive and inherent in this climate. low temperatures, small cloudiness, contributing to night radiation, supercooling the surface and deep freezing of soils, later education snow cover And its small power.
Following the change in climatic conditions from the northeast, the south-west is also changing the nature of the permanent (its power, temperature, icestability). IN north parts of medium Siberia are common solid (Fusion) Perennial Merzlota. The southern border of its distribution passes from Igarka a few north of the lower Tunguska, the south of the middle flow of vilyu to the valley of Lena near the mouth of Olekma. The power of frozen rocks here averages 300-600 m. On the coast of the Hatang Gulf, it reaches 600-800 m, and in the river basin, according to Gray (1968), even 1500 m. The temperature of the frozen layer at a depth of 10 m is -10 ...- 12 ° C, and the turn on the ice is up to 40-50% of the volume of the breed. South Distributed Merzlot S. islands Talikov. First, small parts of the melt soil appear among the beam soil, but gradually the area increases, and the power of the permissal is reduced to 25-50 m. The temperature of the frozen rocks increases to -2 ...- 1 ° C. On the extreme southwest, in the Angara pool, a telly soil is already dominated by area. Here are found only islands of Marzlota. These are small parts of the permafrost in the relief slides or on the slopes of the northern exposure under the cover of peat and moss. Their power in the south is only 5-10 m.
In the direction of the north to the south, the upper limit of the permafrost, the depth of its summer pulling, or the power of the active layer is changed. It depends not only on the amount of heat flowing to the surface, and on the temperature of the frozen soil, but also on its ice protection, that is, on the volume of ice inclusions, on the heat capacity and thermal conductivity of the accommodating rocks. Therefore, the power of the active layer, increasing in general from the north to the south, depends on the mechanical composition of rocks, on the nature of vegetation. The depth of flipping is in the north in peat soils 20-30 cm, in clay 70-100 cm, and in the sands 120-160 cm; In the south, respectively, 50-80, 150-200 and 220-530 cm. Thus, in the southern part of the average Siberia, the power of the active layer is about 2 times more than in the north.
The long-term Merzlota serves as a powerful factor in the formation of natural territorial systems of Central Siberia. It affects the most diverse processes that determine the nature of nature and its specific features.
As a product of a sharply continental climate, the Merzlot itself very significantly affects the climate, reinforcing its severity and continentality. In winter, heat from the underground horizons in the surface layers of air is practically not received by heat, and in the summer a lot of heat is spent on melting of permanent, so the soil is heated slightly and gives little heat to the surface layers of air. The consequence of this is intensive floating surface in clear summer nights, leading to frosts on the basis, and an increase in daily amplitudes of temperature.
Merzlota affects other components of nature. It serves as a kind of waterproof, therefore affects the drain and relief: enhances the seasonality of the surface and underground flow, it makes it difficult for deep erosion and contributes to the side within the active layer, slows the karst processes and favors the development of cryogenic relief forms on the entire space of Middle Siberia. Merzlota determines the formation of a special type of soil permanently taiga. It significantly affects the spatial differentiation of nature, on the structure and functioning of the PTK. The emergence of specific natural complexes, such as Alasov, is connected with the Merzlot.
Merzlota influences on economic activities Population, complicating the development of the territory. For capital construction It is necessary to take into account the possibility of pulling the permafrost and swelling of the soil under construction objects and in the violation of the vegetation cover during construction work. It forces additional work (for example, building houses on piles), which increases in price and slows down construction. Merzlota makes it difficult to water inhabited by settlements and industrial enterprises, requires thermal amelioration in the agricultural development of the territory.
Water
In Central Siberia there are the most long-water rivers of Russia, there are plenty of lakes in separate areas, there are water in depths not only in liquid, but also in a solid state in the form of underground ice and ice cement in molded rocks.
Rivers. The average Siberia has a well-developed river network. This is due to considerable riskiness and dysfrequency of the territory, the fracture of rocks, long period continental development, waterproof effect of many years of permits, deep and long-term seasonal freezing of soils. Merzlota not only prevents the fragmentation of moisture into the ground, but also reduces the evaporation due to the low temperature of river and groundwater. All this determines the features of the water balance of medium Siberia increase in flow and above all its surface component and decrease in evaporation compared to similar latroms of Russian plains and Western Siberia. Stream coefficient In Central Siberia is 0,65 . This is higher than on average by country and 2 times higher than in Western Siberia.. From here a big density of the river network and multipleness of the rivers Middle Siberia. The maximum stock (more than 20 l / s / km 2) is characteristic of the Puratorna Plateau.
The average density of the river network exceeds 0.2 km / km 2 surfaces. The density of the river network is different in Western, more raised and better moisturized, and eastern part. In the pool Yenisei It is 0.4-0.45 km / km 2, and in the pool Lena 0.12-0.15 km / km 2. On slopes and the flow rate, on the structure of the valleys of the Middle Siberian River occupy an intermediate position between mountain and flat. Deep embedded valleys often have a secho-like shape, expanding on areas folded by loose sandy-clay rocks, and acquiring a gorge-like character with steep slopes hanging over water ("cheeks"), in places of exit of traps or limestone.
In Middle Siberia, there is a majority of the Reinea and Lena river basins. In addition to them, such large rivers such as deer, Anabar, Hatanga, Taimyr, Tileyne flow into the sea. Many del flows of Yenisei and Lena have a significant length. Four of them (Lower Tunguska, Vilyui, Aldan and Podcaming Tunguska) are among the 20 largest rivers of Russia. Low lag behind them along the length of the hangar.
Characteristic Death hydrological regime The rivers of the Central Siberia, along with multi-way, are exceptional uneven flow, brevity and power of spring flood and low-water in the winter, the duration of the decoration and the power of ice formations, the freezing of many small rivers to the bottom and the widespread development of forehead. All these features are associated with the peculiarities of the country's climatic conditions with its sharply continental climate.
By water regime The rivers of medium siberia belong to east Siberian Type. The main sources of their nutrition are melting snow and at least rainwater. The proportion of soil nutrition is very small due to the widespread dissemination of the permissal and ranges from 5 to 10% of the annual flow. Only in the extreme south it increases to 15-20%. Power supplies are determined and uneven ineffectal flow distribution. From 70 to 90-95% of the annual flow falls on the warm period (four to six months). The main mass of water passes during a short and stormy spring flood. In the south, this is happening at the end of April, for the most part of the territory, in May, and in the Polar, at the beginning of June. Snow melted for two or three weeks. Simple soils do not absorb mavel Waterwhich are quickly reset in the river.
Water rise In the rivers in the period of flooding, an average of 4-6 m. And on the main rivers, where many melting waters bring tributaries, the flood in the lower flow reaches the colossal sizes. In the lower reaches of the Lena, the rise of water exceeds 10 m, on Yenisei 15-18 m, in the lower reaches of the subflow tung and cats 20-25 m, and on the lower Tunguska, up to 25-30 m. With this, an unusually high level of understanding on medium-grained rivers .
In the summer and autumn period, the rains, melting of the marzlot and forehead maintain the level of water in the rivers, so it is not summer for medium Siberia, but winter interleaverWhen rivers get scarce food only due to groundwater. The water level in rivers is noticeably reduced already with the first frosts. The gradual freezing of soils increasingly reduces groundwater intake in the river. Malnodye and slowing down the flow of rivers lead to strong supercooling river Water and the formation of powerful ice.
The freezing of medium-grained rivers occurs very peculiar. The ice is first formed not on the surface of the water, but on the bottom, on the supercooled pebbles, and then rises to the surface.
The iceboarding on the rivers most of the territory comes in October, and the southern rivers at the beginning of November. Only a rapid hangar in places remains free from ice until December, and sometimes before January. Ice power on rivers reaches 1-3 m. Small rivers are freezing to the bottom. On many rivers, ice jumpers are formed on the rivers, as a result of which the river turns into a chain of lakes, timed to the river pendas. If water in such lakes is saturated with oxygen, then they are "fish cages", with a lack of oxygen, loading pools.
Icewater On the Siberian rivers grand sight. The river carries huge masses of ice. At the narrowed areas of river valleys, huge ice congestion are formed. The ice raised from the focate brings the pebbles and blocks of 20-15 m 3 lips into it with a volume of 12-15 m 3, i.e. weighing more than 30 tons.
Extremely common phenomenon, especially in the northern part of the Central Siberia, are to sleep. Founding water flooded with ice-covered river beds, river floats and whole valleys, forming huge ice fields. From year to year, Testa is formed on the same places. They begin to arise to land in December-January, and the greatest sizes are achieved in March. At this time, the outflow power can be 3-4 m. Foundation of failures is associated with a narrowing of the living cross section of the river when freeing alluvial nansions and the increase in ice power on the surface of the river. Water flows, as in a icy pipe, and with an increase in pressure, it breaks either up forms river frownOr down supports soil waters that rise and pour over the cracks to the surface of the floodplain. So arises ground froth. Most often, the nondes are formed above the ice jumpers and where the river is divided into sleeves among the vast areas of pebbles. In the summer, they gradually melt and serve as an additional power supply of rivers. Large toes can be maintained all summer.
On large rivers with powerful alluvial sediments, a large area of \u200b\u200bliving cross-section and a sufficiently deep occurrence of nonsense is not evolving.
The largest river Medium Siberia is Lena. The length of it reaches 4400 km. According to the pool area (2490 thousand km 2), it ranks third in Russia, and on water, the second, yielding only Yenisei. The average annual consumption of her near the mouth is about 17,000 m 3 / s, and the annual stock 536 km 3. Lena originates on the western slope of the Baikal ridge and in the upper course is a typical mountain river. Below the imposition of Vitim and Olekma Lena acquires the nature of large flat river. When you fall into the sea of \u200b\u200bLaptev, it forms the largest delta area in Russia more than 32 thousand km 2. The main tributaries of Lena within the middle Siberia are Alandan and Vilyui.
Lake. In the middle Siberia, the lakes are less than in Western Siberia, and they are very unevenly distributed. The North-Siberian and Central Label differs in large surprise, where small and shallow thermal lakes prevail. Large lakes in ice-tectonic descents are located on Plateau Puratorna: Hantai, Heta, Lama, etc. These lakes are deep, long and narrow resemble the fjords of Norway. The largest in Central Siberia is Lake Taimyr, located at the southern foot of the Mountains of the Borranga. It occupies a tectonic brand treated with a glacier. The area of \u200b\u200bthe lake is 4560 km 2, the maximum depth is 26 m, and the average is about 3 m.
The groundwater. About 75% of the territory of Central Siberia occupies an East Siberian Artesian pool. It consists of four second-order pools: Tungusky, Angaro-Lena, Khatanga (North-Siberian) and Yakutsky. Artesian waters are pressure pressed. They locate at different depths under thickness in the indigenous rocks of different ages. Among the refrigerated waters there are fresh, brass and brines. Usually with a depth of salinity of waters increases. The most mineralized water, often representing brine with salts to 500-600 g / l, are timed to the solenous sediments of Devon and the Lower Cambrian.
Perennial Merzlota makes it difficult to form the formation and circulation of groundwater, however, in its thicker there are aquifers and lenses within the taliks. Most often, these inter-seed water are confined to a bombard and suspected taliks. The above-sampled waters are represented by the groundwater of the active layer. These water are replenished by atmospheric precipitation and have a mineralization of less than 0.2-0.5 g / l of water. IN cold period Overdimenshots freeze. During the freezing of the aquifer, bugs and land are formed.
Soil, vegetation and animal world
On the formation and accommodation in the territory of the Central Siberia Soil, Vegetation and Animal Peace big influence It has its specific severe sharply continental climate and the associated almost widespread spread of the permissal. This causes a significant difference between the medium-term soils and biocomponents from West Siberian.
As in Western Siberia, the placement of the soil and plant cover and the animal world is subject to the law of zonality, but the zonality is traced less clearly. This is due to a significant risk of territory, the consequence of which is high-rise differentiation Natural conditions complicating the manifestation of zonality. In the northern part of the country, it can be traced from a height of 400-500 m, and in the south from 900 m.
Soil In medium Siberia, they are developing mainly on eluvia of indigenous rocks, so they are usually stonyst and crugs. On huge spaces, soil formation occurs in the conditions of shallow occurrence of many years of permanent. In extreme north Here are common arcticotted soilthat replace the tundra and gleyev and tundra subbones. IN forest zone Specific are formed taiga-merrous soils. IN They are absolutely not traced in the structure of the soil profile, nor in the chemical composition of the traces of the podter formation process characteristic of the taiga. This is due to the fact that the long-term Merzlot creates the immense soil mode and prevents the removal chemical elements beyond soil profile. For taiga-merrous soils, numerous traces of fluffing in the soil profile are characterized, especially in its lower part, the result of the mooring of soils and their weak aeration. Under the influence of permanent phenomena, constant mixing of the soil mass occurs, therefore, for taiga-merrous soils, a weak differentiation of the profile is characterized, the absence of clear genetic horizons.
Taiga-merrous soils Medium Siberia are represented three subtypes. The most widespread taiga-merrous acid Soils forming on loose rocks. In carbonate rocks and trappiers develop taiga-Merzloid Neutral (Faleal) Soil. In the chemical weathering of these breeds, a significant amount of foundations flows into the soil, which ensures the neutralization of the acidic reaction of the soil solution. In the neutral medium, the mobility of humus substances is reduced, the content of humus reaches 6-7%, the biogenic accumulation of chemical elements occurs. These are the most rich soils of the medium-grained taiga. For the northern part of the taiga, where the power of the active layer is especially small, and the overalling of soil is extremely large, most characteristic taiga-Gleyevo-Merroussoil. In the western part of the middle Siberia, where there is greater dismemberment of the surface and chubbyness of the substrate, and therefore less cliffness of the frozen strata are common podbury.
On South, where the marshlot takes small areas, common dernovo-podzolic soils. On the Central Lowland Due to the lack of a washing regime, the soil of saline range is formed in a strong warming of the summer and tightening moisture to the surface: solods, Solonns and Solonchaki(mainly carbonate).
The northern part of the Central Siberia is busy tundra Vegetation From spotted arctic tundras to the shrub southern Yernikovo-Ivnyakov. South peculiar conditions for the development of vegetation create a contrast combination of low-temperature revengery soils and relative to the warm surface layer of air, a long period of winter peace and a relatively short warm period. The harsh conditions of nature adapted a rather limited number of plant species. Of wood breeds This species is larch Daurgian Breed, very undemanding to heat and soils, adapted to the conditions of shallow occurrence of permafrost and content-satisfied with the extremely small amount of precipitation. The domination of light-king larch forests The most characteristic feature of the vegetation cover of Central Siberia. In the southern part of the country, pine joins the larch. IN westernprincesssee part where more precipitation and more powerful snow cover is distributed dark Taiga.
With high summer temperatures and significant dry air, due to the sharp continentality of the climate, is connected north globe Distribution of forests in Middle Siberia.300-500 km north than in Western Siberia, forests come here. On Taimyr, tree vegetation occurs near 72 ° 50 "S.Sh ..
To Central Yakutia located 60 ° С.Ш. Next to the marshy forests there are plots of real steppesand steppe salt marshes. They are the relic of the xerothermal period and are currently preserved due to the warmth not by latitudes of the summer, a small amount of precipitation and the presence of many years of permanent, preventing the leaching of soils and remove salts from them.
Difference Animal Mira Medium Siberia from West Siberian is due to the faunistic and environmental differences of two neighboring physico-geographical countries. Yenisei is an important zoogeographic line, through which many Eastern East-Bird species are transmitted. The fauna of medium Siberia is characterized by greater antiquity than the fauna of Western Siberia. Here, the complex of taiga animals is particularly widely represented. In Central Siberia, there are no series of European-Siberian species (Cute, mink, hare-rusak, hedgehog, etc.), but Eastern Eastosibirsk species appear: East Elk, Snow Baran, Kabagra, Northern Food, A number of landforms, Stone deaf, Black Crow, Duck-rush and others. There is a deep penetration of the central yakutia of animals and birds in the taiga, usually inhabitants in the steppes: long-tailed suslika, black sturdy, field lark, rocky dove, etc.
The animal population of Middle Siberia is characterized by some specific features caused by the features of its nature: a cold long-lasting winter, the spread of many years of permanent, the stonyness of the soils and the intersection of the relief. With the severity of winter conditions, the abundance among animals of furny animals with thick, fluffy and silky fur, which is especially appreciated: sandy, sable, ermine, squirrel, columns, etc. With the intersection of the relief and the stonyness of the soil is due to the increase in the number and species diversity of hoofs in the middle Siberia: Reindeer, Elk, Snow Baran, Cabagra. Merzlota limits the spread of amphibians, reptiles and worms. In cold waters, the number of fish is reduced. The sharp continentality of the climate contributes to greater movement of the tundra animals to the south in the winter and taiga to the north in the summer.
The animal peace of the taiga is distinguished by a rather monotonous species composition, but large fluctuations in the number within its limits. For the animal population, the tundra is characterized by significant similarities with animals of West East British tundras.
Natural zones
Despite the enormous length of the territory of Middle Siberia in Meridian, a set of natural zones within its limits is very small: Tundra, Forestandra and Taiga. Taiga is most fully represented, occupying about 70% of the area, and the tundra.
Increased climate continentality in medium Siberia promotes the displacement of the boundaries of natural zones to the north compared to Western Siberia. However, this is well traced only in the northern part of the country, where not only Lesotundra, but also the northern border of the forest zone comes in 70 ° S.Sh. As for the southern border of the forest zone, then, on the contrary, it turns out to be shifted to the south due to the high-rise position of the territory (above 450-500 m). Here, at the foot of the Eastern Sayan, on the latitudes, on which the steppes are located in Western Siberia, the taiga forests with the forest-steppe islands are common.
Tundrow zone It takes the north of Middle Siberia. Its southern border passes from Dudinka north of Lake Tileino and Heta Valley before merging it with the kitche (about 72 ° 30 "S.Sh.), then envelopes north border Anabar Plateau (Kryazh Har-Tas), crosses the Anabar River, on the interbara and delenec, is somewhat deviated to the south, envelopes the Olenekskoe plateau from the north and Kryazh Chekanovsky from the south, going to Lena. The width of the zone ranges from 100 km in the eastern part to 600 km at Meridian Cape Chelyuskin.
The main features of the zone that distinguish it from the West Siberian tundra: a smaller wetland, the prevalence of shrub and lichen tundra on the tundra ridge and tundra-gley soils, the presence of mountain varies and arrays with mountain tundra characteristic of them and rocky stamps.
Vegetable and soil cover TundR is mosaicly distributed over the surface depending on the microrelief, the mechanical composition of the soil and the nature of moisturizing. In the northern part of the Taimyr, the Arctic spotted tundra is common with polygonal primitive arctic soils. More than 70% of the surface here is occupied by the stains of the bare soil. The vegetation is dedicated to frostic cracks separating these stains. Among plants arctic tundra DRIADA, or partridges grass prevails. Lowering with clay soils are occupied by polygonal hypinous-herbal swamps with Russian and fluff on peat soils. In the Ground Mountains, the stony arctic tundras gradually go to the Arctic desert, represented by large-headed plaques with precipitated lichens. Here is the high-altitude explanation in the placement of soil-vegetation cover.
IN typical tundra subzonewho occupy northern part North-Siberian lowland, the shrub and lichen tundra are dominant on typical tundra, tundra illuvial humus soils and tundra subbora. These tundra are timed to raise the relief, crubstically and sampling soils. There are no signs of flopings in their soils. Dryada and Cassiopeia are dominated in the shrub tundra. On sandy soils in the eastern part of the zone, the tundra with the domination of bushy lickers of the farmer and corordiary and the smaller participation of zetraria are widespread. Moss tundra on the tundra guery soils occupy small areas and are more characteristic of the western part of the zone.
South part Zones are busy shrubnikov ivnyakovo-Yerniki tundra With the domination of the birch of the skinny (in contrast to Western Siberia, where the dwarf birches prevails). Birch is usually busy more high places, and the zhvnyaki prevail in lowering, so they penetrate further to the north. The height and density of shrubs increases to the south, especially in the valleys, the basins, around the lakes, which depends on the increase in the power of the snow cover, above which shrubs usually do not rise.
The animal world of the medium-term tundra is represented by the lemmings of the Obian and hoofs, voles with lemming and economy. They attract the sands and polar sides. In the medium-grained tundra there are a lot of wild reindeer. From birds in the tundra are common white and tundra partridges, snow and lapland plantains.
Summer Tundra comes to life. Geese, ducks, gagars, gaga, seagulls, soups, and others arrive at the lakes, rivers and sea coasts. Returning from the taiga, rebuilding typical tundra animals (deer, sands). Forest species will penetrate the brown bear, Wolverine, etc. In the mountains of Byrranga there is a snow ram, which is not west of Yenisei.
Currently, the tundra natural resources are used mainly deer pastures. The development of minerals is still unprofitable due to the lack of labor and communication paths.
Fondroprian zone It is pulled by a narrow strip (up to 50-70 km) along the southern outskirts of the North-Siberian lowland. The border of the zone passes along the northern ledge of the medium-grained plateau.
In the vegetation cover, the Forestandr is dominated by shrubbing thickets from the birch of skinny, Olhovnik (alder alder), willow, a raspberry of a flutter and marsh on the tundra peat and permanent-tundra gley soils. Trees are scattered with separate specimens or small groups. In the western part of the trees, the trees often have an oppressed appearance, and the East Khatangi ancient becomes even more and curd, more than the height of the trees and normal than the development of the crown. This is due to the improvement of soil drainage, due to the propagation of sandy soils, as well as with an increase in summer temperatures and the predominance of wind-weather weather. In addition to shrubniki tundras and edging, there are moss, kerching fluffy tundras, especially in the western part, and lichen tundra characteristic of the eastern regions.
Forestandra are the most valuable winter pastures for deer. In winter, fishing hunting is underway here.
Taiga zone It is drawn away from north to south by more than 2000 km from the northern outskirts of the Mediumness Plateau to the southern limits of the country.
Specificthe features of the medium-grained taiga, sharply distinguish it from the Taiga of Western Siberia, are a sharply continental climate and almost widespread dissemination of permanent, minor wetlastivity, domination of monotonous larch taiga and permanent taiga soil. Emphasizing the specifics of the taiga zone of medium Siberia, her name is the taiga-permeal zone. Typical PTC of this zone are reservoir-long-tier dedudation and volcanic plains and a plateau with larch forests on the permanent taiga soils.
In the soil and vegetable cover of the medium-grained taiga substorial differences are leaking less distinct than long, caused by an increase in climate continentality and a decrease in moisture, as well as high-altitude, due to lowering summer temperatures.
Zonal Soils Taiga of Central Siberia are merzlotically taiga. Drop-carbonate permanent soils are common on carbonate rocks. In all space, the zone dominates the Svetlokhvoyky forests. True, in the north, it is rare-resistant larch forests on guery-mercularly taiga soils. The shrub tier and the impossible cover in them are formed by the views common with shrub tundra. In the central part of the taiga, the closure of the wood tier and the height of the trees increase. In the undergrowth, except for shrub IV, birch and alder, there are cherry, rowan, elderberry, juniper, honeysuckle. Herbal-moss is a typical taiga. Under forests develop acidic permanent taiga soils.
In the southern taiga increases the variety of coniferous forests. Along with larch and larch and pine forests, clean pine forests are common here. Inhibits and herbal cover are richer. IN soil Pokrov Dernovo-podzolic soils prevail, although there are both permanently taiga.
Along the foot of Eastern Sayan Strip from 70 to 250 km width stretches subtasted subzone with forest-steppe islands. The main area here is occupied by pine and birch herbal forests with numerous stains of meadow steppes, the area and the number of which increase as a result of human activity. On the most sublime and better moistrates, firing and larch-cedar forests are found on turf-podzolic soils. On carbonate soil rocks, turren-carbonate. Under birch groves and meadow steppes are developed gray forest soil and leached chernozem.
From the northern border of the taiga zone to Southern Alias, the band stretches, where more precipitation drops than on the rest of the territory, above the power of the snow cover, less than the annual temperature amplitudes. This creates conditions for increasing the moisture content of soils and the power of the active layer, the island spread of the permanent. Along with the fear-taiga, podzolic and ferrous-podzolic soils are common here. This strip having a width of 300 to 450 km is timed to the dark forests. A spruce, cedar and fir grow here. There are arrays of birchings and stains of larch and pine forests.
Eastern increases the severity of winter, the amount of precipitation decreases and the freezing of soils increases, dark rocks and larch of Siberian fall out of the stand of the stand. Only in the southern part of the taiga in the highest sites are still encountered cedar and fir. In the eastern part of the zone, the larch Dauroskaya dominates. In Central Yakutia, among the larch forests on the permanent-taiga neutral (paley) soils, there are small spots of the sickening-naughty steppes on the terraces of Lena.
Thus, in the direction of the West, the changes in the soil and vegetable cover, associated with increasing the severity and dryness of climate, are quite clearly traced.
Significant height oscillations The medium-term taiga determine the high-altitude changes in the soil-vegetation cover, the most clearly traceable in the northern part of the zone, where the heights amplitudes are exceeded by places exceed 1000 m, and the upper limit of wood vegetation spread is at an altitude of 300-500 m and the forests are replaced by mountain tundra.
Animal world The taiga zone of Medium Siberia is typical for forests. From predators there are a brown bear and wolverine, sable and ermine, caressing and speakers, less often lynx and fox. From rodents a lot of proteins, a chipmuncture, hare-beyak and voles. Abundant and diverse earthrooks. From the hoofs are common, less frequently of the Kabagra, in the northern part Northern deer, and in the south Maral and Kosil. From the birds are numerous typical taiga, living here all year round and having commercial importance, deaf and a ripper. Many small birds Dyatlov, Drozdov, Sleeps, Gootoev, Siberian Lentils, Siberian Mukholovka, etc.
Taking more than 2/3 of the territory of Central Siberia, the taiga area has both the main reserves of her natural resources Mineral and hydropower, fur and fish. All forest and land resources are concentrated here.
In the space of the Taiga zone of Central Siberia, the intraconsoric differences associated with the character of a lithogenic basis are clearly traced. They determine the nature of the nature of each of the provinces that are addressed within the country.
Natural resources Tungussian Provinces (coal, wood, etc.) are still in the reserve of the national economy. The population is concentrated in small villages on the valleys of large rivers, occupied by hunting, fishing and reindeer herding for local needs.
In the province Puratornacopper-nickel ores and stone coal are produced. Here is the northernmost city of Russia - Norilsk.
For Centraliakutskayathe provinces are characteristic of the meadow steppes on meadow-chernozem merrous soils with a humus content of up to 12-15%. They do not occupy large squares (only 3-4%), but give the unique peculiarity of the nature of this province. Their vegetation cover is formed by the carving hairstyle, tichard, tonon, meadow and xerophyte disintegration. Plots of steppes are located next to wetlands, mossy larch forests on low inpass terraces (first and second) and are timed to the slopes and vertices of low ridges (2-3 m). In decreases between the ridges and in the lower slides of the slopes there are stains of salt marshes and solonts with cooled and salteros.
The province's territory is one of the most populated in Central Siberia. The abundance of natural pastures and hayfosses ensures the development of animal husbandry-home branch of the indigenous population of the province of Yakuts. Soil climatic conditions Favorable for agriculture development. Prospects for the use of hydropower resources Lena, Vilyuya and Aldan are great. But especially the reserves of mineral resources-coal, gas, salts and diamonds (near the northwestern outskirts of the province). The territory of the province is considered promising for oil.
Natural resources
The average Siberia is one of the most rich in natural resources of physico-geographical countries. It is especially allocated by mineral, hydropower and forest resources.
Mineral resources Medium Siberia are diverse. Here is more concentrated 70% explored reserves stone and brown coals Russia. True, most of them accounted for the share of pools placed in small-populated areas, the operation of which natural conditions Very complex. Here is the largest in the world Lensky pool With predictive reserves of more than 2.6 trillion. T coals mainly chalky age. It stretches along the Lena Valley by almost 1.5 thousand km. Tungus basin of upperopeozoic coal with reserves of over 2 trillion. T covers an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 1 million km 2. Coal layers here often lie close to the surface. The Taimyr pool (200-250 billion tons) differs smaller in stock. In the South, the most developed part of the Central Siberia, the Canan Swimming pool is located (more than 100 billion tons; Eastern part of Canco-Achinsky) and the Irkutsk-Cheremkhovsky pool (more than 30 billion tons). Both of these basins contain the angle of Jurassic age, are intensively developed and currently have the greatest economic significance.
In 1962, the Markovsky deposit of the Cambrian region was opened in the upper reaches of Lena oil. A Yaraktinsky deposit is also being developed. On the peninsula, Nudevik oil was mined from the deposits of the Upper Paleozoic. Gaza deposits are open in Central Yakutia, in the eastern part of the North-Siberian lowland, on the riverfire Khatanga and Angara, Lena and Vilyuya (Tas-Tumus, Balakhninskoye, Shanskoye, etc.). The average Siberia remains one of the promising areas in the east of the country for oil and gas searches.
Rock salt The Cambrian and Devonian age is mined in the upper reaches of the hangars (Usolye Sibirskoye), in the pool of Vilyuya (Kemphendyay), in Norilsk district and in the lowerhouse Khatanga. The power of salt reservoirs reaches 400 m.
In Central Siberia, there are a number of ore and non-metallic minerals associated with Siberian trappiers and mesozoic magmatism. Great value have deposits diamondwhich are associated with explosion tubes filled with ultrasound rocks kimberlites and their breccias. Some of these deposits (the "World" tube, "successful", "Aikhol") are developed. The most promising diamondic areas are in the pool of Vilyuya and Olenhek.
Russia's largest fields graphitea Kuressoi and Noginskoe are located in the northwestern part of the medium-grained plateau. Here are designed copper nickel orescontaining platinum (Crowds, etc.). Near the mouth of the hangars are open deposit of lead-zinc ores (Goringe) and manganese(Pratozinskoye). Polymetallic, mercury and molybdenum ores Known in the Mountains of Byrranga. Gold is mined in the Yenisei crown. The gold relationship of the anabar massif was found. Found a number of aluminum ore deposits, of which bauxites of the Priagaric part of the Yenisei ridge are of the greatest importance.
Among ores Middle Siberia fields are especially numerous deposits iron Rud., explored and developed in Angaro-Pit, Angaro-Ilimsk and the Midnoungar pools. Known iron deposits in the Norilsk district and in the pool of the Podcast Tunguska.
Hydropower resources The medium-grained rivers make up more than 40% of all-Russian. Pearl hydropower is a fast and full-flowing hangar, which flows through Baikal. This creates very favorable conditions for hydropower construction. The hangar is already working at the full capacity of Irkutsk (600 thousand kW), fraternal (4.5 million kW), the Ust-Ilimskaya HPP (4.3 million kW), the Boguchanskaya (4.5 million kW) is being built and is designed Nizhneangarskaya. In addition to the Angarskaya HPP, Krasnoyarskaya (6 million kW), Vilyuyskaya (about 650 thousand kW) and Hantay HPP (440 thousand kW) are built in Central Siberia. It is planned to build a medium-axis HPP near the mouth of the hangars. The hydropower development of the Lena basin rivers is just beginning. On Lena, hydroelectric power plants with a total capacity of over 16 million kW can be built. The small winter spending of the medium-term rivers (with the exception of the hangars) adversely affect the efficiency of the HPP operation, but in spite of this the cost of electricity produced here is the lowest in the country.
Great transport the value of the rivers: The most important transport highway is Lena, shipping to Ust-Kuta. Shipping its tributaries (Vilyui, Aldan) and the largest inflows of the Yenisei. Used rivers for a leoplava. The use of rivers as a message paths is limited to their browness and the duration of the ice station.
Forest resources Medium Siberia are represented by large wood reserves over 40% of republican reserves in ripe and overripes. The forestry square in Central Siberia occupies about 200 million hectares, and the stock of wood in the forests exceeds 20 billion m 3. Forest performance increases from 30-50 m 3 / hectares in Polar Raddares up to 250-300 m 3 / hectares and more pine forests Priangarya. Pine and pine-laratory forests of the Basin of Angara, which focuses over 35 million hectares of pine forests, is particularly important.
The overwhelming part of the territory belongs to forest-free areas. According to the mode of use and intended purpose, these forests are included in the operating room. The forests of the most oblivious districts adjacent to the railway are mainly mastered. Over 80%, wood harvested here is pine. Forests of the inland areas backup. They are used as weakly, as they differ in lower quality and difficult transport accessibility. Large taiga malfunctions. Protection from them The most important task of the forestry of Middle Siberia.
Foney resources Medium Siberia Object fishing hunt, one of the occupies of the indigenous population. The flip of these areas is famous for high quality and is especially high demand. In terms of the number of strokes, squirrels, sands, ermine, sable, ondatra and hare-whites are dominated by the number of strokes.
Feed resources represented by huge squares of deer pastures. According to the valleys of rivers, floodplain meadows are common, characterized by the most sustainable harvests. Especially valuable in feed are alasal and priest meadows, giving a nutrient hay rich in proteins. But the yield is very unstable. These meadows are distributed mainly in Central Yakutia. There are conjunct and wetlands among forest Massives Taiga. They are used as pastures and haymaking. Livestock The main direction of agriculture is almost throughout.
Because of the high intersection of the relief, harsh climate and high deposit here much lessthan in Western Siberia landcomfortable for agriculture. Most of them are concentrated in the south in the forest-steppe islands and the South Taiga Prijynia, where the humidification coefficient is close to one. There are small pashne area (about 150 thousand hectares) in Central Yakutia, where the amount of active temperatures during the short summer allows you to grow early and secondary grades of grain crops and many vegetables, but in the first period of summer there is a shortage of humidity. About a third of arable land here is located in the valleys of rivers and almost as much on Alas. Within the middle Siberia, there is a largest Polar agricultural farm in our country, in greenhouses and on the open ground of which a variety of vegetables are grown.
Anthropogenic changes in nature
In the XVXVI centuries. In the middle Siberia, small nationalities and tribes lived in a huge territory lived. Only Yakuts who inhabited by the Leno-Vilyuic (Centraliakutskaya) Plain and the valleys of rivers adjacent to it were engaged in cattle breeding (horse breeding), hunting and fisheries, the rest hunting and fishing. Some tribes had deer.
After joining the territory to Russia, the economic flow of the population did not change in essence, only the development of fur resources increased. Economic life in the XVII century. To one way or another, it was associated with the Ferrian "soft rhylard". The development of the furond riches of Central Siberia continued in the XVIIIIXIX centuries, but in the preyatigny gradually began to develop agriculture. Already at the beginning of the XVIII century, 40% of the population lived in the preyaginy, and by the end of the XIX century. 80% of the population of Central Siberia. By the middle of the XVIII century. The Moscow (Siberian) tract towards the coast was laid here Pacific Ocean, and in 1893-1899. Railway part of the Trans-Siberian Highway. This contributed to the further growth of the population and the development of agriculture to meet the needs of the entire local population. Through the rest of the territory continued to develop fur fishery.
From the middle of the XIX century. The foci of gold mining in the Yenisei Kryazh, and in recent years, centuries, when coal was required due to the operation of the railway, its mining began in the Cheremkhov basin. Subsigning and in separate places near the hangars began forest products. All this led to changes in nature in the southwestern, preyed, part of the Central Siberia. On the rest of the territory, the change was touched only by the animal world. Because of the unsalted hunt, the main object of the fishery sobat in many places almost completely disappeared. The number of proteins has been significantly reduced.
The established direction of the economy in Central Siberia was maintained in post-revolutionary years. At the same time, focal farming moved into more northern areas, the livestock population increased, the volumes of logging in the Angara basin and in the upper reaches of Lena increased. In Soviet times, new foci of industrial development of Central Siberia arose on the basis of the use of its mineral resources in the areas of Norilsk and Peaceful. All this entailed an increase in the impact of a person in nature, but the local nature of the impact itself was preserved. Only unintended influence on vegetation covered significant territories. This is due to the spread of forest fires, most often arising through human fault.
Fires sometimes covered huge spaces. Thus, the catastrophic fire of 1915 spread from Sayan to the low-level Yenisei and from Ob to the driving of the subfolder Tunguska. During this fire, about half of the forests in the Yenisei basin were destroyed within the middle Siberia. Especially numerous and extensive fires are characteristic of dry years (1925, 1927, 1962, 1971, etc.). Analysis of the distribution of the squares of the old Gare showed that they detect direct connection with settlements and road tracks.
The targeted change in vegetation cover occurred in the process of expanding arable land. In the preyaginy, natural vegetation is replaced by crops of crops on significant squares. Here are two major array of arable land: around Krasnoyarsk Kansk and Irkutsk Cheremkhovo. In Central Yakutia, in the Basins of the Angara and Podcaman Tunguska, agriculture is still focal. Luxury lands are confined to low river terraces with the most fertile soils. In Central Yakutia there are Alasa, created by a person on the site of specially lowered thermal lakes in order to increase the high-yielding meadow geades. In the Basin, the hangars and near Olekmins on Lena significantly changed age and species composition Forests due to extensive logging here.
The economic basis for the development of the economy of Central Siberia is currently an approximation of industry to sources of raw materials. But the development of natural resources in the conditions of a harsh Siberian climate requires high costs and careful attitude towards nature in the course of its resources. In recent decades of the XX century. More and more foci of local change in nature occurred during mining, during transport and energy construction.
A person actively invades nature and often changes the regime of many years of marzlot, which entails not only the change in the soil and vegetation cover, but often relief. These changes are often irreversible, although not covered by large areas. The main areas of the impact of a person in nature are the Basin of the Angara, Areas of Norilsk, Western Yakutia and Centraliakuta Plain.
To preserve unique and typical natural complexes, one of the largest Taimyr Reserve (1979) on an area of \u200b\u200b1.3 million hectares was created for the protection of animals and reactions. In 1985, the Ust-Lena Reserve (about 1.5 million hectares) was created in the lower reserves (about 1.5 million hectares), and in the Tungus province, Centralnosibirsk (Square is a little less than 1 million hectares). In 1988, a Pouotnian reserve was organized in the central and southwestern parts of Plateau Pouotnian, having an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 1.8 million hectares. On the Taimyr coast, there are several sections of the Great Arctic Reserve.
The main reason for the occurrence of many years of permits is an exceptionally cold climate, in the conditions of which breeds have temperatures below the point of their freezing. Merzlot Merzlota is the result of harsh climatic conditions, mainly harsh low-speed winters.
Education and preservation of permits contribute the following factors:
Negative average annual temperatures, harsh and long winter, the drainage depth exceeds the depth of summer thawing.
Perennial Merzlota It has a great influence on man's economic activity. It creates significant obstacles to the production of earthworks, structures and operation of various buildings, etc. Heated buildings erected at many years of marzlot, eventually settle due to the thawing of soil under them, cracks appear in them, and sometimes they are destroyed. Perennial Merzlota also makes it difficult to water supply in settlements and on railways. It required the development of special construction methods under multi-rigid rocks.
Merzlota contributes to the wiping of agricultural land, as a result of which additional reclamation work is needed, i.e., removing excessive moisture from the fields.
Two can be distinguished from positive factors: the creation of natural refrigerators for storing perishable products and saving fasteners in mines and mines.
Perennial Merzlota has a diverse effect on the nature of the provinces where it is widespread. First of all, it makes it difficult to move the groundwater - frozlory, inter-seed and, especially, superdiece, located closest to the daily surface. It strongly limits the underground nutrition of the rivers of Middle and Eastern Siberia. Underground water in these conditions often form a nondes, bugs of the swelling and other form of relief, which give specific features of the surface of the Sushi of the eastern regions of Siberia. In the north-east of the CIS about 4000 foreings (in Yakutski - Taryn), in which about 25 billion m 3 ice is concluded. Pulling frozen soils and drawdowns contribute to the widespread thermocouple and caused by the peculiar relief of the North-Siberian, Indigi, Kolyma, Central Yakutsk and other lowlands and the plateau in the regions of many years of permanent.
The long-term Merzlota adversely affects the development of vegetable and soil covers. Plants in excess cold conditions do not receive normal nutrition, give a slight increase organicThe soil surface is not enough. Especially detrimental to the Merzlota affects wood vegetation, which has a clearly oppressed species rarending ancient, poor species composition. In Central and Eastern Siberia from the woods best withstands the long-term Merzlot Daurry larch.
In the provinces of distribution of many years of milling, soil cover is also poorly developed. In Middle and Eastern Siberia, coarse-tempered stony soils are widespread due to the predominance of frosty weathelation over the chemical and biological, on the plains - everywhere of the phenomenon. Soils under these conditions are primitively developed, low, are characterized by sharply depressed biochemical processes, disadvantage of nutrients.
Widely distributed in the middle and east siberi of the phenomenon of solifluction, which, along with heat terror, have a large embedded value.
The long-term Merzlota affects the relief, since water and ice have different density, as a result of which freezing and thawing rocks undergo deformation. It is also important that the frozen soil does not pass water.
The most common type of deformation of frozen soils is a baudge associated with an increase in the volume of water during freezing. Arising from this positive form of relief are called mudigurs; Their height is usually not more than 2 m. If the buggers were formed within a peat tundra, then they are usually called peatigars; peat - a good thermal insulator, a merzlot under it is preserved for a long time and often in those places that are considered free from many years of milling, for example on Kola Peninsula. The height of peat bugs can reach 3-7 m, in terms they are usually rounded, sometimes arranged by one, but more often by groups.
In the summer, the top layer of many years of milling is thawing. The underlying of the Merzlood interferes with melting water to leak down; Water, if it does not find the flow into the river or the lake, remains in place until the autumn when it freezes again. In the spring, thawing went from top to bottom as the result of aligning temperatures of heated air and still cold soil; In the fall, the change in temperature is also faster in the air and the freezing goes from top to bottom. As a result, melt water turns out between the waterproof layer of constant permanent distance from below and gradually growing from top to bottom with a layer of new, seasonal permanent. The ice takes a greater volume than water. Water, being between two layers of ice under huge pressure, finds the most weakness In a seasonal seat layer and breaks through it. If it is poured onto the surface, the ice field is formed - Flame; The geomorphological significance of the land is that intensive frosty weathering is underway. If on the surface is a dense moss-herbal cover or a layer of peat, water may not break through it, but only raise, spread under it. Freezing then, it forms an ice core of the bulb; Gradually increasing, such a borgon can reach a height of 70 m with diameter up to 200 m.
Climate warming, violation temperature mode Soils due to deforestation, construction, etc., can lead to progress of individual sections of many years of milling, which will cause soil drawdowns, the formation of funnels, underground cavities and other negative form of relief, externally resembling karst. The processes of relief formation caused by the local thickening of many years of permanent, and all forms created by them are called thermal care, or (more often) heat circuit (Greek. Therme is heat). In the areas of heat distribution, many rounded in the form of stocks are usually located lakes are usually located, since the hydration is excessive, and the perennial denomination of the waterproof. Thermal lakes differ from karst more correct shape and less depth. IN plain parts Central Yakutia is often found alas - flat-bottom termeral basins from tens of meters to several kilometers in diameter and depth to 15-30 m. Often Alasi are engaged in lakes, swamps, meadows; Sometimes they are the basins of lowered or overgrown thermal lakes.
Under the conditions of many years of marzlot, especially if the ice content in the frozen breed is high, water produces not only mechanical, but also the temperature effects, since the molding of ice contributes to the destruction of the rock. Therefore, special terms are introduced - thermo-erosion and thermal abrasion. Thermo-erosion is manifested in the fact that the rivers easily blur the shores, and the convex network reaches an incredible density even in conditions of very flat relief (for example, in Yamal); The thermal abrasion is sometimes rapidly retreating the shores under the action of sea waves.
Relief form associated with many years of Merzlot may also be where there is no merzlot, that is, to have a relic. Thus, in the middle and southern parts of the Komi Republic, there are no many years of permanent, but often there are shallow rounded lakes, a grid of polygonal soils is well read on aerial photographs, especially clearly visible on high river terraces.
Although they call many years of Merzlot eternal, but in fact it is not. This merzlot arose in a quaternary or glacial period The development of our land. In those areas where frosty, and the thickness of the ground glacial cover was insignificant, and it was generally not formed at all, the soil was freezing and the formation of the regions of many years of permissal.
Frozen breeds have a temperature below 0 ° C; Part or all the water in them is in the crystalline state. In medium latitudes, only a small surface layer freezes in winter, so seasonal permanently dominates here. IN northern breadthoh long, frosty winter Land freezes very deeply and short summer It obscures only from the surface of just 0.5-2 m in depth. The thawing layer is called active. Below it in breeds round year Negative persists. These places are called the areas of many years of marzlot.
Frustry soils are spread on Earth mainly in the Polar areas. The largest areas Perennial marbles - Siberia and the northern part.
The territory where the long-term permafrost is common is called another area. But it should be noted that the frozen breeds are disseminated here not everywhere. In the valleys of large, under large lakesIn areas of thickness, many years of milling are interrupted. On the outskirts of the underground glaciation regions exists in the form of individual spots.
In frozen rocks, ice becomes a kind of breeding. A variety of ice inclusions are called fossil ice. The reasons for their occurrence are different: freezing of water in the thickness of the permissal soil; Falling asleep. Fossil ice exists in the form of live, wedges, thin stalks, as well as in the form of lenses. Sometimes the formed ice lens and the water incoming from below lifting the soil occurring above, and a tubercle appears, called hydrolylaccolite. In Yakutia, they reach 25-40 meters in height and 200-300 m in width.
Under the influence of transverse engineering and thawing and rocks on the slopes, as well as due to the strength of gravity, the active layer begins to slowly slide even with gentle slopes at a speed of centimeters per year to several meters per hour. This process is called solifluction (from lat. Solum - Soil and Fluctio - expiration). It is widespread in the middle and, in highlands, in. At the same time on the slopes there are influx, low ridges. If there is wood vegetation on the slope ,. This phenomenon got the name "Drunk Forest".
Merzloral processes very complicate the construction and operation of buildings, roads, bridges, tunnels. Have to save frozen soils in natural condition. To this end, structures are installed on supports, pave cooling pipes, immerse the piles into bored wells. But Merzlota becomes both a man's assistant when warehouses are arranged in it, huge natural refrigerators.
Permanent Merzlotte is developed on the extensive spaces of the Northern and South Hemispheres of the Earth both on the plains and in the mountains occupying about 25% of the land area. In the landscape, this is a glacier and tundra zones, which are included in the Arctic (Antarctic) and subarctic (subanctic) climatic belts (see ch. 12). The dissemination boundary on the plains Northern Hemisphere descends below 50 ° C. sh. and in Southern Hemisphere Accordingly rises to 50 ° sh. In Russia, Merzlota takes more than 65% of its entire territory (Fig. 9.1).
Cryolitozone, its origin and structure.Upper layer earth crustcharacterized by the predominance of negative temperatures of soils and rocks and the presence or possibility of the existence of underground ice, is called a cryolithosone (from Greek. Kryos - cold, frost, ice, Lithos - stone and zone - belt). The formation of modern cryolitozones began at the end of the Pliocene - the beginning of the early Pleistocene due to the planetary cooling climate and the development of glaciation and continued with breaks throughout quaternary period. Particularly harsh climatic conditions existed in Late Pleistocene, about 18-20 thousand years ago during the last glaciation. Cryolitozone is divided into subbands: solid and intermittent or island propagation of multi-nesting breeds. Thickness, or power, the latter depends on the average annual temperature and a number of other conditions and spatially rather variable (see Fig. 9.1). On the territory of Russia, the power of multi-neur-metered rocks in the first subzone reaches 800-900 m. It is Taimyr, coast nordic seas, Arctic Islands, Altai's Alpine Areas, Sayan, and others. In the intra-projectile districts of Eastern Siberia, in particular in the urgent, the capacity of the permotion almost reaches 1500 m. In the second subzone, covering the Kola Peninsula, the South African Licap of the Eastern European Platform, the South Half of Western Siberia and Dr., Merzlota is developed by the islands whose area decreases from north to south. Accordingly, in the same direction, the MMP power is reduced from 100 m and more up to 15-25 m. Breeds, categorizing cryolitozone, have negative temperature Among them are distinguished by frozen rocks containing ice, and frosty, not containing it. The latter includes dry sands and pebbles, some igneous and metamorphic rocks. Ice in frozen rocks is present in a different form: in the form of individual crystals, fills the pores in dispersed sediments (ice-cement), forms different sizes Veins, lenses, layers and larger reservoir bodies and arrays. Ice wedges up to 8-10 m wide and in a depth of 50-60 m permeate the strata of sediments, breaking them into separate arrays. In frozen rocks, ice fills emptiness and cracks. The ice is formed or simultaneously with the formation of rock (syngenetic), or after its formation (epigenetic). At the same time, ice can be formed in repeated water or snow filling in rocks (re-living ice) or when introduced in deposits and freezing soil water (Injection Ice). In the cryolitozone, the surface layer freezes in winter and thaws in the summer. It is called a seoplastic, or active, layer. Its power is usually the first meters and increases from the northern latitudes to the southern, where the thawing occurs at a depth of about 4-6 m. The active layer has a large practical value For the economic activity of a person, since the processes occurring in it cause the surface deformations leading to the destruction of buildings, and therefore should be taken into account during construction. In addition to glacier and tundra zones, temporary seasonal (winter), breed freezing is characteristic of a moderate belt zones.
Factors affecting the development of constant permanentness.
The formation of a permanent relief is influenced by the following factors: climate, real composition of rocks, hydrogeological conditions (depth of groundwater), vegetable Pokrov, newest tectonics and relief (M. I. Skigin, B. N. Wist, β. I. Popov, S. P. Kachurin, V. A. Kudryavtsev, E. D. Ershov, η. η. Romanovsky, K. A. Kondratieva, B. P. Lyubimov, Yu. V. Mudrov, etc.). All these factors are closely interrelated, and the influence of one of them is often weakened or enhanced depending on the change in any other factor. The climate defines the very existence of a permissal. The draining depth of rocks depends on the average annual temperature and its oscillations on the surface, the degree of moisture of rocks, the power of the snow cover. IN generalThe lower mid annual temperature, longer than I. colder winter, less humidity and snow cover, the greater the depth of the breeds.
In the area of \u200b\u200bdevelopment of permits, the amount of heat entering a particular section depends on the relief, the surface exposure, the lithology of rocks, the newest tectonics. So, the slopes of the southern exposition get more heat compared to the northern, so they are less frown. The influence of the real composition of the breeds on the power of the permissal is manifested through the mechanical composition of deposits, their thermophysical properties, thermal conductivity, moisture degree. Loose rocks, on the one hand, warmed on great depththan rocky, however, on the other hand, they are often more saturated with soil or surface waterTherefore, they can freeze on a greater depth than strong. Mlowered sediments (sands, pebbles) are frozen on a greater depth than fine-grained (loam, clay). The vegetation in general contributes to a smaller freezing of rocks and protects them from summer thawing. But the nature of vegetation depends not only from the climate, but also from the relief. The slope of the surface defined by tectonic deformations or exogenous processes affects the distribution atmospheric oyphans, consequently, vegetation, from which, to some extent, depends on the degree of breed freezing. The influence of the newest tectonics and relief affects both large territories and local areas. In the mountains with an increase in height, the air temperature and rocks decrease, the power of MMP increases accordingly. In the arrow parts of individual lifts, especially with increased fracture and more coarse mechanical composition of rocks, the heat flow from the earth's decrees increases and the power of the permotion is reduced, sometimes 100-200 meters compared to the depadies. However, on some anticline, especially promising oil and gas, the flow of raising heat is shielded by the layers containing these minerals, and here, on the contrary, an increase in the power of the closed layer is observed. In depadies where there is modern Considication, the power of permits is usually greater than on raising, due to the fact that, as mentioned above, the deposits performing the deposits are usually thin, more saturated with moisture than on raising, and therefore it is implanted deeper, become ice floers. In general, the capacity of permits increases from watersheds to the bottoms of the depression. However, under river valleys, compared with watersheds, the capacity of the permanent is usually reduced. This is due to the fact that river flows, being powerful and permanent coolants, impede the development of permanent data under them and cause it to flip, creating the zones of the so-called taliks. Taliks can be through, piercing all the thickness of the marzlot under river streams, or to form lenses and channels inside the frozen thickness of intra and intermoroslotny) or no us over it). Cold climate and permafrost determine the special type of weathelation - cryogenic. Periodic freezing and thawing of water in the rocks leads to physical destruction, the formation of cracks, crushing, breaking down to turning them into dust and clay differences. Dusty eluvius is developed in many breeds in the tundra zone.
Research issues How is it figuratively called many years of mind? Causes of Education of Marzlota? In which areas of our country are glaciers focused? Why? Do I need to study and protect many years of marzlot? Since what time there is a long-term permanent and what data are they judged about this? How does the Merzlota affect the development of erosion?
The area of \u200b\u200bmany years of milling is huge - about 11.1 million square meters. km what is most territory of Russia. The main area of \u200b\u200bits distribution is Eastern Siberia. South border solid eternal Merzlota It takes place along the north of Yamal and the Gydaninsa Peninsula, Dudinka on Yenisei, hence it goes down to the polar circle, crosses the Lena River below the mouth of the Vilyuya, goes to the headwinds of Kolyma and the shores of the Anadyr Gulf. The area of \u200b\u200bdistribution of the island eternal milling covers significantly large territory: Tundra of Russian Plain, North West Siberian Plain, all Eastern Siberia. And the Far East, except for the southern Primorye and partly the Amur region, as well as the south of Kamchatka and Sakhalin. In addition, the eternal Merzlot is known in Altai and in the mountains Big Caucasus. Maximum value (up to 1500 m) The power of permafrost reaches the vilyuya in the pool. On the Kola Peninsula, the thickness of the flooded layer is less than 25 m, in the northeast of the Breakiel Tundra, it increases to m; Less than 100 m permafrost power in the south-west of Central Siberia, in the south of Transbaikalia, on the shores of the Okhotsk Sea and in Kamchatka.
According to the nature of the propagation, 3 types of multi-year permissions are distinguished by the nature of the distribution, 3 types of multi-year milling solid merzlotes, distributed in the northern part of the Material Tundra, in the Polar Urals, in the Tundra of Western Siberia, in the northern part of the medium Novosibirsk Islands, Jan-Indigir and Kolyma Lowlands, in Delta R. Lena, in the Centraliakutskaya Plain, the adherent plateau and in the region of Verkhoyansky, Chersky, Kolyma (Gidan) and Anadyr ridges, as well as Yukagir Plateau, on Anadyr Plain. Power thickness fluctuate from 500 m and more than 300 m; Temperatures from 10 ° C and below to 2 ° C. Merzlota with islands of melting soils, which prevails in the Materiamale and Malozhel Tundra, on the medium-grained plateau between the rivers of the lower and submembering Tunguska, in the southern part of the adven plateau, in Transbaikalia. Power thickness sometimes reaches M, but more often from m to 1020 m, temperatures from 2 ° C to 0 °. Island Merzlotte, found in the Kola Peninsula, in the Canin-Pechora district, in tainic zone Western Siberia, southern part of the medium-grained plateau, on Far East, along the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk and in Kamchatka. Power thickness from several tens of meters to several meters, temperatures are close to 0 °. Island Merzlota is also characteristic of mountainous countries From Sayan to Pamirs and the Caucasus, where many-neuroprous rock rocks are mainly found in the periphery of the areas of modern glaciation.
Underground ice is all types of ice in frozen rocks, regardless of their formation, sizes and conditions of climbing. Ice forming in rocks can be divided into four main groups. 1. The buried ice, formed during the burial of snowfields and underground ice. 2. Repeated ice, formed by repeatedly filling with water or snow of frosting cracks. 3. Injecting ice arising from the freezing of groundwater, introduced under pressure into the thickness of frozen dispersed rocks. 4. The constitutional ice formed mainly when freezing wet dispersed rocks. It is divided into: ice-cement - small crystals of ice, filling pores and small cracks in wet rocks during their freezing, and migration ice, formed when freezing water migrating to the fruit of the freezing. As a result, ice slops are formed (filamentous inclusions), small nests, lenzoid layers.
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