Marine Climate: Definition, Features, Areas. What is the sea climate different from continental? Climate North America

What is the features of the climate of the Arctic?

Two main features determine the climate arctic desert - excess moisturizing and very low air temperatures. Under excess moisturizing in climatology, a small evaporation in relation to falling precipitation is meant, when over the year of precipitation falls in two times more than in the same period, moisture evaporates with ground surface. The air temperature here throughout the year does not have more than 19 ° C.

Contrary to widespread opinions, in the northern hemisphere, the most cruel frosts are not in the winter in the central Arctic, but far from the North Pole, at the very polar circle, in the depths of the continent of Asia. But in the Arctic, a very cold summer, the ice remains here all year, as they do not have time to melt over the summer. The melting of ice under the rays of the Sun during a long polar day absorbs almost all solar heat, thus, it turns out to be not enough to heat the air. The average air temperature in the middle of winter in the central Arctic is about 36 ° C, and in the most warm summer months - about 0 ° C. Frosts with air temperature below - 40 ° C in the Arctic are not so frequent - the influx of heat through the sea ice from Ocean water. Only over dense thick ice and in separate stations in the American sector of the Arctic, the minimum air temperatures are sometimes below - 50 ° C, (Muld Bay and Yurik: - 52.8 ° C, Isaxen: - 53.9 ° C). The maximum air temperature in the Central Arctic does not exceed 5 ° C, whereas on the coast of the Arctic seas in the Asian part of the continent, it can reach 30 ° C.

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The geographical position of the territory of the Black Earth Center between 50 and 54 0 S.Sh. Provides a significant amount of solar radiation. The monthly and annual sums of direct solar radiation in the Central Committee during the cloudless sky are (MJ / m 2):

Special strong influence The flow of solar radiation has periods of long cyclonic and anti-cyclonic circulation in the spring and summer months. With a highly developed cyclonic activity, the ratio of actual solar radiation is possible to 25-30%, and with anticyclonic - rises to 75 - 80%. Under the influence of the atmosphere circulation, the ratio between the straight and multiple radiation can be significantly changed, including the latitudinal zonality in the distribution of direct and total radiation.

Monthly and annual sums of total solar radiation in the Central Committee with a cloudless sky (MJ / M 2)

The main climate-forming value has the amounts of radiation of the summer half of the year, when they are high, and albedo is not enough.

Practical interest is the so-called absorbed radiation. About 80 - 85% of the sum of the solar heat entering the soil during the year, falls on the spring and summer. In winter, when the arrival of solar radiation is small and almost throughout the entire territory is steady snow coverThe role of absorbed radiation is insignificant.

The chernozem center is generally characterized as a region of moderately continental climate. Due to the fact that its territory lies in the distribution zone in the warmth of the continental tropical air from the southeastern areas, it prevails relatively hot summer from the average July meter of 19 to 22 ° C. At the same time, due to the remoteness from marine pools, coming here in winter, the wet Atlantic air loses its properties to a large extent. Therefore, the winter here is quite cold with the average temperatures of January from -8.5 ° C to -11.5 ° C.

The chernozem center belongs to the medium moisturizing areas. During the year drops from 450 to 575 mm of precipitation. Observed significant differences In climatic conditions within the region: the degree of continentality of the climate in the western part is less than in Eastern.

The nature of the underlying surface in the black earth center of unequal. Its strongly crossed western part is delayed more precipitation than the lowland eastern (Tambov region). Therefore, the degree of moisturizing of individual parts of the district is also different - sufficient Kursk region, and in the south-east Voronezh region The lack of atmospheric precipitation is manifested. In the north-west and west of the district, evapoability is about 600 mm, that is, almost equal to the annual amount of precipitation. In the east and south-east of the district, evapatibility increases to 800 mm, that is, almost one and a half times higher than the amount of precipitation for the year.

A significant feature of the climate of central black earth regions is its instability. In winter, in southwestern areas there are strong thaws, sometimes destroying snow cover. Subsequent refund of cold weather often leads to freezing winter. Years of good humidification periodically replaced years with acute deficiency of atmospheric precipitation, especially in southeastern regions. In such arid years, the stability of crops is reduced.

The difference in climatic conditions is best traced in season seasons. The transition from winter to the spring in the Central Committee passes quite quickly. Since the second decade of March, the melting of snow cover begins. In the southern part of the field, the field is completely exempted from snow at the end of March, and in North, especially in the northeastern part, is somewhat later, about the first decade of April. The period with the average daily temperature is higher than +5 ° C is installed in the south of the district at the beginning, and in the north - in the second decade of April.

Spring the number of days with rainy and cloudy weather reaches 14-15. More than half of the number of rainy days fall on the second and third decades of April. The number of days with poor weather in the middle of the spring does not exceed 11-12. The greatest number of such days is typical for the southeastern part of the district. Here, from the last decade of April or from the beginning of May, it is preferably a dry weather and a rather intensive consumption of soil moisture occurs.

In the spring (for April-May) in the north-west and west of the region drops up to 90-95 mm atmospheric precipitation. In the east and south-east, the amount of them is reduced to 70 mm and less. For this part of the area, close to the Spring Sukhhei South-East is characteristic of the arid southeast. The number of days with Sukhovyi reaches seven in May. In the west of the district it decreases to three.

The negative phenomena of the spring period also includes freezes. They are in some years not only in April, but throughout May. The probability of the appearance of frosts is excluded only from the first decade of June.

Thus, during the spring, the following features can be traced in the Black Earth Center: in the western part of the spring, the spring is longer and the increase in temperatures occurs mainly gradually, in the eastern part of the Spring district "delays" for 10-11 days and its course is much faster.

With the cessation of night frosts in the Black Earth Center begins summer. It continues usually until mid-September. The average monthly air temperatures summer months Rarely come below 19-20 ° C. During this period, the greatest amount of precipitation falls. On the mid-Russian elevation, the number of them for June-September reaches 250 mm. The number of days with cloudy and rainy weather is here from 12 to 25% of all days of summer. The number of arid days is small (up to 16).

Some other summer mode in the eastern part of the Black Earth Center. During this period, poor weather prevails. The average monthly temperatures reaches 22 ° C. Almost half of all unweighted days is arid. Sukhovy is possible throughout the summer, exciting even most of September. The greatest number of days with Sukhovyi happens in July and August (from 5 to 7). Total number Arid days reaches over the summer 22-30.

The amount of precipitation for July-September is up to 230 mm. The preciputes fall predominantly in the form of short-term showers.

The warm period is different in the Black Earth Center greater duration. In the north-west and west of the district, it is approximately 175 days (with average daily temperatures above 5 ° C). The total amount of temperatures for the growing season here reaches 2700 °. In the south-east area, the duration of the growing season increases to 185 days, and the amount of temperatures is up to 3000 °. In the north-east, the duration of the growing season and the sum of its temperatures are about the same as in the north-west. The difference consists only that the total temperature of the temperature is equal to the northwest of the total temperature of the summer months from higher average daily temperatures.

The warm period here captures a significant part of autumn and continues in fact until the first decade of October in the south-east of the district and to recent numbers September in his northwestern and northeastern parts.

The beginning of the autumn period is characterized not only by the predominance of clear weather and high daily temperatures, but also significant dryness. In the first half of October, protracted drizzles are usually beginning. The drop in the average daily temperatures is below +5 ° C almost throughout the area occurs after October 20. Thus, autumn, in the usual understanding of this word, covers only part of October and November in the Black Earth Center. At the end of November in the north and in early December in the south of the district there is a weak frosty weather. At this time there is a gradual transition to winter.

Winter period in central black earth regions long. In connection with the frequent invasions of cold air masses from the northeastern and eastern regions of the country, there are significant decreases of temperature (up to -30 ° C and below) very coldy There are no longer. Equally frequent invasion of the atlantic air causes a sharp transition to thaws. In this regard, the winter in the black earth center is unstable, which is reflected on the thickness of the snow cover. The accumulation of it is throughout the winter, and the greatest power of snow cover acquires at the end of February-early March. The height of the snow cover in the southern part of the district is 20 30 cm at this time, and in northern 50-60 cm. In the western part of the Black East Center, the winter is somewhat softer than in Eastern, and less long.

When studying climate change, we have focused on two basic elements: temperature mode and precipitation. These parameters were calculated and averaged during the periods of 1961-1990., 1971-2000, 1991-2000, then the averages were compared with the many years of climate "norm-80".

Territory of the Central Black Earth, according to L.V. Klimenko, is the area of \u200b\u200bthe greatest stability of atmospheric processes, and, consequently, the greatest within the ETP stability of the temperature anomalies, the unambiguous characteristic of which is usually applied to the entire region, to some extent proportionate to the scale of the synoptic process. Large anomalies of the average monthly temperature and monthly precipitation amounts that are formed over Russian plains are more often distributed or above the eastern, or over the western parts of the forest-steppe zone. central part The forest-steppe within the Kursk region is more often under the influence of these large anomalies of the monthly characteristics of the climate. Therefore, we have chosen a meteorological station Kursk as a representative of meteorological parameters to study anomalies.

Table 1 Deviation in O with the average monthly air temperature over the periods of 1961-1990, 1971-2000., 1991-2000 from the climatic "Norma-80" on the meteorological station Kursk

The trend towards warming is expressed more noticeable. The greatest positive anomalies of air temperature are marked during the cold period of the year - from January to April. So, in January, the average monthly temperature increased compared to the "norm-80" by 3.6 o C, in February - by 2.2 o C, in March - by 1.9 ° C, in April - by 1.2 o FROM.

The general trend towards an increase in air temperature during the cold period cannot be considered unequivocal. All CCD meteorological stations in last decade XX century noted sharp coolingassociated with the shock of cold Arctic air masses, in November-December. Over the past ten years in November and December, the air temperature turned out to be lower than "Norma-80" by 0.5-1.3 o C. This fact It should be borne in mind when assessing the conditions of pumping plants.

In the warm period of the year, the temperature regime changed slightly compared to the norm. Attention is drawn to the fact that in May is statistically significant, negative deviations of the average monthly air temperature are noted. In practice, this means long-lasting refunds of cold weather, freezing at the beginning of the growing season, negatively affecting the state of sowing.

Having considered a number of average monthly air temperatures and the dissipation of the average monthly air temperature values \u200b\u200bin some years in relation to the average long-term temperature for this month, we received close values \u200b\u200bof the average quadratic deviations (in ° C) for the periods of 1991-2000. and 1891-1980 (Table 2). Comparisons were conducted for a Kursk station with a long series of observations and a stable location since 1891.

Table 2 Radant deviation of the average monthly air temperature

"Norm-80"

Relative stability and even reducing the values \u200b\u200bof the standard deviation from the temperature of the air temperature under unambiguous anomalies of the value indicates that the absolute values \u200b\u200bof the deviations of the air temperature from medium perennial values \u200b\u200bin the last decade of the XX century slightly decreased.

An important characteristic of plant growing conditions is the variability of average maximum and average minimum air temperatures. During the XX century, the average maximum temperature increased by 0.8 o C, while the average minimum temperature rose by 1.2C (Fig. 2).

Fig. one.

Due to the increase in surface air temperature in the 20th century, an increase in the duration and heat supply of the growing period.

An analysis of the average values \u200b\u200bof the deadlines for the cessation and start of frost and the duration of the smuggous period of vegetation showed that the data obtained in 1891-1980, 1961-90, 1991-2000. Periods, differ within no more than 3 days. The interannual variability of the time limits of the smokery period of the end of the end and the resumption of frosts was 13 days. The variability of the duration of the smokery season of vegetation is approximately 1.3-1.6 times more variability of the start and end time, which indirectly indicates their non-corrosion.

In fig. 3 shows a timing schedule of the duration of the smokery period. Against the background of a steady increase in the growing season, a statistically insignificant increase in the duration of the smokery period of vegetation is observed.

Fig. 2.

Significant influence climatic changes are precipitated (Table 3).

Table 3 Deviations of the amount of precipitation (%) by months and for the year during the periods 1961-90,1971-2000,1991-2000 from "Norma-80" according to the meteorological station Kursk

Over the past 10 years, the amount of precipitation dropping out during the year has not changed significantly. The amount of precipitation in December was noticeably decreased and amounted to 68% of Norma-80, in August 85% of Norma-80. More precipitation began to fall out in September, October 148 - 175% of the norm. During the remaining months, the amount of precipitation for the period under study is close to the climate norm. The observed changes in the moisture supply of the growing season as a whole cannot be considered unfavorable for agricultural production.

Analyzing the variability of atmospheric precipitation (variation coefficient) for the Kursk station for various time intervals, we note that precipitation the value of the variation coefficient in the last decade is significantly different from this characteristic for a countertime series of observations (Table 4).

Table 4. Coefficient of variation of a monthly precipitation

"Norm-80"

Relative decrease in the coefficient of variation of atmospheric precipitation is recorded in the months (December - May). IN transition periods The variability of atmospheric precipitates is relatively increasing in the last decade, the variability of atmospheric precipitation increases in the last decade. This trend reflects changes to atmospheric circulation, occurring at the end of the century. Similar results on the variability of atmospheric precipitation are also marked for other meteorological stations of the Central Chernozem region. The distribution of air temperature in the winter, when the arrival of solar heat is insignificant, is determined by the effect of the removal of certain air masses and their radiation cooling. In the warm period of the year, the repeatability of the movements of air masses from various geographic areas determines the thermal regime and moisture supply of the territory.

Studies of perennial climate change and their long-term assessment is primarily based on the analysis of one of the climate-forming factors - the circulation of the atmosphere. Assessing the involvement of large-scale atmospheric processes of the northern hemisphere (ETSM) to the formation of anomalies of climatic parameters, specialists also tried. We have considered trends to change individual climatic parameters, identified communication types of atmospheric circulation with anomalies climatic characteristics In the region and rated statistically significant trends of the types of atmospheric circulation. The dependence of the ECM climate anomalies was estimated using a correlation method for comparing temporary geophysical rows with large-scale atmospheric circulation. The calculations used the average daily air temperature and precipitation in January and July 1971-1995. According to this data, the average perennial values \u200b\u200bof the specified characteristics were calculated for each day, and then their anomalies were determined. The method of comparing temporary geophysical series with calendars of the ETSM shift contains certain computational procedures. The daily Calendar of the ETSM shift is transformed into a time series of a geophysical circulation indicator, in which the observed ECM numbers are replaced with the average values \u200b\u200bof the geophysical parameter during the existence of each ETSM (air temperature, the daily amount of precipitation, etc.). Then the correlation coefficients are calculated between the time rows of the geophysical circulation indicator and the geophysical parameter not only in the coinciding moments, but also during the shifts in time between these rows. The maximum or minimum value of the correlation coefficient, depending on the sign of the time shift, characterize the response of the geophysical parameter to circulation during negative shifts or the response of circulation to the geophysical parameter with positive shifts. To make a decision on the existence of the relationship between correlated rows, the distribution of probabilities of the correlation coefficient is being built in the desiccible lack of communication between the geophysical indicator of circulation and the geophysical parameter. A number of geophysical parameter is modeled by noise chairs, the module of the spectrum of which, on average, the ensemble of implementations coincides with the module spectrum of a number of geophysical parameter. All listed operations are also done for the noise row of the geophysical parameter. They are repeated for different source realizations of the noise row, which allows to construct a selective integral distribution of probabilities of the noise correlation coefficient. A trustful probability for making a decision on the existence of communication between a number of geophysical parameter and the circulation indicator is the likelihood that noise coefficients of the correlation will not exceed the values \u200b\u200bof non-wise. Further, the likelihood of which ETSM makes a statistically significant contribution to the creation of this connection.

In tab. 1 shows a list of ETSM, which have a significant statistical connection with the anomalies of geophysical parameters in the trust probability of more than 0.75. It should be noted that in the present work stored legend ETSM, indicated in the original source.

Table 1 Statistical characteristics of ETSM and meteorological characteristics that correspond to them in Kursk in January for 1971-1995.

Meteorological characteristics		Total duration of ETSM, days	The average value of the meteorological characteristics for this ETSM	Average anomaly characteristic with this ETSM
Cf. daily air temperature, OS
The average daily amounts of precipitation, mm

Generalized information on ETSM, determining the anomalies of climate parameters are presented in Table. 2.

Table 2 Statistical characteristics of the total duration of ETSM, which have a statistically significant connection with the anomalies of climatic parameters

Climatic characteristic	ETSM, causing positive climatic characteristics anomalies	ETSM causing negative anomalies of climatic characteristics
		b (TR) days / 10 years				b (TR) days / 10 years
The average daily air temperature
Daily amounts of precipitation
The average daily air temperature
Daily amounts of precipitation

Note: Table 2 shows the statistical characteristics calculated according to the period from 1899 to 1995, where Mean is average, STD is a standard deviation, b (TR) - a linear trend coefficient, D (TR) - the share of the variance of the series explained by the trend (in%), which is used as a measure of the significance of a linear trend.

Winter period. The average duration of ETSM associated with positive air temperature anomalies was 18 days. In changing the duration of these ETSM, a positive statistically significant trend is marked. The duration of ETSM associated with the negative anomalies of air temperature was 7 days and was characterized by a negative statistically insignificant trend. Both trends contribute to an increase in the air temperature in the cold half year.

Negative anomalies average daily temperature The air is associated with the action of ETSM 4B, 12G and 12BS, which relate to the groups "zonality violation" and "Meridional northern circulation". The greatest decrease in air temperature occurs during ETSM 4B and 12G. At the same time, air transfer over Russian plain becomes a latitudinal Western, and the territory under study is under the influence of Western cyclones.

The positive anomalies of precipitation over the territory under study are due to the development of ETSM 11 g and 12 bz belonging to the "meridional northern circulation". With ETSM 11G, a latitudinal western transfer is carried out, with ETSM 12BZ air transfer over Russian plain becomes a long-term southern with access to the territory of southern cyclones.

The average total duration of ETSM associated with the negative anomalies of daily precipitation during the cold period is 9 days. The change in the total duration of these ETSM is characterized by a negative statistically significant trend. After 1999, an increase in the total duration of ETSM related to the negative anomalies of the daily amounts of precipitation during the cold period was noted.

The analysis showed that in January the greatest number Relations with the anomalies of meteorological parameters are characteristic of ETSM 13Z, 1B and 7AZ, related to the "Sobor of Siberian Anticyclone" and South Cyclones groups.

Summer period. In changing the duration of the ETSM, related to the positive anomalies of air temperature in summer, a negative statistically insignificant trend has been revealed. IN summer period The positive anomalies of air temperature on the territory under study are associated with ETSM 4B and 7B (zonality violation). ETSM 4B forms over the Russian plain the latitudinal western and long-term southern air transfer with access to the territory of South-Western cyclones. With ETSM 7B, the territory is under the action of stationary anticyclone.

The negative anomalies of air temperature are caused by ETSM 2B (zonal circulation), 3, 4B (violation of zonality), 8B, 9B (meridional northern circulation). With ETSM 3, 8B, 9B over the Russian plain, a latitudinal western and long-term southern air transfer is carried out with access to the territory of south-western cyclones. ETSM 2B corresponds to the latitudinal western transfer and the effect of the crest of the Azoresky anticyclone on the territory under study. With ETSM 4B over the Russian plain, the long-term northern air transfer prevails, and the territory of the CHR is influenced by the Arctic anticyclones. In the change in the duration of ETSM, associated with negative anomalies of air temperature in the summer, a negative statistically significant trend has been revealed.

During the same period, in changes in the duration of the processes associated with positive anomalies of daily precipitation, a negative statistically insignificant trend was noted, and in changes in the duration of processes associated with negative abnormal abnormalities, a positive statistically significant trend was observed. Both trends are aimed at reducing the average monthly amount of precipitation in the summer. During the same period, a negative statistically insignificant trend is observed in changing the average monthly amount of precipitation in the summer.

The above patterns were obtained on the basis of an analysis of the duration of ETSM in winter and summer periods from 1971 to 1995. By increasing the study period from 1899 to 1995, there was a similar analysis of the changes in large-scale circulation for the cold and warm half a year as a whole. Close results are obtained (Fig. 1 and 2). The tendency of the existence of a positive linear trend in the change in air temperature for a century of observation period is confirmed. For the Central Black Earth region, a positive linear trend was 2.9 0/100 years by deposit in dispersion 46, 3% - for the winter period and -0.9 0/100 years, with a deposit in the dispersion of 13.3% for the summer period. The duration of the processes associated with the positive anomalies of air temperature in the cold period, continuously increased. The period of faster growth of the length of these processes has come from the mid-60s of the XX century.

In the warmth of the six months, an increase in the duration of ETSM associated with the negative anomalies of daily precipitation was noted. The linear trend coefficient was 1.8 mm / day / 100 years when deposit into dispersion 14.2%. Positive anomalies of daily precipitation for a century of observations do not have a statistically significant linear trend.

The most significant positive temperature anomalies were observed during the period of action on the territory of stationary anticyclones and the atlantic cyclones, with the leading role of the latter, since the total duration of them was almost 2.5 times more than in stationary anticyclones

The negative anomalies of air temperature were formed at ultrapolar anticyclonic entry on ETP (UP-1C., UE-3S.-B., UE-1VOST., UP-2Vost.) And one of the cyclonic types - CN-4. All specified processes relate to the meridional form of circulation.

Positive abnormal abnormalities in January are associated with the cyclonic type of CN-1 (meridional circulation form) and stationary anticyclone. Average daily precipitation above the average year value - distinctive features.

In July, the positive anomalies of the temperature of the air above the territory under study are formed at the Northern (ACH-1-3), Western (ZAP-1, ZAP-2) and the North-Western (SZ-2) of the anticyclonic entry into the ETR territory. Northern and northwestern anticyclonic entries are characterized by the meridional component of circulation, and the Western - its zone component.

Negative air temperature anomalies in summer are associated with cyclonic (CN-1 and CN-2) and Northwestern anticyclonic (SZ-1) entry into the territory under study. All specified typical processes Characterized by the meridional component of circulation.

In fig. 5 and 6 shows how the total duration in the days of the types of atmospheric circulation, causing both cooling and an increase in air temperature in July.

Fig. five.

Fig.6.

Analysis of the types of atmospheric circulation and their links with the anomalies of meteorological parameters in the period 1991-2002, conducted by us, shows that in the last decade of the 20th century there is a certain stabilization in circulation processes: no sharp anomalies in the amount of precipitation in the winter is not marked. Air temperature anomalies in January due to changes in the circulation factor are sufficiently stable by sign and magnitude. In the summer, statistically significant trends emerged in changing the duration of the synoptic processes, causing both negative and positive anomalies of air temperature.

Often mix the concepts "weather" and "climate". Meanwhile, these are different concepts. If the weather is a physical condition of the atmosphere above this area and at this time, then the climate is a long-term weather mode, which with small oscillations is held in this area over the centuries.

Climate - (Greek. Klima tilt (earth surface to sunshine)), statistical member of weather, one of the main geographical characteristics of a particular area. N.S. Ratobyl, P.A. Liarian. General landography and regional studies. - Minsk, 1976.- C.249. The main features of the climate are determined by:

• - the flow of solar radiation;
• - circulation processes of air masses;
• - the character of the underlying surface.

Of the geographical factors affecting the climate of the individual region, the most significant:

• - latitude and height of the terrain;
• - his proximity to the sea coast;
• - Features of the orography and vegetation cover;
• - the presence of snow and ice;
• - The degree of pollution of the atmosphere.

These factors are complicated latitude zonality climate and contribute to the formation of local options.

The concept of "climate" is much more difficult to determine the weather. After all, the weather can be directly seeing and sense, you can immediately describe in words or numbers. meteorological observations. To make an even approximate idea of \u200b\u200bthe climate of the area, it needs to live, at least for several years. Of course, it is not necessary to go there, you can take these observations over many years meteorological station This area. However, such material is many and many thousands of different numbers. How to understand this abundance of numbers, how to find among them those reflecting the properties of the climate of the locality?

The ancient Greeks thought that the climate depends only on tilt the sun rays falling on the Earth. In Greek, the word "climate" means a slope. The Greeks knew that the higher the sun over the horizon, the steeper the sun's rays fall onto the earth's surface, it should be warmer.

Floating north, the Greeks fell into place with a colder climate. They saw that the sun at noon here is lower than at the same time of the year in Greece. And in the hot Egypt, it, on the contrary, rises above. Now we know that the atmosphere misses the average three-quarters of the heat of sunlight to the earth's surface and only one quarter holds. Therefore, first the earth's surface is heated by sunlight, and only then air begins to heat up from it.

When the sun is high above the horizon (A1), the ground surface section receives six rays; When lower, then only four rays and six (A2). So, the Greeks were right that heat and cold depend on the height of the sun over the horizon. This determines the difference in the climate between forever hot tropical countries, where the sun is at noon round year rises high, and twice or once a year standing right above the head, and ice deserts Arctic and Antarctic, where a few months the Sun is not shown at all.

However, not one and the same geographical latitude, even by one degree of heat, climates can differ very sharply from each other. So, for example, in Iceland in January average temperature The air is equal to almost

0 °, and on the same latitude in Yakutia it is below -48 °. According to other properties (the amount of precipitation, cloudiness, etc.), climates on one latitude may differ from each other even stronger than the climates of equatorial and polar countries. These differences in climates depend on the properties of the earth's surface that perceives the sun's rays. White snow reflects almost all rays falling on it and absorbs only 0.1-0.2 parts of the progressable heat, and the black wet arable land, on the contrary, almost nothing reflects. More importantly for climate, different heat capacity of water and sushi, i.e. Miscellaneous of their ability to store heat. In the afternoon, water is much slower than sushi, and it turns out to be colder. At night and in winter, the water cools much slower than the dry, and it turns out to be warmer.

In addition, the evaporation of water in the seas, lakes and on wet areas of sushi is spent very a large number of solar heat. Due to the cooling effect of evaporation in the irrigated oasis, it is not so hot, as in its surrounding desert.

So two terrain can get a completely identical amount of solar heat, but it is different to use it. Because of this, the temperature of the earth's surface even in two neighboring sites may differ on many degrees. The sand surface in the desert on a summer day is heated to 80 °, and the temperature of the soil and plants in the neighboring oasis turns out to be several dozen degrees colder.

Contacting with soil, vegetable cover or aqueous surface, air is either heated, either cooled depending on the fact that the warmer is air or the ground surface. Since the earth's surface primarily receives solar heat, it mainly transmits its air. The heated lowest air layer is quickly mixed with a layer lying above it, and in such a way heat from the ground is increasing above to the atmosphere.

However, it happens not always. For example, at night, the earth's surface is cooled faster than air, and he gives her his heat: the heat flow is directed down. And in winter above the snow-covered expanses of the mainland in our temperate latitudes and over polar ice Such a process is continuous. The earth's surface here or does not receive solar heat, or it gets too small and therefore continuously selects heat in air.

If the air had been immobile and there was no wind, then over the neighboring heated areas of the earth's surface would be saczzled with different temperatures. Their borders could be traced to the upper limits of the atmosphere. But the air is continuously moving, and its flows strive to destroy these differences.

Imagine that air moves over the sea with a water temperature of 10 ° and in its path passes over warm island with a surface temperature of 20 °. Over the sea the air temperature is the same as water, but as soon as the flow passes through coastline And begins to move into the depths of sushi, the temperature of its lowest thin layer begins to rise, and approaches the sushi temperature. Solid lines same temperatures - Isotherms - show how heating is spreading higher and higher in the atmosphere. But the flow comes to the opposite shore of the island, it comes again to the sea and begins to cool - too below up. Solid lines outline inclined and shifted relative to the island "cap" of warm air. This "caps" of warm air reminds the form that the smoke takes with strong wind. Budyko M.I. Climate in the past and future. - Leningrad: Hydrometeoisdat, 1980.- with. 86.

There are three main types of climates - large, medium and small.

Big climate It is under the influence of only the geographical latitude and the largest sections of the earth's surface - the continents, the oceans. This climate is depicted on world climatic maps. Big climate varies smoothly and gradually at long distances, at least thousands of or many hundred kilometers

The features of the climates of individual sections with a length of several tens of kilometers ( big Lake, Forest array, big city, etc.) refer to the average (local) climate, and smaller areas (hills, shorts, swamps, groves, etc.) - to a small climate.

Without such a separation, it would be impossible to figure out which climate differences are the main ones that are minor.

Sometimes they say that the creation of the Moscow Sea on the Moscow Channel has changed the climate of Moscow. This is not true. The area of \u200b\u200bthe Moscow Sea for this is too small.

Different influx of solar heat on different latitudes and unequal use of this heat surface. It cannot fully explain to us all the features of climatets, if you do not consider the value of the nature of the atmosphere circulation.

Air currents all the time transfer heat and cold from different areas of the globe, moisture from the oceans to land, and this leads to the occurrence of cyclones and anticyclones.

Although the atmosphere circulation changes all the time, and we feel these changes in weather shifts, nevertheless comparison of different locations shows some permanent local circulation properties. In some places, the northern winds are often blowing, in others - southern. Cyclones have their favorite movement paths, anticyclones are their own, although, of course, anywhere there are any winds, and cyclones are replaced by anticyclones everywhere. Rain falls in cyclones. Budyko M.I. Climate in the past and future. - Leningrad: Hydrometeoisdat, 1980.- with. 90.

Climate - This is a long-term weather mode characteristic of a particular area. It is manifested in a natural change of all weather types observed in this area.

The climate has an impact on a living and non-living nature. Climate dependent on climate water objects, soil, vegetation, animals. Separate sectors of the economy, primarily agriculture, are also very dependent on the climate.

The climate is formed as a result of the interaction of many factors: the amount of solar radiation coming to the earth's surface; Circulation of the atmosphere; The nature of the underlying surface. In this case, climate-forming factors themselves depend on the geographical conditions of the locality, primarily from Geographic latitude.

The geographical latitude of the area determines the angle of falling the sun's rays, obtaining a certain amount of heat. However, getting heat from the Sun depends on The proximity of the ocean. In places located away from the oceans, the precipitation falls a bit, and the mode of their loss is distinguished by unevenness (in the warm period more than in cold), cloudiness is low, winter cold, summer is warm, the annual temperature amplitude is large. This climate is called continental, as it is typical for places located in the depths of the continents. Over the water surface is formed marine climateFor which the smooth flow of air temperature is characterized, with small daily and annual temperature amplitudes, a large cloudiness, a uniform and sufficiently large amount of atmospheric precipitation.

Great influence on climate and Sea currents.Warm currents warm the atmosphere in areas where they proceed. So, for example, the warm north-Atlantic flow creates favorable conditions To grow forests in the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, while most of Islands of Greenland, lying around the same latitudes as the Scandinavian peninsula, but outside the zone of influence warm current, all year round is covered with a thick layer of ice.

A large role in climate formation belongs Relief. You already know that with lifting terrain for each kilometer, the air temperature is reduced by 5-6 ° C. Therefore, on the high-mountain slopes of the Pamirs, the average annual temperature is 1 ° C, although it is slightly north of the tropic.

The location of the mountain ranges has a great influence on the climate. For example, the Caucasian Mountains are delayed wet sea winds, and on their atmosphered slopes facing the Black Sea, much more precipitation falls than on leeward. At the same time, the mountains serve an obstacle to the cold northern winds.

The dependence of the climate and from dominant winds. On the territory of the East European Plain, over the entire total of the year dominated western windsComing from the Atlantic Ocean, so winter on this territory is relatively soft.

Areas of the Far East are under the action of monsoons. In winter, winds from the depths of the mainland are constantly blowing. They are cold and very dry, so there are little precipitation. In the summer, on the contrary, the winds bring with Pacific Ocean Many moisture. In the fall, when the wind from the ocean subsides, the weather is usually solar, quiet. This is the best season of the year in this area.

Climatic characteristics are statistical conclusions from perennial rows of weather observations (in moderate latitudes, 25-50-year-old rows are used; in the tropics, their duration may be less), primarily above the following main meteorological elements: atmospheric pressure, speed and direction of wind, temperature and air humidity, cloudiness and atmospheric precipitation. Also, the duration of solar radiation, visibility range, temperature of the upper layers of soil and water bodies, evaporation of water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere, height and state of snow cover, various atmospheric phenomena and terrestrial hydrometeors (dew, ice, fog, thunderstorms, blizzards, etc.). In the XX century The number of climatic indicators includes the characteristics of the elements. thermal Balance earth surface, such as total solar radiation, radiation balance, heat exchange values \u200b\u200bbetween the earth's surface and the atmosphere, the cost of heat to evaporation. Comprehensive indicators are also used, i.e. the functions of several elements: various coefficients, factors, indices (for example, continentality, dryness, moisturizing), etc.

Climatic belts

Perennial averages of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sums, repeatability, etc. are called Climatic standards: Appropriate values \u200b\u200bfor individual days, months, years, etc. are considered to be a deviation from these norms.

Cards with climate indicators are called climatic(Temperature distribution map, pressure distribution map, etc.).

Depending on the temperature conditions, the prevailing air masses and winds allocate climatic belts.

The main climatic belts are:

• equatorial;
• two tropical;
• two moderate;
• arctic and Antarctic.

Between the main belts are transitional climatic belts: subequatorial, subtropical, subarctic, subnutrctic. IN transition belts Air masses are changing over the seasons. They come here from adjacent belts, so climate subscance belt In the summer, it is similar to the climate of the equatorial belt, and in the winter - with a climate of tropical; The climate of subtropical belts in the summer is similar to a climate of tropical, and in winter - with a climate of moderate belts. This is due to the seasonal movement over the globe of the beans of atmospheric pressure after the Sun: in the summer - to the north, in the winter - to the south.

Climatic belts are divided into Climatic regions. For example, in the tropical belt, Africa allocate areas of tropical dry and tropical wet climate, and in Eurasia, the subtropical belt is divided into the field of Mediterranean, continental and monsoon climate. Mountain areas are formed high-rise explanancy Due to the fact that with a height of the air temperature decreases.

Variety of land climates

Climate classification gives an ordered system to characterize climate types, their zoning and mapping. We give examples of climate types prevailing in extensive territories (Table 1).

Arctic and Antarctic climatic belts

Antarctic I. arctic climate dominates in Greenland and Antarctica, where average monthly temperatures are below ° C. In the dark winter season, these regions do not receive solar radiation at all, although there are twilight and polar beams. Even in the summer, the sun rays fall on the ground surface at a low angle, which reduces the effectiveness of the warm-up. Most of the suitable solar radiation is reflected in ice. Low temperatures are dominated by both in summer and in winter in the sublime areas of the Antarctic Ice Cover. The climate of the internal districts of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since the South Mainland is different big sizes and altitudes, and the northern ice ocean softens the climate, despite the widespread of packing ice. In the summer during short warming drifting ice sometimes melts. The sediments on the glacial seals fall out in the form of snow or small particles of the ice fog. The internal areas receive only 50-125 mm precipitation every year, but on the coast can fall out more than 500 mm. Sometimes cyclones bring cloudiness and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds that carry significant snow masses, blowing it from the skate. Strong Stock Winds with snowstorms blowing with cold glacial spits, pulling out snow on the coast.

Table 1. Earth climates

Climate type	Clima-tic	Medium-nai pace, ° С		Mode and the number of atmospheric precipitation, mm	Circulation of the atmosphere	Territory
Equatorial	Equatorial			During a year. 2000.	In the region of low atmospheric pressure, warm and wet equatorial air masses are formed	Equatorial areas of Africa, South America and Oceania
Tropical monsoon	Subaurva-Torial			Advantageous during the summer monsoon, 2000		South and Southeast Asia, Western and Central Africa, North Australia
Tropical Dry	Tropical			During the year, 200		North Africa, Central Australia
Mediterranean	Subtropical			Advantageous in winter, 500	In summer - anticyclones with high atmospheric pressure; Winter - cyclonic activity	Mediterranean, South Coast of Crimea, South Africa, Southwestern Australia, Western California
Subtropical dry	Subtropical			During a year. 120.	Dry continental air masses	Internal parts of the mainland
Moderate marine	Moderate			During a year. 1000.	Western winds	Western parts of Eurasia and North America
Moderate continental	Moderate			During a year. 400.	Western winds	Internal parts of the mainland
Moody monsoon	Moderate			Advantageous during the summer monsoon, 560		Eastern outdoor Eurasia
Subarctic	Subarctic			During the year, 200	Cyclones prevail	Northern outskirts of Eurasia and North America
Arctic (Antarctic)	Arctic (Antark-tichetic)			During the year, 100	Anticyclones prevail	North water area Arctic Ocean And mainland Australia

Subarctic continental climate Forms in the north of the mainland (see climatic map Atlas). In winter, the Arctic air is dominated here, which is formed in areas high pressure. The Arctic air applies to the Eastern regions of Canada.

Continental subrctic climate In Asia, it is characterized by the largest air balloon amplitude (60-65 ° C). The continentality of the climate reaches the limit value here.

The average temperature in January varies around the territory from -28 to -50 ° C, and in lowlands and hollows due to the caution of air its temperature below. In Oymyakone (Yakutia) recorded for the northern hemisphere Negative air temperature (-71 ° C). The air is very dry.

Summer B. Subarctic belt Although the short, but rather warm. The average monthly temperature in July ranges from 12 to 18 ° C (daily maximum - 20-25 ° C). Over the summer, more than half of the annual amount of precipitation makes up in the flat territory of 200-300 mm, and on the windward slopes of elevations - up to 500 mm per year.

The climate of the subarctic belt of North America is less continentile compared to the corresponding climate of Asia. There is less cold winter and colder summer.

Moderate climatic belt

Moderate climate of Western coasts of continents It has pronounced marks of the sea climate and is characterized by the predominance of marine air masses throughout the year. He is observed on Atlantic coast Europe and the Pacific Coast of North America. Cordillera are the natural border separating the coast with the sea type of climate from the incontinental districts. The European coast, except Scandinavia, is open to free access of marine moderate air.

The permanent transfer of sea air is accompanied by a large cloudiness and causes protracted spring, in contrast to inside the continental regions of Eurasia.

Winter B. moderate belt Western coasts warm. Ocean's sweeping influence is enhanced with warm sea currents that wash the western banks of the continig. The average temperature in January is positive and varies around the territory from north to south from 0 to 6 ° C. When invasion of arctic air, it can be reduced (on the Scandinavian coast up to -25 ° C, and in French - to -17 ° C). During the spread of tropical air to the north, the temperature sharply rises (for example, it often reaches 10 ° C). In winter, large positive deviations of the temperature from the medium latitudinal (20 ° C) are noted on the West Coast of Scandinavia. The temperature anomaly on the Pacific Coast of North America is less and is not more than 12 ° C.

Summer is rarely hot. The average temperature in July is 15-16 ° C.

Even during the day the air temperature rarely exceeds 30 ° C. Because of frequent cyclones, for all seasons, cloudy and rainy weather. Especially a lot of cloudy days happens on the west coast of North America, where before mining systems Cordillere Cyclones are forced to slow down their movement. In connection with this, the big monotony is characterized by weather in the south of Alaska, where there are no time in our understanding. There is an eternal autumn, and about the occurrence of winter or summer resemble only plants. The annual precipitation ranges from 600 to 1000 mm, and on the slopes of the mountain ranges - from 2000 to 6000 mm.

In conditions of sufficient moisturizing on the coasts developed wide forests, and in excessive - coniferous conditions. Lack of summer heat reduces upper border Forests in the mountains up to 500-700 m above sea level.

Moderate climate of eastern coasts of continents It has monsoon features and is accompanied by a seasonal change of winds: the North-Western flows prevailed in the summer - southeast. He is well expressed on eastern coast Eurasia.

In winter, a cold continental moderate air is distributed with the northwestern wind on the mainland coast, which is the cause of the low average temperature of the winter months (from -20 to -25 ° C). Clear, dry, windy weather prevailing. In the southern regions of the coast of precipitation little. The North of the Amur region, Sakhalin and Kamchatka often fall under the influence of cyclones moving over the Pacific Ocean. So in winter there is a powerful snow cover, especially in Kamchatka, where his maximum height reaches 2 m.

In summer, the south-eastern wind on the coast of Eurasia is distributed by sea temperate air. Summer is warm, with the average temperatures of July from 14 to 18 ° C. Frequent precipitation, which are due to cyclonic activities. Their annual amount is 600-1000 mm, and most of the part falls in summer. At this time of year, fogs are frequent.

Unlike Eurasia, the east coast of North America is characterized by sea features of the climate, which are expressed in the predominance of winter precipitation and sea type annual stroke Air temperature: at least comes in February, and maximum - in August, when the ocean is warm.

Canadian Anticyclone, in contrast to Asian, unstable. It is formed away from the coast and is often interrupted by cyclones. Winter here is soft, multiserry, raw and windy. In the snowy winters, the height of the snowdrifts reaches 2.5 m. With southern wind, it is often an idol. Therefore, some streets of individual cities in the east of Canada have iron railing for pedestrians. Summer cool and rainy. Annual precipitation - 1000 mm.

Moderate continental climate The most distinctly expressed in the Eurasian mainland, especially in the districts of Siberia, Transbaikalia, the North of Mongolia, as well as on the territory of the Great Plains in North America.

A feature of a moderate continental climate is a large annual amplitude of air temperature, which can reach 50-60 ° C. In the winter months, with a negative radiation balance, the earth's surface is injected. A particularly large cooling effect of the surface of the sushi on the surface layers of air in Asia, where a powerful Asian anticyclone is formed in winter and the weighted, windless weather prevails. Moderate continental air has a low temperature (-0 ° ...- 40 ° C) formed in the anticyclone region. In the valleys and hollows due to radiation intagnese, the air temperature may decrease to -60 ° C.

In the middle of winter, the continental air in the lower layers becomes even colder than the Arctic. This very cold air of Asian Anticyclone spreads to Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, southeastern areas of Europe.

Winter Canadian anticyclone compared to Asian anticyclone is less stable due to the smaller sizes of the North American mainland. The winter is less severe here, and their severity does not increase to the center of the mainland, as in Asia, but, on the contrary, somewhat decreases due to the frequent passage of cyclones. Continental moderate air in North America has a higher temperature than continental moderate air in Asia.

On the formation of continental moderate climate Significant affects geographical features territories of continents. In North America, the Cordiller Mountain Ridges are a natural border separating the coast with the sea climate from inside the mainland areas with a continental climate. In Eurasia, a moderate continental climate is formed on the huge Sushi space, from about 20 to 120 ° C. D. Unlike North America Europe is open to free penetration of sea air from the Atlantic deep into the inner areas. This contributes not only to the western transfer of air masses, prevailing in moderate latitudes, but also the plain nature of the relief, the strong slices of coast and deep penetration into the land of the Baltic and North seas. Therefore, a moderate climate of less continentality is formed over Europe compared to Asia.

In winter, the sea atlantic air moved over the cold surface of the sushi moderate europeous latitudes, long retains its physical properties, and its effects extends to the whole of Europe. In winter, as the atlantic effect is weakened, the air temperature from the west is east. In Berlin, it is in January 0 ° C, in Warsaw -3 ° C, in Moscow -11 ° C. At the same time, isotherms over Europe have a meridional orientation.

Eurasia and North America's conversation with a wide front to the Arctic basin contributes to deep penetration on the mainland of cold air masses throughout the year. The intensive meridional transfer of air masses is especially characteristic of North America, where often the Arctic and tropical air is replaced by each other.

The tropical air entering the plains of North America with southern cyclones is also slowly transformed due to the high speed of its movement, large moisture content and solid low cloudiness.

In winter, the consequence of intense meridional circulation of air masses is the so-called "racing" of temperatures, their large cross-day amplitude, especially in areas where cyclones are frequent: in the north of Europe and Western Siberia, the great plains of North America.

In the cold period, snow cover is falling out in the form of snow, the snow cover is formed, which protects the soil from deep freezing and creates moisture supply in the spring. The height of the snow cover depends on the duration of its location and the number of drop-down precipitation. In Europe, the steady snow cover on the flat territory is formed east of Warsaw, its maximum height reaches 90 cm in the northeastern regions of Europe and Western Siberia. In the center of the Russian Plain, the height of the snow cover is 30-35 cm, and in Transbaikalier - less than 20 cm. On the plains of Mongolia, in the center of the anticyclonic region, snow cover is formed only in some years. Lack of snow along with a low winter air temperature determines the presence of many years of permissal, which is no longer observed anywhere on the globe under these latimes.

In North America on the great plains, snow cover is insignificant. East of the plains in the front processes, the tropical air begins to take part, he aggravates frontal processesthat causes abundant snowfall. In the Montreal area, snow cover is held up to four months, and its height reaches 90 cm.

Summer in the continental regions of Eurasia is warm. The average temperature of July is 18-22 ° C. In the arid areas of the south-east of Europe and Central Asia, the average air temperature in July reaches 24-28 ° C.

In North America, continental air is somewhat colder than in Asia and Europe. This is due to the smaller length of the mainland by latitude, the large slication of its northern part of the bays and fjords, the abundance of large lakes and more intensely intensive in the internal areas of Eurasia by the development of cyclonic activities.

In temperate belt annual number The precipitation on the flat territory of the mainland changes from 300 to 800 mm, on the onward slopes of the Alps drops over 2000 mm. Most of the precipitation falls in summer, which is primarily due to the increase in air moisture content. Eurasia has a decrease in precipitation in the territory from the west to the East. In addition, the amount of precipitation decreases from the north to the south due to a decrease in the repeatability of cyclones and an increase in air dryness in this direction. In North America, the decrease in precipitation on the territory is noted, on the contrary, towards the West. What do you think why?

Most of the sushi in the area of \u200b\u200bthe continental temperate climate is occupied by mountain systems. These are the Alps, Carpathians, Altai, Sayan, Cordillera, Rocky Mountains, etc. In the mountainous areas, climatic conditions differ significantly from the climate of the plains. In summer, the air temperature in the mountains quickly drops with a height. In winter, at the invasion of cold air masses, the air temperature on the plains is often lower than in the mountains.

Great influence on precipitation. The precipitation increases on the winding slopes and at some distance in front of them, and on the leeward - weaken. For example, differences in the annual precipitation between the Western and Eastern slopes of the Ural mountains are 300 mm. In the mountains with a height of precipitation increase to a certain critical level. In the Alps, the level of the largest amount of precipitation falls at a height of about 2000 m, in the Caucasus - 2500 m.

Subtropical climatic belt

Continental subtropical climate Determined by the seasonal change of moderate and tropical air. The average temperature of the coldest month in Central Asia places below zero, in the north-east of China -5 ...- 10 ° C. The average temperature of the warmest month is in the range of 25-30 ° C, while the daytime maxima may exceed 40-45 ° C.

The most strongly continentality of the climate in the air temperature mode is manifested in the southern regions of Mongolia and in the north of China, where in the winter season there is a center of Asian Anticyclone. Here, the annual amplitude of the air temperature is 35-40 ° C.

Sharply continental climate In a subtropical belt for high-mountainous areas of the Pamir and Tibet, the height of which is 3.5-4 km. The climate of the Pamirs and Tibet is characterized cold winter, cool summer and a small amount of precipitation.

In North America, a continental arid subtropical climate is formed in closed plateau and in the intermoreflakes located between the coast and rocky ridges. Summer roast and dry, especially in the south, where the average July temperature is above 30 ° C. The absolute maximum temperature can reach 50 ° C and higher. The temperature of +56.7 ° C was registered in the death valley!

Wet subtropical climates It is characteristic of the eastern coasts of the continents to the north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution - southeast of the United States, some southeastern areas of Europe, North India and Myanmar, East China and South Japan, Northeast Argentina, Uruguay and South Brazil, Natal Province coast in South Africa and the east coast of Australia. Summer V. wet subtropics Long and roast, with the same temperatures as in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds +27 ° C, and the maximum +38 ° C. Winters are soft, with average monthly temperatures above 0 ° C, but random freezers have a destructive effect on plantation of vegetable and citrus. In wet subtropics, the average annual amounts of precipitation range from 750 to 2000 mm, the distribution of precipitation for the seasons is quite uniform. In winter, rain and rare snowfall are brought mainly by cyclones. Summer of precipitation falls mainly in the form of thunderstorms, associated with powerful incidents of warm and wet oceanic air, characteristic of monsoon circulation East Asia. Hurricanes (or typhoons) are manifested at the end of summer and in the fall, especially in the northern hemisphere.

Subtropical climate With a dry summer, typical for Western coasts of continents north and south of the tropics. In southern Europe and North Africa Such climatic conditions are characteristic of coast Mediterranean Seathat served as a reason to call this climate also Mediterranean. Similar climate B. southern California, central regions Chile, in the South Africa and in a number of areas in the south of Australia. In all these areas, hot summer and mild winters. As in wet subtropics, frost occasionally occasionally. In the inner areas in the summer, temperatures are significantly higher than on the coasts, and often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. Summer on the coasts under which they pass ocean flows, often there are fogs. For example, in San Francisco Summer is cool, foggy, and the most warm month - September. Maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing air flows are mixed towards the equator. The effect of anticyclones and descending air flows over the oceans determine the dryness of the summer season. The average annual rainfall in the conditions of sub tropical climatesand ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches maximum values \u200b\u200bon the coasts and slopes of the mountains. In the summer, precipitation is usually lacking for normal growth trees, and therefore there is a specific type of evergreen shrub vegetation, known as McWis, Chaparal, Mal and Maccia and Finbosh.

Equatorial climatic belt

Equatorial type of climate It is distributed in the Equatorial latitudes in the Amazon basins in South America and the Congo in Africa, on Malacca and on the Islands of Southeast Asia. Usually mid annual temperature About +26 ° C. Due to the high midday standing of the sun over the horizon and the same duration of the day throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Wet air, cloudiness and thick vegetable Pokrov Prevent night-air cooling and maintain maximum daily temperatures below +37 ° C, lower than in higher latitudes. The average annual rainfall in wet tropics ranges from 1500 to 3000 mm and they are divided into seasons usually uniformly. The precipitates are mainly associated with the intrachetic convergence zone, which is located a bit north of the equator. Seasonal shifts of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two precipitation maxima during the year, separated by more dry periods. Daily thousands of thunderstorms rolled over wet tropics. In the intervals between them the sun shines in full force.

Features of the climate of Russia ......... 2

The influence of oceans on the climate of Russia .............2

The impact of the relief on the climate of Russia ............. 3

Precipitation and pressure .......................................... 5

Thermal regime of buildings and structures ....... 8

Mechanical effects on buildings and structures ..... 9

The state of buildings and structures in the areas of many years of marzlot ......................... 12

Features of the climate of Russia

The main features of the climate of Russia are determined by a number of geographical factors. The most important of these includes solar radiation, depending on geographic latitude. In general, Russia is mainly in high and medium latitudes. Therefore, we have a climate for most of the country is severe, with a clear change of seasons of the year and with a large duration of winter.

A significant length of the country from north to south leads to climate change, depending on the latitude of the place of supply of solar heat - total solar radiation. In the Arctic, the annual amount of total solar radiation is 251.2 kJ / cm 2 per year, in subarctic - about 293 kJ / cm 2 per year. In a temperate belt due to its large length from north to south, total solar radiation varies from 293 kJ / cm 2 per year in the northern part up to 544 kJ / cm 2 per year in the southern part. In subtropics, the magnitude of total solar radiation increases from 544 to 670 kJ / cm 2 per year. The difference in seasonal flow of solar heat is very high throughout Russia. It depends on both a change in the angle of falling sunlight by season and on the duration of the sunshine time. Seasonality of all phenomena of nature is associated with differences in the receipt of solar heat. The influence of oceans on the climate of Russia

Oceans are enormous on the climate of Russia. The role of the Atlantic Ocean is the greatest, despite the fact that its water is not directly missed the country's territory. In moderate latitudes in which most of our country is located, as well as the Western transfer of air masses. In addition, in the west of Russia there are no high mountains that prevent air transfer. As a result, the influence of the Atlantic extends very far away, up to the Verkhoyansky and Trans-Baikal ridges. With Western transfer, sea air masses of moderate latitudes are distributed. In winter, they cause softening of frosts up to thaws in Western areas, snowfalls bring. In the summer, the arrival of the Atlantic masses is accompanied by cooling and precipitation.

Very large climate-forming influence of the Northern Ocean. Above the Arctic Cold Pool throughout the year there is an area of \u200b\u200bhigh atmospheric pressure. Hence the Arctic air, gradually transforming, in the summer it applies to the entire territory of Russia. The slope of the country's largest plains north contributes to the penetration of the Arctic air far to the south. The effects of arctic air is particularly pronounced in the territory of the Eastern European Plain. In winter, the Arctic air causes a sharp cooling here. Moving to the south, it is relatively heated and drained. Mounted frosty sunny days without snowfalls. In summer, the Arctic air initially causes cooling, and then it heats up and forms cloudless or clouded weather. The arrival of Arctic air into the territory of the European part of Russia in early spring is accompanied by the return of cold weather and is dangerous for many cultivated plants, as it causes frost. Most often they are in May. With the invasion of arctic air, drought are connected in the Volga region and in the south of Western Siberia.

Some influence on the climate of Russia is provided by the Pacific Ocean. Despite the huge sizes, the effect of it is limited to a relatively narrow strip of sushi along the Far Eastern seas. This is due to the fact that the ocean is east of our country, on which the Western transfer of air masses dominates in moderate latitudes. High mountains along coasts also prevent the penetration into the depths of the Pacific air masses. In winter over the cold surface of the continent, an area of \u200b\u200bhigh atmospheric pressure (Asian maximum) is formed, from where the air rushes towards relative to the heated ocean (winter monsoon). The effect of the air masses of the Pacific Ocean is clearly affected only in the summer. At this time over the ocean, the high pressure region, and the pressure is reduced above the dry. As a result, the movement of marine air masses on a landing in the form of a summer monsoon occurs.

Climate-forming factors include the nature of the underlying surface. In our country, this is primarily the features of the relief. In winter, other differences in the nature of the underlying surface are leveled by snow cover. The relief affects the climate throughout the year. Effect of Relief on the Climate of Russia

The most important climate-forming properties of the relief refers to the plain territory. According to the plains of the European part and Western Siberia, the air of the Atlantic penetrates far east. Removal from the ocean, the air is gradually transformed and turns into continental. Thus, the continentality of the climate is gradually growing from the west to the east. Low Ural Mountains Are not an obstacle to the spread of atlantic air from the West. The plains of Western Siberia are adjacent to each other contribute to penetration far to the south of the Arctic air masses. High mountains of the south of our country - the Caucasus, Copetdag, Tien Shan and the Pamir prevent further movement to the south of air masses from the north. Thanks to their protection along the southern borders of the Caspian Sea, there are territories with a subtropical climate.

In a moderate belt, within which most of the territory of Russia is located, the seasons are clearly expressed. The most severe season is in most part of our country is winter. In moderate and high latitudes, the radiation balance at this time of the year is negative. Only at the most extreme south, it has a positive value.

The earth's surface in winter is very much getting out and cools the lower layers of air. Especially intense this process proceeds over the areas of Eastern Siberia, removed from the oceans. In the north-east of Siberia in the intermoreflakes, the midranges are lowered below? 40 ° C, in the Oymyakon region to -48 -50 ° C. There is a field of increased pressure, which extends to the entire Siberia and gives two spurs. One sprog grows into the northeast to Chukotka, and the second - to the south-west through the south of Western Siberia and the Volga Hills to the lower reaches of the Dniester.

In the inner areas of Siberia within the field of increased pressure in winter, descending air currents dominate. Therefore, there is a windless cloudless frosty weather. Cutelessness and high dryness of the air make it easier to carry frosts and adapt to them.

In winter, air pressure over Russia is increased, and reduced over the surrounding seas and oceans. Therefore, the spreading of air from the country in the direction of the oceans is dominated, with the exception of the European part of the country. On the coasts of the Pacific Seas in winter, the North-Western winds (winter monsoon) are dominated by cold dry air from continental Siberia. In this regard, in almost all districts of the Far East, winter is small and cold. In Vladivostok, which is located on the breadth of Sochi, the average temperature of January -12 ° C, and in Sochi + 6 ° C. Over the coasts of Kamchatka and Sakhalin Islands, where continental and sea air mass faces, front processes occur, which are often accompanied by squall winds and abundant snowfall.

On the coasts of the seas of the Northern Ocean Ocean, the southwestern and southern windswho carry the continental air of moderate latitudes, leaving the Asian maximum. In the outskirts of the northern seas, it occurs with the Arctic air, as a result of which the Arctic Front occurs. This front is most well expressed over the Okhotsk and the Barents seas, where it causes frequent and strong storms and fogs.

Over the plains of Central Asia and the south of the European part of the country, northeastern winds are dominated. They are caused by the effluent of the air masses south from the sputs of the heightened pressure. Since the air moves from the northeast, it brings cooling and relative dry country to the southern regions, so little snow falls here, and the Sea and northern parts of the Caspian and Black Seas freezes in the harsh winter.

In the central and northern parts of the Eastern European Plain, the Western air flows from the Atlantic Ocean are dominated to the north of the spur of increased pressure. These air masses always bring moisture in the form of snow or rain. But their temperatures are different. If the south-western winds bring thaw in winter, then the northwestern is relatively cold air from the areas of North Atlantic and Scandinavia.

Above most of the European plains, a large number of cyclones move during the winter. They arise along the polar front, passing to the west of our country over the North Sea. From here, cyclones are moving east, passing over Western and Eastern Europe. Space and terrestrial control over their movement allows you to predict the weather in the territory of the country.

In the interaction of the continental and marine air masses of moderate latitudes in the central part of the Eastern European Plain, the Polar Front is often formed. In the rear of cyclones crossing the plain from the West to the East, the cold arctic air masses are subject to south. Thus, over the territory of the Eastern European Plain, there is an intensive interaction of the atlantic and arctic air masses, marine and continental air of moderate latitudes. Therefore, the weather here is most often unstable and very contrasting, with frequent change of cold and thaws. For several hours, the air temperature in the winter can change from several degrees of heat to 21-24 degrees of frost, and the rain will change the snow. Such a change is accompanied by thaws and ice, extremely adversely affecting the economic activities of people. Transport suffers from ice; Thaws can lead to the death of winter crops. Alternation of frosts and thaws leads to the destruction of roads and various structures. Intensive cyclonic activity also leads to incorrect winter weather for different years. For example, in Moscow in January 1988 and 1990. Temperatures rose to + 4 ° C, and in 1940 they lowered to -42 ° C.

Warm Atlantic air masses, moving to the east, gradually cooled. Therefore, isotherms over the European territory of Russia have a meridional direction. Over Eastern Siberia isotherms have a closed ring-shaped character, reflecting the continentality of the climate of this territory. The Pacific Ocean has a smaller sweeping effect on the continent compared to the Atlantic. Therefore, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean, the isotherms are located meridionially only within the uninstall strip. Over the southern regions of the country isotherm, it is pulled out laribitionally in accordance with the direction of changes in the amount of total solar radiation and radiation balance. Sidelines and pressure

In most part of Russia, the precipitation falls in winter in the form of snow. In the North Caucasus, the power of snow cover usually does not exceed 10 cm; In the Kaliningrad region, in the Volga region - up to 10-30 cm. In the north of the European Plain, the northeast of Western Siberia, on Sakhalin - 80-90 cm, and on the east coast of Kamchatka, the power of snow cover reaches 120-160 cm. The duration of snow cover also Very different - from several days in some areas of the Caspian region up to 260 days on Taimyr. Snow is of great importance for natural processes and economic activities in our country. It creates moisture reserves that are used by plants in spring and early summer. Thanks to the snow in the European part of the country, it is possible to grow winter crops. Spring on most rivers there are floods caused by melting of snow.

In the summer, the radiation balance is positive throughout Russia. The continent is heated more than the oceans, and the area of \u200b\u200breduced pressure is installed above it. At the same time over the oceans, the areas of increased pressure are growing: North-Atlantic (Azores) and North-Pacific (Hawaiian) maxima. Increased pressure continues to exist above the Arctic Ocean (Arctic Maximum). From these maxima, air flows rushed to the continent. The most clearly of the sea air is expressed in the Far East, where the southeastern air transfer is established in summer - the summer monsoon is installed. It is colder here and, therefore, heavier sea air interacts with continental air. As a result, front-level processes arise, with the passage of which strong shower (monsoon rains) are associated with Sakhalin, Kamchatka, in the Khabarovsk and Primorsky Territory. Pretty cyclones in the form of typhoons arising in the tropical fronts outside our country come here. Mussion rains are accompanied by flooding on rivers. Often floods are catastrophic, especially in the basins of the Amur and Ussuri rivers, on Sakhalin Island.

In the north of Russia, the Arctic air masses rush to the south toward the heated sushi. Over the northern seas, they meet with air temperate latitudes. As a result, the Arctic Front is formed. It is especially well expressed above the Barents Sea, since the most contrasting air masses interact above this relatively warm pool. The passage of the Arctic Front over the Nordic seas is accompanied by storms and fogs.

Air from the north is moving far to the south over the plains of Western Siberia. The south of Central Asia over the territory of Pakistan and Afghanistan is a low pressure center (South Asian minimum), to which the northern air flows rush. Moving to the south, the Arctic air warms up, drained and gradually transformed into the continental air of moderate latitudes. Over the plains of Central Asia, it is very dry and forms the climate of the desert.

To the west of Russia over the Atlantic Ocean in the summer, the Azor maximum grows, the sorry of which passes over the Eastern European Plain through the South Ukraine and the South Volga region to the Ural River. By the south of it, the flowing air masses are heated and drained. Therefore, in the Azov, and especially in the Caspian, the summer is very hot and dry. In order to obtain sustainable crops here, irrigation is needed.

The sea air flow from the Atlantic in the central regions of the European Plain interacts with the continental air. As a result, a polar front is formed on the space from the average flow of the Dniester to the average flow of the Volga. All this is accompanied by intense passage of cyclones. Therefore, for the most part european territory Russia is the weather in summer, as well as in winter, differs from other territories of the country's great instability. In summer, there are often chained rains and cooling. Thus, the average monthly July temperature in Moscow is about + 18 ° C, but in some years it descended to +5 ... + 10 ° C or rose to +30 ... + 34 ° C. East of the Volga, and especially behind the Urals, the influence of marine air masses is sharply reduced, and here in summer the weather is usually dry and hot.

Unlike the winter season, the summer isotherms almost throughout Russia is stretched from the west to the east. This is due to the fact that in summer solar radiation is very large and it owns the main role in determining the temperature regime.

For the summer season accounts for the maximum amount of precipitation. This is due to high temperatures and therefore the maximum moisture content of local air, from which precipitates falls into the interaction of it with the oceans coming from the oceans. The precipitation of convective origin is added to them. The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the extreme western and eastern regions of Russia. With the removal from the oceans to the internal areas of the country, the amount of precipitation decreases, reaching its minimum (less than 50 mm). On the atmospar slopes of the mountains, the amount of precipitation increases significantly. Especially many of them falls on the western slopes of the Caucasian mountains (over 2000 mm).

Schematic representation of the components of the climate system, the main climate-forming processes and their interaction

Thermal regime of buildings and structures

Perspective assessment of warming consequences

in the XXI century for buildings and technical facilities

were first obtained using

climate change scenarios based on paleoanalogs

(Efimova et al., 1992; Efimova, Baikova,

1994), on the forecasts of temperature change

air for the period until 2010-2015. via

empirical statistical model (materials for

strategic forecast ..., 2005; Alexandrov,

2006) and on the results of settlements for a number of models

total atmospheric circulation (Anisimov, 1999;

Instanes et al., 2005). The resulting perspective

estimates depend on the change scenario

climate and differ significantly among themselves

regional details.

All climate change scenarios give pretty

a similar picture of air temperature changes

in the next decade. According to estimates

Roshydromet (materials to a strategic forecast ...

2005), by 2015 the greatest increase

the temperatures of the cold day will be from 0.7-1.2 ° C

in the north of Russia and up to 0.3-0.5 ° C in the south. Based

this in work (Alexandrov, 2006) is made

conclusion to reduce the duration of the heating

the period in Russia by 2015 is 1-4 days.

In the same paper, it was shown that in the assumption

about increasing K. eND XXI Measures of temperature

the coldest five days in northwest

Russia 2-3 ° C should expect a reduction in heating

periods in this region for 20-50 days.

Prospective assessment of the effects of change

climate for a longer period of time

Until the end of the first quarter and to the middle

XXI century - differ significantly among themselves,

significantly depend on the chosen scenario of anthropogenic

impact on the global climate.

In the works (Efimova et al., 1992; Efimova,

Baikova, 1994) based on paleoanalog scenarios

cards described characterizing

reducing the duration of heating

the period and deficit of heat in the northern hemisphere

for the end of the first quarter and to the middle of the XXI

century. Paleoanalog scenarios assumed

increase by the middle of the XXI century average annual

globally averaged air temperature in

near-surface layer atmosphere compared

since 1990, 2 ° C. Modern data is shown

however, that these changes hardly exceed

the amount of 1.0-1.2 ° C. Thus mentioned

above estimates for reducing the need for heating

the premises are somewhat overestimated.

More accurate estimates can be obtained from

using modern anthropogenic scenarios

impact on the global climate and calculations

appropriate changes global

climate using general circulation models

atmosphere.

Mechanical impacts on buildings and structures

Increase the repeatability of thaws and appearance

thaws in areas where they were not previously observed,

will reduce durability

buildings B. northern regions 2 times (Kuznetsov,

Kobyshev, 2004).

Due to changes in precipitation and temperature

air in the near-surface atmosphere layer

significantly change the accumulation mode

and melting snow. Snow loads should be significantly

increase in the northern territory

Russia. Increased loads exceeding

provided by the project will result in additional

risk of destruction of buildings and structures.

Outwool loads in the North-West Federal

the district will increase slightly, so

how the crystalline hoarfrost is dominated here,

and, although when warming the repeatability of more dense

deposits will increase, reduce speed

the wind will not favors the growth of dense

deposits. A similar picture will be observed

central, Ural and Siberian

federal districts. The ice duty must be

significantly increase in southern, Volga

and Far Eastern Federal Districts. On the

Far East will increase the deposit

wet snow, and therefore it is possible to increase here

ice-loaded load, especially significant

in coastal areas.

Wind loads will be almost everywhere

decrease. Judging by the downward trends

midway wind rates of the last decade

The twentieth century, the increase in wind loads is possible

only in some areas of Eastern Siberia

(Fig. 3.2.8).

Enlargement of inter-expenses and levels

water in rivers in the conditions of reducing freezing

soils will contribute to increasing

the level of groundwater and subtoping of the plains

territories of the European North, North-West and

Top Volga, which will lead to serious negative

consequences, in particular to acceleration

deformation and destruction of the foundations of different

kind of buildings and technical facilities.

The main danger of sublopulations is exposed to

on the foundations and weakening of the carrier

the ability to surround their soils that over time

may cause deformation of buildings and technical

structures (up to destruction).

Note that the flooding is seriously suffering

the most valuable historical monuments and architectural

the ensembles of the Russian North and the Golden Ring

(State report ..., 2006).

The water saturation of the soils will negatively affect

on their technical properties, which makes it difficult

construction and operation of structures,

will ultimately lead to significant

an increase in operating costs.

Flooding of cities located on the lesson

breeds will cause drawdowns. In the woods they

even occur with insignificant (2-5%) increase

humidity. Their value may change

in wide limits - from 0.1 to 2.5-3 m.

Distribution of lesillary soils, sedimentation of the surface

earth cause deformation of buildings and technical

constructions and their subsequent destruction.

Such trends have already been outlined. So, B.

Zaporizhia from the studs of the lesders already deformed

900 buildings.

Changes in hydrogeological conditions in

communication with flooding leads to transformation

karst processes. Technogenic kars differs

from natural lesser depth and square

distribution, greater development rate

and the intensity of the manifestation of karst

forms. He can occur where there before

manifested itself, but where there are soluble mountain

breed. Manifestation forms of manifest

most different - from increased fracture

and caverno before the emergence of failures.

About 50 thousand km of oil pipelines are laid in Russia

and about 150 thousand km of gas pipelines crossing

many hundreds and thousands of rivers. Disavarian

operation of pipeline transitions

the rivers are largely determined by deformation

bottom and banks of the river, which in turn

depend on the river flow mode. Expected B.

climate change increase an increase in annual

and seasonal drain, change of ice regime

can intensify the erosion of the bed and bring

to the earlier emergency onset

situations in underwater areas of pipelines,

to the creation of environmental disasters

when breaking pipelines and spilling oil

and gas emission. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that

many pipelines are built before the 1980s

years, and the design date of their operation, calculated

for stationary climate conditions,

practically ends.

Places of the most problematic underwater transitions

pipelines are located in Volga

federal District in the Upper Pools

and medium Volga, on small and medium rivers (areas

Nizhny Novgorod, Orenburg, Samara, Saratov,

Ulyanovskaya, Perm Territory, Republic

Bashkortostan, Mari El, Mordovia, Tatarstan,

Udmurtia and Chuvashia); in all subjects

Of the Russian Federation of the Southern Federal District;

in the Tyumen region of the Ural federal

county; in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, in the regions of Novosibirsk,

Omsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk Siberian

federal District.

.

The ratio of the wind load over the past decade of the 20th century to its average long-term lifestyle in 1961-2000. (Materials to the strategic forecast ..., 2005).

The state of buildings and structures in the areas of many years of milling

In connection with the expected warming on the territory

Russia in the XXI century serious danger

may be further reduced strength

and weakening the bearing capacity of foundations

due to the degradation of multi-member grounds

So, according to the work (Weller and Lange, 1999),

their carrier ability will noticeably decrease

with increasing air temperature in the near-surface

the layer of the atmosphere in the range from 0.5

up to 2.0 ° C with respect to the values \u200b\u200bof the end of the XX

century. This will lead, in particular, to a decrease

resource foundations of buildings and structures in some

regions of the Far North (Table 3.2.1).

Evaluation of possible regional manifestations

this trend is made using the index.

geocrya Danger I.g (see section 3.1.2).

When calculating the geocryological hazard index

these monthly data were used.

air temperature and precipitation rate

data on the percentage of ice in Merzl

soil (one of the input parameters for evaluation)

in the nodes of the regular grid in increments of 0.5 × 0.5 °, as well as

promising temperature change estimates

and precipitation for the middle of the XXI century obtained

for several climatic models. Methodik

calculations, source data and results are described

in a number of publications (Nelson et al., 2001, 2002;

Anisimov, Belolutskaya, 2002; Anisimov, Lavrov,

2004). The data on the percentage of ice in

frowning ground are electronic

option of Geocrycology Map International

association of Merzloticulture (Brown et al.,

1997). A promising estimate is given

geocrytic hazard associated with melting of many years of permits and threat of damage

built on it buildings and structures. Calculation for

the middle of the XXI century was carried out using

scenario B1 and GFDL models. Using

other famous anthropogenic impact scenarios

on the global climate and models are obtained

close results.

To the area of \u200b\u200bthe highest values \u200b\u200bof the geocryological index

risk Fit Chukotka, Pools

the top course of indigrants and kolyma, southeast

part of Yakutia, a significant part of West

Siberian Plain, Kara Coast

sea, New Earth, as well as part of the island milling

in the north of the European territory. In these