Climate General. A variable-wet tropical climate. Wet Continental Climate with Long Summer

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CLIMATE,many years of weather in this area. Weather at any time characterize certain combinations of temperature, humidity, direction and wind speeds. In some types of climate, the weather varies significantly every day or by seasons, in others - remains unchanged. Climatic descriptions Based on the statistical analysis of medium and extreme meteorological characteristics. As a factor natural environment The climate affects the geographical distribution of vegetation, soils and water resources and, consequently, land use and economy. The climate also has an impact on the living conditions and human health.

CLIMATOLOGY - CLIMATE science, which studies the causes of formation different types climate, their geographical location and interconnection of climate and other natural phenomena. Climatology is closely related to meteorology - a section of physics studying short-term states of the atmosphere, i.e. weather.

Climate-forming factors

Earth position.

When applying the Earth around the Sun, the angle between the polar axis and the perpendicular to the orbit plane remains constant and is 23 ° 30ў. This movement explains the change in the angle of falling sunlight on the earth's surface at noon on a certain latitude during the year. The greater the angle of falling sunlight on the ground in this place, the more efficient the sun heats the surface. Only between the northern and southern tropics (from 23 ° 30ў S.Sh. up to 23 ° 30ў Yu.Sh.) The sun rays at a certain time fall to the ground vertically, and here the sun at noon always rises high above the horizon. Therefore, the tropics are usually warm at any time of the year. In higher latitudes, where the sun is below the horizon, the heating of the earth's surface is less. There are significant seasonal temperature changes (which does not happen in the tropics), and in winter the angle of falling the sun's rays is relatively small and the days are significantly shorter. At the equator, the day and night always have equal duration, whereas on the poles the day the entire summer half of the year continues, and in the winter the sun never goes over the horizon. The duration of the polar day is only partly compensates for the low standing of the sun over the horizon, and as a result, the summer is cool here. In the dark winters, polar areas are quickly losing heat and get out very much.

Distribution of sushi and the sea.

Water heats up and cools slower than sushi. Therefore, the air temperature over the oceans has smaller daily and seasonal changes than the continents. In the coastal areas where the winds blow from the sea, the summer is generally cooler, and winter is warmer than in the inner areas of the continents on the same latitude. The climate of such entered coasts is called sea. Internal areas of the mainland in moderate breadthaH are characterized by significant differences in summer and winter temperatures. In such cases, they talk about the continental climate.

Waters are the main source of atmospheric moisture. When the winds blow from the warm oceans to land, there are a lot of precipitation. On the windward coasts, usually above relative humidity and cloudiness and more days with fogs than in the inner regions.

Circulation of the atmosphere.

The nature of the baric field and the rotation of the Earth determine the overall circulation of the atmosphere, due to which the heat and moisture are constantly redistributed on the earth's surface. Winds blowing from high pressure areas in low pressure area. High pressure is usually associated with cold, dense air, while low - with warm and less dense. The rotation of the Earth causes air flows to deviate to the right in the northern hemisphere and left - in the southern one. Such a deviation is called "Coriolis Effect".

Both in the northern and in Southern Hemisphere In the surface layers of the atmosphere, there are three main wind zones. In the internal convergence zone of the Equator, the Northeast Passat comes closer to the southeast. Passat winds are borne in subtropical areas of high pressure, most developed over the oceans. Air flows, moving towards the poles and deviate under the influence of Coriolis force, form the prevailing Western transfer. In the field of polar fronts of moderate latitudes, west transfer is found with cold air high latitudes, forming a zone of low-pressure baric systems in the center (cyclones) moving from the West to the East. Although air flows in polar regions are not so bright, sometimes polar oriental transfer. These winds blow mostly from the northeast in the northern hemisphere and from the southeast - in South. Cold air masses often penetrate moderate latitudes.

Winds in the areas of convergence of air flows form ascending air flows, which is cooled with a height. At the same time, it is possible to form clouds, often accompanied by the fallout of precipitation. Therefore, in the intrachetic zone of convergence and frontal zones in the belt of the prevailing Western transfer drops a lot of precipitation.

The winds that in higher layers of the atmosphere closure the circulation system in both hemispheres. Air, rising up in convergence zones, rushes in the high pressure area and lowers. At the same time, with an increase in pressure, it heats up, which leads to the formation of a dry climate, especially on land. Such descending air flows define the climate of the Sahara located in the sub tropical belt High pressure B. North Africa.

Seasonal changes in warming up and cooling determine the seasonal movement of the main barical formations and wind systems. The wind zones in the summer are shifted towards the poles, which leads to shifts weather conditions On this latitude. Thus, for African savannes covered with herbal vegetation with rarely growing trees, a rainy summer is characterized (due to the effect of the intrachetic convergence zone) and dry winter, when the high pressure area with descending air flows is shifted to this territory.

On seasonal changes in the general circulation of the atmosphere also affects the distribution of sushi and the sea. In the summer, when the Asian mainland warms up and over it is set to a lower pressure region than above the surrounding oceans, the coastal southern and southeastern areas experience the impact of wet air flows directed from the sea to land and bring abundant rains. In winter, the air flows from the cold surface of the mainland to the oceans, and the rains fall much less. Such winds that change the direction to the opposite depending on the season are called monscons.

Ocean flows

form under the influence of near-surface winds and differences in water density due to changes in its salinity and temperature. The direction of the currents of Coriolis, the shape of the marine pools and the outlines of the shores are affected. In general, the circulation of oceanic flows is similar to the distribution of air flows over the oceans and occurs clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise - in South.

Crossing guides to poles warm currents, the air becomes warmer and wet and has an appropriate effect on the climate. Going to equator Oceanic flows carry cool water. Passing along the western western outlook, they lower the temperature and moisture capacity of air, and, accordingly, the climate under their effect becomes cooler and dry. Due to the condensation of moisture near the cold surface of the sea in such areas, fogs often occur.

Relief of the earth's surface.

Large form of relief has a significant impact on the climate, which varies depending on the height of the terrain and when the interaction of air flows with orographic obstacles. The air temperature with a height is usually reduced, which leads to the formation in the mountains and on the cooler climate plateau than on the adjacent lowlands. In addition, hill and mountains form obstacles that force the air to climb up and expand. As it is expanding it is cooled. Such cooling, called adiabatic, often leads to the condensation of moisture and the formation of clouds and precipitation. Most of the precipitation caused by the barrier effect of the mountains falls on their windward side, and the leeward side remains in the "rain shadow". The air, descending on the leeward slopes, is heated during compression, forming a warm dry wind, known as the "Hairdryer" name.

Climate and latitude

In climatic reviews of the Earth, it is advisable to consider latitudinal zones. The distribution of climatic belts in the northern and southern hemispheres is symmetrically. To the north and south of the equator are tropical, subtropical, moderate, subogenous and polar zone. Also symmetrical baric fields and zones of prevailing winds. Consequently, the greater part of the climate types of one hemisphere can be found on similar latitudes in a single hemisphere.

Main types of climate

Climate classification gives an ordered system to characterize climate types, their zoning and mapping. Climate types prevailing in extensive territories are called macroclimates. Macroflimatic region should have more or less homogeneous climatic conditions that distinguish it from other areas, although it is only a generalized characteristic (since there are no two places with an identical climate), more responding to realities than the allocation of climatic areas only on the basis of belonging to a certain latitudinal -Gogographic belt.

Climate of glacial Pokrovov

greenland and Antarctica, where average monthly temperatures are below 0 ° C. In the dark winter time For years, these regions do not receive solar radiation completely, although there are twilight and polar beams. Even in the summer, the sun rays fall on the ground surface at a low angle, which reduces the effectiveness of the warm-up. Most of the incoming solar radiation is reflected in ice. Low temperatures are dominated by both in summer and in winter in the sublime areas of the Antarctic Ice Cover. The climate of the inland districts of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since south mainland It is distinguished by large size and heights, and the Northern Arctic Ocean softens the climate, despite the widespread spike ice. In the summer during short warming drifting ice sometimes melts.

The sediments on the glacial seals fall out in the form of snow or small particles of the ice fog. The internal areas receive only 50-125 mm precipitation every year, but on the coast can fall out more than 500 mm. Sometimes cyclones bring cloudiness and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds, which transfer significant snow masses, blowing it from the rocks. Strong Stock Winds with snowstorms blowing from a cold glacial shield, pulling out snow on the coast.

Subolar climate

it is manifested in the tundra areas on the northern outskirts of North America and Eurasia, as well as on the Antarctic P-Oves and the islands adjacent to it. In Eastern Canada and Siberia, the southern border of this climatic belt takes place significantly south of the polar circle due to the significantly expressed effect of extensive sushi arrays. This leads to a protracted and extremely cold winters. Summer short and cool with average monthly temperatures, rarely exceeding + 10 ° C. To some extent long days Compensate the shortness of the summer, however, most of the territory of the resulting heat is not enough for complete thawing of soils. Constantly frozen soil, called long-term Marzlot, restrains the growth of plants and filtering mavel Water In the ground. Therefore, in summer, flat areas are wetlands. On the coast, winter temperatures are somewhat higher, and summer is somewhat lower than in the inner areas of the mainland. In the summer, when the wet air is over cold water or sea ice, fogs often arise on the Arctic coasts.

The annual precipitation amount usually does not exceed 380 mm. Most of them falls in the form of rain or snow in the summer, when cyclones pass. On the coast, the bulk of precipitation can be brought by winter cyclones. But low temperatures and clear weather of the cold season, characteristic of most areas with subogenous climates, are unfavorable for significant snow blood.

Subarctic climate

also known as the "Taiga Climate" (according to the prevailing type of vegetation - coniferous forests). This climatic belt covers the moderate latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere - northern regions North America and Eurasia, located directly to the south of the subepolar climatic belt. There are sharp seasonal climatic differences due to the position of this climatic belt in fairly high latitudes in the inner parts of the mainland. Winter is protracted and extremely cold, and the north, the days shorter. Summer short and cooler with long days. In winter, a period with negative temperatures is very long, and in summer, temperatures may exceed + 32 ° C. in Yakutsk average temperature January -43 ° C, July - + 19 ° C, i.e. The annual amplitude of temperatures reaches 62 ° C. The softer climate is characteristic of seaside territories, such as South Alaska or Northern Scandinavia.

For most of the climatic belt under consideration, less than 500 mm of precipitation falls per year, and their number is maximally on the windward coasts and minimally in the inside of Siberia. Snow in winter falls very little, snowfalls are conjugate with rare cyclones. Summer is usually more humid, and rains go mainly when passing atmospheric fronts. On the coasts there are often fogs and solid clouds. Winter B. very coldy Over snow cover hanging icy fogs.

Wet continental climate with short summer

it is characteristic of the extensive strip of moderate latitudes of the northern hemisphere. In North America, it extends from Prairies in the south of Central Canada to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, and Eurasia covers the greater part of Eastern Europe and some areas Medium Siberia. The same type of climate is observed in the Japanese O.Hokkido and in the south of the Far East. Maintenance climatic features These areas are determined by the prevailing Western transfer and frequent passage of atmospheric fronts. In the harsh winters, the average air temperatures can be reduced to -18 ° C. Summer is short and cool, smuggous period less than 150 days. The annual amplitude of temperatures is not as large as under the conditions of the subarctic climate. In Moscow, the middle temperatures of January -99 ° C, July - + 18 ° C. In this climatic belt, a permanent threat to agriculture represents spring frosts. In the seaside provinces of Canada, in New England and on. Winter Hokkaido warmer than in intra-projectal districts, as the eastern winds at times bring the warmer ocean air.

Annual precipitation ranges from less than 500 mm in the inner parts of the mainland to more than 1000 mm on the coasts. On most of the area, the sediment falls predominantly in summer, often with thunderstorm rains. Winter sediments, mainly in the form of snow, are associated with the passage of fronts in cyclones. Blizzards are often observed in the rear of the cold front.

Wet continental climate with long summer.

Air temperature and summer season duration increase south in areas of a wet continental climate. This type of climate is manifested in a moderate latitudinal belt of North America from the eastern part of the Great Plains to the Atlantic Coast, and southeast Europe - In the lower reaches of the Danube. Similar climatic conditions are also expressed in Northeast China and Central Japan. Western transfer also prevails here. The average temperature of the warmer month + 22 ° C (but temperatures can exceed + 38 ° C), warm summer nights. Winters are not so cold as in the areas of a wet continental climate with a short summer, but the temperature sometimes falls below 0 ° C. The annual temperature amplitude is usually 28 ° C, such as in Peoria (PC. Illinois, USA), where average temperature January -4 ° C, and July - + 24 ° C. On the coast, the annual amplitudes of temperatures are reduced.

Most often in conditions of a wet continental climate with a long summer drops from 500 to 1100 mm of precipitation per year. The greatest amount of precipitation brings summer thunder shower during the growing season. In winter, rain and snowfall are mostly conjugate with the passage of cyclones and related fronts.

Marine climate of moderate latitude

inherent in the Western coasts of the mainland, above all, North-Western Europe, the central part of the Pacific coast of North America, the soup of Chile, Southeast of Australia and New Zealand. On the course of air temperature, the prevailing Western winds, which follow from the oceans, have a softening effect. Winters are soft with the average temperatures of the coldest month above 0 ° C, but when the coarse reaches the streams of arctic air, there are frosts. Summer is generally pretty warm; When continental air invasion, the temperature may be a short time Increase to + 38 ° C. This type of climate with a small annual temperature amplitude is the most moderate among temperate climates. For example, in Paris, the average temperature of January + 3 ° C, July - + 18 ° C.

In the regions of the Moderate Maritime Climate, the average annual precipitation ranges from 500 to 2500 mm. The most moistened to the coastal mountains are most moistened. In many areas, the sediments fall pretty evenly during the year, the exception is the north-western Pacific coast of the United States with a very moist winter. Cyclones moving from the oceans bring a lot of precipitation to western mainland outskirts. In winter, as a rule, cloudy weather is held with weak rains and rare short-term snowfall. On the coasts are common fogs, especially in summer and autumn.

Wet subtropical climates

it is characteristic of the eastern coasts of the continents to the north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution - southeast of the United States, some southeastern areas of Europe, North India and Myanmar, East China and South Japan, Northeast Argentina, Uruguay and South Brazil, Natal Province coast in South Africa and the east coast of Australia. Summer V. wet subtropics Long and roast, with the same temperatures as in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month is exceeded + 27 ° C, and the maximum - + 38 ° C. Women are soft, with average monthly temperatures above 0 ° C, but random frosts have a degenerate effect on plantations of vegetables and citrus.

In wet subtropics, the average annual amounts of precipitation range from 750 to 2000 mm, the distribution of precipitation for the seasons is quite uniform. In winter, rain and rare snowfall are brought mainly by cyclones. In summer, the sediments fall mainly in the form of thunderstorms associated with powerful incidents of warm and wet ocean air, characteristic of the monsoon circulation of East Asia. Hurricanes (or typhoons) are manifested at the end of summer and in the fall, especially in the northern hemisphere.

Subtropical climate with dry summer

typical for Western coasts of continents north and south of the tropics. IN Southern Europe And North Africa, such climatic conditions are characteristic of coasting Mediterranean, which served as a reason to call this climate also Mediterranean. The same climate in Southern California, the central regions of Chile, in the Far Southern Africa and in a number of areas in the south of Australia. In all these areas, hot summer and mild winters. As in wet subtropics, frost occasionally occasionally. In the inner areas in the summer, temperatures are significantly higher than on the coasts, and often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. In the summer on the coasts under which the ocean flows are passing, there are often fogs. For example, in San Francisco Summer is cool, foggy, and the warmer month is September.

Maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing Western air flows are shifted towards the equator. The effect of anticyclones and descending air flows under the oceans determine the dryness of the summer season. Average annual number The precipitation in the conditions of the subtropical climate ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches maximum values \u200b\u200bon the coasts and slopes of the mountains. In the summer, precipitation is usually lacking for normal growth of trees, and therefore there is a specific type of evergreen shrub vegetation, known as McWis, Chaparral, Mali, Mackey and Finbosh.

Semi-diarid climate of moderate latitudes

(synonym - the steppe climate) is characteristic mainly for intramicious areas remote from the oceans - moisture sources - and usually located in the rain shadow high mountains. The main areas with a semi-samide climate are interhoneal basins and the great plains of North America and the steppe of Central Eurasia. Hot summer and cold winter are due to intramaterial position in moderate latitudes. At least one winter month has an average temperature below 0 ° C, and the average temperature of the warmest summer month exceeds + 21 ° C. Temperature regime and the duration of the smokery period varies significantly depending on the latitude.

The term "semi-garden" is used to characterize this climate, because it is less dry than the actual arid climate. The average annual precipitation is usually less than 500 mm, but more than 250 mm. Since, for the development of steppe vegetation in conditions of higher temperatures, you need more precipitation, the latitudinal and geographical and high-rise area of \u200b\u200bthe area determine climate change. For semi-diarid climate There are no general patterns of precipitation during the year. For example, in areas bordering subtropics with dry summer, there is a maximum of precipitation in winter, while in areas adjacent to the domains of a wet continental climate, rains fall mainly in the summer. Cyclones of moderate latitudes bring the greatest part of winter precipitation, which often fall out in the form of snow and can be accompanied by strong winds. Summer thunderstorms are often with a hail. The amount of precipitation varies greatly from year to year.

Arid climate of moderate latitude

inherent mainly to the Central Asian deserts, and in the West of the United States - only small areas in the intermoreflakes. Temperatures are the same as in areas with a semi-samide climate, however precipitation is not enough for the existence of closed natural vegetation cover and the average annual sums usually do not exceed 250 mm. As in semicaride climatic conditions, the amount of precipitation determining arid depends on the thermal regime.

Low latitude semilarine climate

mostly typical for the outskirts tropical deserts (for example, Sahara and deserts of Central Australia), where the downstream air flows in subtropical zones High pressure exclude precipitation. From the semi-sam climate of moderate latitudes, the climate in question is very hot in summer and warm winter. The average monthly temperatures above 0 ° C, although in winter it is sometimes freezing, especially in areas most remote from the equator and located at large altitudes. The amount of precipitation required for the existence of closed natural herbal vegetation is higher here than in moderate latitudes. In the erectional band, rains go mostly in summer, while on the external (northern and southern) outskirts of the desert maximum precipitation falls for the winter. The precipitation is mostly falling out in the form of thunderstorms, and in the winter it rains are brought by cyclones.

Arid climate of low latitudes.

This is a hot dry climate of tropical deserts extending along the northern and southern tropics and the most of the year under the influence of subtropical anticyclones. Salvation from the exhausting summer heat can be found only on coasts werehed by cold ocean flows, or in the mountains. On the plains, the average summer temperatures are noticeably higher than + 32 ° C, the winter is usually higher + 10 ° C.

For the most part of this climatic area, the average annual precipitation amount does not exceed 125 mm. It happens that at many meteorological stations for several years in a row no precipitation is not recorded at all. Sometimes the average annual precipitation can reach 380 mm, but this is still sufficient only for the development of rarefied desert vegetation. The occasion is precipitated in the form of short strong thunderstorms, but the water flows quickly, forming storm floors. The most arid areas are located along the western shores of South America and Africa, where cold ocean flows prevent the formation of clouds and precipitation. On these coasts, fogs are often made, resulting from the condensation of moisture in the air above the coolest surface of the ocean.

A variable-wet tropical climate.

Areas with this climate are located in tropical sub-luminous belts, a few degrees north and south of the equator. This climate is also called monsoon tropical, as prevails in those parts of South Asia, which are under the influence of monsoons. Other areas with this climate - Tropics of Central and South America, Africa and Northern Australia. Medium summer temperatures are usually OK. + 27 ° C, and winter - approx. + 21 ° C. The hottest month is usually preceded by the summer season of rains.

The average annual precipitation amounts range from 750 to 2000 mm. During the summer rainy season The determining effect on the climate is provided by the intrachetic zone of convergence. There are often thunderstorms, sometimes a continuous cloudiness with protracted rains remains for a long time. Winter is dry, as subtropical anticyclones dominate this season. In some areas, rains do not fall out for two or three winter months. In South Asia, the wet season coincides with the summer monsoon, which brings moisture from the Indian Ocean, and the Asian continental dry air masses are distributed here.

Wet tropical climate

or the climate of wet rainforests is distributed in equatorial latitudes in Amazon's pools in South America and Congo in Africa, on Malacca, on the Islands of Southeast Asia. In wet tropics, the average temperature of any month is at least + 17 ° C, usually the average monthly temperature approx. + 26 ° C. As in variable-wet tropics, due to the high midday of the sun over the horizon and the same duration of the day throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Wet air, cloudiness and thick vegetation intercoms prevent night-in cooling and maintain maximum daily temperatures below + 37 ° C, lower than in higher latitudes.

The average annual precipitation in wet tropics ranges from 1500 to 2500 mm, the distribution of season is usually quite uniform. The precipitates are mainly associated with the intrachetic convergence zone, which is located a bit north of the equator. Seasonal shifts of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two precipitation maxima during the year, separated by more dry periods. Daily thousands of thunderstorms rolled over wet tropics. In the intervals between them the sun shines in full force.

Climates highlighted.

In highland areas, a significant variety of climatic conditions is due to the latitudinal and geographical position, orographic barriers and various exposure of the slopes in relation to the Sun and the moisturized air flow. Even at the equator in the mountains there are snowflets-flights. The lower boundary of eternal snow falls to the poles, reaching the sea level in the polar areas. Likewise, other boundaries of high-rise thermal belts are reduced as it approaches high latitudes. The coated slopes of the mountain ranges get more precipitation. On the mountain slopes open to the intrusions of cold air, it is possible to decrease the temperature. In general, the climate of the highland is characterized by lower temperatures, higher cloudy, more precipitation and more complex wind mode than for the plains climate on the appropriate latitudes. The nature of seasonal changes in temperatures and precipitation in highlands is usually the same as on the adjacent plains.

Meso and microclimate

The territories inferior to the size of macroclimatic areas also have climatic features that deserve special examination and classification. Mesoclimates (from Greek. Meso - medium) are climates of territories in a size of several square kilometers, for example, wide river valleys, intermountain varnishes, Kotlovin of large lakes or cities. On the distribution area and the nature of the differences, the mesoclimates are intermediate between macroclimates and microclimates. The latter characterize climatic conditions on small sections of the earth's surface. Microclumatic observations are carried out, for example, on the streets of cities or on test sites laid within a homogeneous plant community.

Extreme climatic indicators

Such climatic characteristics, as temperature and precipitation, vary in a wide range between extreme (minimal and maximum) values. Although they are rarely observed, for understanding the nature of the climate, extreme indicators are as important as the average. The warmer is the climate of the tropics, and the climate of wet rainforests is hot and humid, and the arid low latitudes are hot and dry. The maximum air temperatures are marked in tropical deserts. The highest temperature in the world - + 57.8 ° C - was recorded in El Azizia (Libya) on September 13, 1922, and the lowest - -89.2 ° C at the Soviet station "Vostok" in Antarctica on July 21, 1983.

In different parts of the world, extreme values \u200b\u200bof precipitation were recorded. For example, for 12 months from August 1860 to July 1861, 26,461 mm fell in Cherapundy (India). The average annual precipitation at this point, one of the most rainy on the planet, approx. 12 000 mm. On the number of snow dropped there is less data. At Paradais Ranger station in national Park Mount Reinir (PC. Washington, USA) during the winter of 1971-1972 28,500 mm snow were registered. On many meteorological stations in the tropics with long rows of observations, no times have never been marked. There are many such places in Sugar and on the west coast of South America.

With extreme wind speeds, measuring instruments (anemometers, anemographs, etc.) were often faced. The highest wind speeds in the surface layer of air are likely to develop in the tornado (tornado), where, according to estimates, they can be much exceeded 800 km / h. In hurricanes or typhoons, the wind sometimes reaches speed of more than 320 km / h. Hurricanes are very typical for the Caribbean region and the western part of the Pacific.

Effect of climate on biota

From climate, temperature and lighting modes depend on the moisture supply required for the development of plants and the geographical distribution limiting them. Most plants cannot grow at temperatures below + 5 ° C, and many species die under negative temperatures. With increasing temperatures, the needs of plants in moisture increase. The light is necessary for photosynthesis, as well as for the flowering and development of seeds. Shading soil by crowns of trees in a dense forest suppresses the growth of lower plants. An important factor It is also a wind substantially changing temperature and humidity mode.

The vegetation of each region is an indicator of its climate, since the distribution of community of plants is largely due to the climate. The vegetation of the tundra in the conditions of the subepolar climate is formed only by such low-core forms as lichen, mosses, herbs and low shrubs. The short vegetation period and the widespread multi-monthly milling makes the growth of trees everywhere, except for river valleys and southern exposure slopes, where the soil is thawing on the greatest depth. Coniferous forests From ate, fir, pines and larches, also called taiga, grow under the conditions of subarctic climate.

Wet areas of moderate and low latitudes are especially favorable for forest growing. The thick forests are timed to the areas of the moderate sea climate and wet tropics. The areas of a wet continental and wet subtropical climate is also mostly messenger. In the presence of a dry season, for example, in areas of subtropical climate with a dry summer or a variable-wet tropical climate, the plants are adapted accordingly, forming either a low-speed or rareered wood tier. Thus, in Savannes, cellars with single trees growing at large distances from the other are dominated in Savannes in the conditions of an alternative-wet tropical climate.

In semi-saming climates of temperate and low latitudes, where everywhere (except for river valleys) is too dry for the growth of trees, the herbal steppe vegetation dominates. The cereals here are low, it is also possible to admire half-workers and semi-shops, such as wormwood in North America. In moderate latitudes, cereal steppes in more wet conditions The boundaries of his range are replaced by highly harvested prairies. In arid conditions, the plants grow far one one from the other, often have a thick bark or fleshy stems and leaves capable of saving moisture. The most arid areas of tropical desert are completely devoid of vegetation and are nude stony or sandy surfaces.

The climatic high-rise explanancy in the mountains causes the corresponding vertical differentiation of vegetation - from the herbaceous communities of foothill plains to the forests and alpine meadows.

Many animals are able to adapt to a wide range of climatic conditions. For example, mammals in a cold climate or winter have a warmer fur. However, the availability of food and water is also important for them, which varies depending on the climate and season. For many animal species, seasonal migrations from one climatic area in another are characteristic. For example, in winter, when herbs and shrubs in the conditions of an alternating-wet tropical climate of Africa dry dry, mass migrations of herbivores and predators in more wet areas occur.

In the natural zones of the globe, soil, vegetation and climate are closely interrelated. Heat and moisture determine the nature and pace of chemical, physical and biological processes, as a result of which rock rocks are changed on the slopes of different steepness and exposure and is created a huge variety of soils. Where the soil is shoving a marcot for most of the year, as in the tundra or high in the mountains, the soil formation processes are slowed down. In arid conditions, soluble salts are usually contained on the surface of the soil or in near-surface horizons. In humid climates, excessive moisture seeps down, making the soluble mineral compounds and clay particles to considerable depths. Some of the most fertile soils are products of recent accumulation - wind, fluvial or volcanic. Such young soils have not yet been severely leaching and therefore retained nutrient reserves.

The spread of crops and soil cultivation methods are closely related to climatic conditions. Bananas and rubber trees require abundance of heat and moisture. Fiscal palm trees grow well only in oases in arid low-seated areas. For most of the cultures in arid conditions, irrigation is needed for moderate and low latitudes. The usual type of land use in the areas of the semi-diarrhea climate, where Zlakovniks are common, is pasture animal husbandry. Cotton and rice have a longer vegetation period than spring wheat or potatoes, and all these cultures suffer from frosts. In the mountains, agricultural production is differentiated by high-rise belt Just like natural vegetation. Deep valleys in wet tropics Latin America They are in a hot belt (Tierra Caliente) and there are rain cultures there. In some large altitudes in a temperate belt (Tierra Templada) typical culture is coffee. The above is the cold belt. (Tierra FRIA), where grain crops and potatoes are grown. In an even colder belt (Tierra Helada), located just below the snow line, cattle grazing is possible on the Alpine meadows, and a set of farm crops is extremely limited.

The climate has an impact on the health and living conditions of people in the same way as on their economic activities. The human body loses heat due to radiation, thermal conductivity, convection and evaporation of moisture from the body surface. If these losses are too large in cold weather or too small in hot weather, man is discomfort and may get sick. Low relative humidity and high wind speed reinforce the cooling effect. Weather changes lead to stress, worsen appetite, violate biorhythms and reduce the resistance of the human body disease. The climate also affects the habitat conditions of pathogenic microorganisms, causing diseases, and therefore seasonal and regional outbursts occur. Pneumonia and flu epidemic in moderate latitudes are often in winter. Malaria is distributed in the tropics and subtropics where there are conditions for the reproduction of malaria mosquitoes. Diseases caused by improper nutrition are indirectly associated with the climate, as in food productsproduced in a particular region as a result of the influence of the climate on the growth of plants and the composition of the soil may not be enough for some nutrients.

Climate change

Rock breeds, fossil plant residues, relief and glacial sediments contain information on significant fluctuations in average temperatures and precipitation over geological time. Climate change can also be studied on the basis of the analysis of annual rings of wood, alluvial deposits, bottom precipitation of oceans and lakes and organic sediments of peatlands. Within the last few million years, the climate has happened in general, and now, judging by the continuous reduction of polar glacial coverings, we, apparently, are at the end of the ice age.

Climatic changes for historic period Sometimes it is possible to reconstruct on the basis of information about hunger, floods, abandoned settlements and migrations of peoples. Continuous series of air temperature measurements are available only for meteorological stations located mainly in the northern hemisphere. They cover only a little more than one century. These data indicate that over the past 100 years, the average temperature on the globe rose by almost 0.5 ° C. This change occurred not smoothly, but jumps like sharp warming replaced with respect to stable stages.

Specialists of different areas of knowledge proposed numerous hypotheses to explain the causes of climate change. Some believe that climatic cycles are determined by periodic fluctuations in solar activity with an OK interval. 11 years. Changes in the form of the Earth orbit, which led to a change in the distance between the Sun and the Earth could be influenced for annual and seasonal temperatures. Currently, the land is closest to the Sun in January, but approximately 10,500 years ago, it was held in July. According to another hypothesis, depending on the angle of inclination of the earth's axis, the amount of solar radiation arrived on the Earth was changed, which influenced the overall circulation of the atmosphere. It is not excluded that the polar axis of the Earth occupied another position. If the geographical poles were on the latitude of the modern equator, then the climatic belts are shifted, respectively.

The so-called geographical theories explain the long-term fluctuations in the climate with the movements of the earth's crust and the change in the situation of the mainland and oceans. In the light of the global plate tectonics over the geological time, the mainland moved. As a result, their position was changed in relation to the oceans, as well as in latitude. In the process of the property, mining systems were formed with a cooler and, possibly more wet climat.

Pollution of the atmosphere also contributes to climate change. The large masses of dust and gases entering the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions, episodically become an obstacle on the path of solar radiation and led to the cooling of the earth's surface. Increasing the concentration of some gases in the atmosphere aggravates the overall trend towards warming.

Greenhouse effect.

Like a glass roof of the greenhouse, many gases pass the greater part of the thermal and light energy of the Sun to the surface of the Earth, but impede the rapid heat-emitted heat into the surrounding space. The main "greenhouse" effects gases are water vapor and carbon dioxide, as well as methane, fluorocarbons and nitrogen oxides. Without the greenhouse effect, the temperature of the earth's surface would decide so strongly that the entire planet would be covered with ice. However, excessive increase in the greenhouse effect can also become catastrophic.

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, the number of greenhouse gases (mainly carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere has increased due to the economic activity of man and especially the burning of fossil fuels. Many scientists are currently believing that the growth of the average global temperature after 1850 has occurred mainly as a result of an increase in the content in the atmosphere of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases of anthropogenic origin. If modern trends in the use of fossil fuels persist in 21 c., The average global temperature can increase by 2.5-8 ° C to 2075. Provided the use of fossil fuels by faster than currently, the pace is such an increase in temperature may occur already to 2030.

The predicted increase in temperature can lead to the melting of polar ice and most mountain glaciers, as a result of which the sea level will rise by 30-120 cm. All this may also affect the change in weather conditions on earth with such possible consequencesAs long-term droughts in the leading agricultural regions of the world.

but global warming As a consequence of the greenhouse effect can be slowed down, if you reduce carbon dioxide emissions when burning fossil fuels. Such a reduction would require restrictions on its use all over the world, more efficient energy consumption and expansion of alternative energy sources (for example, water, sun, wind, hydrogen, etc.).

Literature:

Pogosyan H.P. Total atmosphere circulation. L., 1952.
Tobengen I. Geography climates, t. 1-2. M., 1972-1973
Vyvitsky G.N. Climate zonality. M., 1980.
Yasamanov N.A. Ancient climates of land. L., 1985.
Climate fluctuations for the last millennium. L., 1988.
Chromov S.P., Petrosanz M.A. Meteorology and climatology. M., 1994.



Hello dear friends! It's time again for new and more interesting information. 🙂 I think that an article on what the types of climate will help you will decide on holidays at all times of the year.

In winter, rain and rare snowfall are mainly cyclones. At the end of summer and autumn, hurricanes (or typhoons) are observed, especially in the northern hemisphere.

This type of climate is typical for the west coast of the mainland in the south and north of the tropics. In North Africa and Southern Europe, such climatic conditions are characteristic of the Mediterranean coast, which also allowed this climate to be called Mediterranean.

This type of climate is also found by the central regions of Chile, Southern California, in the Far Southern Africa and in a number of areas in the south of Australia.

In these areas, summer is roast, and winter is soft. In winter, just like in in wet subtropics, occasionally, there are frosts.

In summer, in the inner areas of temperature is significantly higher than on the coast, and often the same as in tropical deserts. Also in the summer on the coast, close to the oceanic currents pass, there are often fogs.

With the passage of cyclones in winter, when Western air flows are shifted to the equator to the equator, the maximum precipitation is associated. The dryness of the summer season determine the effect of anticyclones and groaned air flows over the oceans.

Under the conditions of the subtropical climate, the average annual rainfall ranges from 380 mm to 900 mm, and maximum values \u200b\u200breaches the mountain slopes and on the coast.

In the summer, usually, precipitation is not enough for normal growth of trees, so there is developing a specific type of evergreen handicraft vegetation, known under the names of Mali, McVis, Maccia, Chaparal and Finbosh.

Semi-hospital climate of moderate latitudes.

Synonym for this type of climate - steppe climate. Preferably it is characteristic of intramicious areas, which are distant from the oceans - sources of moisture - and mostly located in the rainy shadow of high mountains.

The main areas with the semi-diarid climate are large plains and trains of North America and the steppe of Central Eurasia. The intramametric location in moderate latitudes is caused by cold winter and hot summer.

The average temperature is below 0 ° C at least in one winter month, and the average temperature of the warmest summer month exceeds 21 ° C. Depending on the latitude, the temperature regime and the duration of the smokery period varies significantly.

To characterize this climate, the term "semi-garden" is used, because this climate is less dry than the actual arid climate. The annual amount of precipitation, partly, more than 500 mm, but not less than 250 mm.

Since, for the development of steppe vegetation in conditions of higher temperatures, you need more precipitation, the latitudinal and geographical and high-rise area of \u200b\u200bthe area determine climate change.

During the year, the general patterns of the distribution of precipitation for the semi-hospital climate does not exist. For example, in those areas that are adjacent to the domains of a wet continental climate, the sediments are mostly in the summer, and in areas bordering subtropics with a dry summer, the maximum of precipitation is celebrated in winter.

Most of the winter precipitation brought cyclones of moderate latitudes. They fall often in the form of snow, and may also be accompanied by strong winds. Often summer thunderstorms are having a hail.

Semi-diarid climate of low latitudes.

This type of climate is typical for the outskirts of tropical deserts (for example, the deserts of Central Australia and Sahara), where the downstream air flows in the subtropical zones of high pressure eliminate precipitation.

This climate is different from the semi-hospital climate of moderate latitudes with warm winter and very hot summer. The average monthly temperatures above 0 ° C, although it is sometimes freezing in winter, especially in those areas that are most distant from the equator and are located at large altitudes.

Here is the amount of precipitation that is necessary for the existence of closed natural herbal vegetation is higher than in moderate latitudes. On the external (southern and northern) outskirts of the desert, the maximum of precipitation falls in winter, while the rain in the episode line is mainly in the summer.

The precipitation is preferably falling out in the form of thunderstorms, and in winter it rains are cyllated.

Arid climate of moderate latitudes.

This type of climate is mainly characteristic of the Central Asian deserts, and in the West - only for small sections in the trains.

Temperatures here are the same as in the areas of the semicaride climate, but there are not enough precipitation for the existence of closed natural vegetation cover and usually the average annual precipitation amounts are not exceeded 250 mm.

The amount of precipitation that defines arid, as in semicaride conditions, depends on the temperature regime.

Arid climate of low latitudes.

This is a dry I. hot climate Tropical deserts, which stretch along the southern and northern tropics, and a significant part of the year are influenced by subtropical anticyclones.

Only in the mountains or on the coast, which is washed by cold ocean flows, you can find salvation from the depleting summer heat. Summer temperatures on the plains noticeably exceed 32 ° C, and winter, as a rule, above 10 ° C.

The average annual precipitation for the most part of this climatic area does not exceed 125 mm. It makes it even so that several years in a row on many meteorological stations are not registered at all.

The average annual precipitation can reach 380 mm, but this is only enough to develop rarefied desert vegetation.

Along the western shores of Africa and South America, cold ocean flows are hampered by the fallout and the formation of clouds, the most arid areas are located.

Fogs are frequent phenomenon on this coast. They are formed by condensation of moisture in the air over the coolest surface of the ocean.

Replaceable wet tropical climate.

Areas of this type of climate are tropical sub-lift belts for several degrees south and north of the equator. Also, this climate is also called monsoon tropical, since it prevails in those parts of South Asia, which are under the influence of monsoons.

Other areas of this type of climate - the tropics of Northern Australia, Africa, South and Central America. The average temperatures in the winter of about 21 ° C, and in the summer usually about 27 ° C. As a rule, the hottest month is preceded by the summer season of rains.

The average precipitation over a year ranges from 750 mm to 2000 mm. Definishing effect on the climate, throughout the summer rainy season, has an internal convergence zone. There are often thunderstorms, and sometimes, for a long period, continuous cloudiness is preserved with protracted rains.

Since subtropical anticyclones are dominated this season, winter is dry. It rains in some areas do not fall out for two-sterling winter months. The wet season in South Asia coincides with the summer monsoon, which from the Indian Ocean brings humidity, and in the winter there is an Asian continental dry air mass.

This climate is also called the climate of wet rainforest. It applies to equatorial latitudes in Amazon's pools in South America and Congo in Africa, on the Islands of Southeast Asia and on Malacca.

The average temperature of any month in wet tropics at least 17 ° C, and the average monthly temperature is about 26 ° C. As well as in interchangeable wet tropics, due to the same duration of the day throughout the year and high half-day solstice over the horizon, seasonal fluctuations in the temperature are small.

The thick vegetation cover, cloudiness and humid air interfere with night-cooled and maintain maximum daytime temperatures below 37 ° C. In wet tropics, the average annual precipitation ranges from 1500 mm to 2500 mm.

The precipitation is predominantly associated with a internal convergence zone, which is located a bit north than the equator. In some areas, seasonal shifts of this zone to South and North leads to the formation of two maxima of precipitation throughout the year, which are separated by more dry periods. Thousands of thunderstorms are hammered over wet tropics daily.

Climate of highlands.

Significant in highland areas is due to a latitudinal and geographical position, a different exposure of the slopes in relation to wet air flow and the sun and the orographic barriers.

Sometimes, even on the equator in the mountains falls snow. The lower boundary of eternal snow falls to the poles, in the polar areas reaching the sea level. More precipitation is obtained by the windy slopes of ridges.

The decrease in temperature can be observed on the mountain slopes that are open to the intrusions of cold air.

In general, it is characterized by higher clouds, lower temperatures, a more complex windy mode and more precipitation than for the climate of the plains on the appropriate latitudes. The character of precipitation and seasonal changes here is usually the same as on the adjacent plains.

It was a description of the types of climate, which, I hope, helped you very much to understand this matter. To new meetings on the blog pages!

Climate - This is a long-term weather mode characteristic of a particular area. It is manifested in a natural change of all weather types observed in this area.

The climate has an impact on a living and non-living nature. In close dependence on the climate there are water bodies, soil, vegetation, animals. Separate sectors of the economy, primarily agriculture, are also very dependent on the climate.

The climate is formed as a result of the interaction of many factors: the amount of solar radiation coming to the earth's surface; Circulation of the atmosphere; The nature of the underlying surface. In this case, climate-forming factors themselves depend on the geographical conditions of the locality, primarily from Geographic latitude.

The geographical latitude of the area determines the angle of falling the sun's rays, obtaining a certain amount of heat. However, getting heat from the Sun depends on The proximity of the ocean. In places located away from the oceans, the precipitation falls a bit, and the mode of their loss is distinguished by unevenness (in the warm period more than in cold), cloudiness is low, winter cold, summer is warm, the annual temperature amplitude is large. This climate is called continental, as it is typical for places located in the depths of the continents. A marine climate is formed over the aqueous surface, for which the smooth move temperature of the air, with small daily and annual temperature amplitudes, a large cloudiness, uniform and enough a large number of atmospheric Ospalkov.

Great influence on climate and Sea currents.Warm currents warm the atmosphere in areas where they proceed. For example, the warm north-atlantic flow creates favorable conditions for growing forests in the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, while most of the Island of Greenland, lying around the same latitudes as the Scandinavian peninsula, but outside the zone of the influence of the warm current, round year covered with a thick layer of ice.

A large role in climate formation belongs Relief. You already know that with lifting terrain for each kilometer, the air temperature is reduced by 5-6 ° C. Therefore, on the high mountain slopes of the Pamir, the average annual temperature - 1 ° С, although it is just north of the tropics.

The location of the mountain ranges has a great influence on the climate. For example, the Caucasian Mountains are delayed wet sea winds, and on their atmosphered slopes facing the Black Sea, much more precipitation falls than on leeward. At the same time, the mountains serve an obstacle to the cold northern winds.

The dependence of the climate and from dominant winds. In the territory of the East European Plain, the Western winds coming from the Atlantic Ocean prevail during almost the entire year, so winter on this territory is relatively soft.

Areas of the Far East are under the action of monsoons. In winter, winds from the depths of the mainland are constantly blowing. They are cold and very dry, so there are little precipitation. In the summer, on the contrary, the winds bring a lot of moisture from the Pacific. In the fall, when the wind from the ocean subsides, the weather is usually solar, quiet. This is the best season of the year in this area.

Climatic characteristics are statistical conclusions from perennial rows of weather observations (in moderate latitudes, 25-50-year-old rows are used; in the tropics, their duration may be less), primarily above the following main meteorological elements: atmospheric pressure, speed and direction of wind, temperature and air humidity, cloudiness and atmospheric precipitation. Also, the duration of solar radiation, visibility range, temperature of the upper layers of soil and water bodies, evaporation of water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere, height and state of snow cover, various atmospheric phenomena and terrestrial hydrometeors (dew, ice, fog, thunderstorms, blizzards, etc.). In the XX century The number of climatic indicators included the characteristics of the elements of the heat balance of the earth's surface, such as the total solar radiation, the radiation balance, the heat exchange magnitude between the earth's surface and the atmosphere, the cost of heat to evaporation. Comprehensive indicators are also used, i.e. the functions of several elements: various coefficients, factors, indices (for example, continentality, dryness, moisturizing), etc.

Climatic belts

Perennial averages of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sums, repeatability, etc. are called Climatic standards: Appropriate values \u200b\u200bfor individual days, months, years, etc. are considered to be a deviation from these norms.

Cards with climate indicators are called climatic(Temperature distribution map, pressure distribution map, etc.).

Depending on the temperature conditions, the prevailing air masses and winds allocate Climatic belts.

The main climatic belts are:

• equatorial;
• two tropical;
• two moderate;
• arctic and Antarctic.

Between the main belts are transitional climatic belts: subequatorial, subtropical, subarctic, subnutrctic. In transitional belts, air masses change over the seasons. They come here from neighboring belts, therefore the climate of the subequatorial belt in the summer is similar to the climate of the equatorial belt, and in the winter - with a climate of tropical; The climate of subtropical belts in the summer is similar to a climate of tropical, and in winter - with a climate of moderate belts. This is due to the seasonal movement over the globe of the beans of atmospheric pressure after the Sun: in the summer - to the north, in the winter - to the south.

Climatic belts are divided into Climatic regions. For example, in the tropical belt, Africa allocate areas of a tropical dry and tropical wet climate, and in Eurasia, the subtropical belt is divided into the field of Mediterranean, continental and monsoon climate. IN mountain areas A high-altitude explanancy is formed due to the fact that with a height of the air temperature decreases.

Variety of land climates

Climate classification gives an ordered system to characterize climate types, their zoning and mapping. We give examples of climate types prevailing in extensive territories (Table 1).

Arctic and Antarctic climatic belts

Antarctic I. arctic climate dominates in Greenland and Antarctica, where average monthly temperatures are below ° C. In the dark winter season, these regions do not receive solar radiation at all, although there are twilight and polar beams. Even in the summer, the sun rays fall on the ground surface at a low angle, which reduces the effectiveness of the warm-up. Most of the suitable solar radiation is reflected in ice. Low temperatures are dominated by both in summer and in winter in the sublime areas of the Antarctic Ice Cover. The climate of the internal areas of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since the southern mainland is distinguished by large size and altitudes, and the northern architect ocean softens the climate, despite the widespread package of packing ice. In the summer during short warming drifting ice sometimes melts. The sediments on the glacial seals fall out in the form of snow or small particles of the ice fog. The internal areas receive only 50-125 mm precipitation every year, but on the coast can fall out more than 500 mm. Sometimes cyclones bring cloudiness and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds that carry significant snow masses, blowing it from the skate. Strong Stock Winds with snowstorms blowing with cold glacial spits, pulling out snow on the coast.

Table 1. Earth climates

Climate type	Clima-tic	Medium-nai pace, ° С		Mode and the number of atmospheric precipitation, mm	Circulation of the atmosphere	Territory
Equatorial	Equatorial			During a year. 2000.	In the region of low atmospheric pressure, warm and wet equatorial air masses are formed	Equatorial areas of Africa, South America and Oceania
Tropical monsoon	Subaurva-Torial			Advantageous during the summer monsoon, 2000		South and Southeast Asia, Western and Central Africa, Northern Australia
Tropical Dry	Tropical			During the year, 200		North Africa, Central Australia
Mediterranean	Subtropical			Advantageous in winter, 500	In summer - anticyclones at high atmospheric pressure; Winter - cyclonic activity	Mediterranean, South Coast of Crimea, South Africa, Southwest Australia, Western California
Subtropical dry	Subtropical			During a year. 120.	Dry continental air masses	Internal parts of the mainland
Moderate marine	Moderate			During a year. 1000.	Western winds	Western parts of Eurasia and North America
Moderate continental	Moderate			During a year. 400.	Western winds	Internal parts of the mainland
Moody monsoon	Moderate			Advantageous during the summer monsoon, 560		Eastern outdoor Eurasia
Subarctic	Subarctic			During the year, 200	Cyclones prevail	Northern outskirts of Eurasia and North America
Arctic (Antarctic)	Arctic (Antark-tichetic)			During the year, 100	Anticyclones prevail	Waterlife of the Arctic Ocean and Mainland Australia

Subarctic continental climate Forms in the north of the mainland (see climatic map Atlas). In winter, the Arctic air is dominated here, which is formed in the areas of high pressure. The Arctic air applies to the Eastern regions of Canada.

Continental subrctic climate In Asia, it is characterized by the largest air balloon amplitude (60-65 ° C). The continentality of the climate reaches the limit value here.

The average temperature in January varies around the territory from -28 to -50 ° C, and in lowlands and hollows due to the caution of air its temperature below. In Oymyakone (Yakutia) recorded for the northern hemisphere Negative air temperature (-71 ° C). The air is very dry.

Summer B. Subarctic belt Although the short, but rather warm. The average monthly temperature in July ranges from 12 to 18 ° C (daily maximum - 20-25 ° C). Over the summer, more than half of the annual amount of precipitation makes up in the flat territory of 200-300 mm, and on the windward slopes of elevations - up to 500 mm per year.

The climate of the subarctic belt of North America is less continentile compared to the corresponding climate of Asia. There is less cold winter and colder summer.

Moderate climatic belt

Moderate climate of Western coasts of continents It has pronounced marks of the sea climate and is characterized by the predominance of marine air masses throughout the year. It is observed on the Atlantic Coast of Europe and the Pacific Coast of North America. Cordillera are the natural border separating the coast with the sea type of climate from the incontinental districts. The European coast, except Scandinavia, is open to free access of marine moderate air.

The permanent transfer of sea air is accompanied by a large cloudiness and causes protracted spring, in contrast to inside the continental regions of Eurasia.

Winter B. Moderate belt Western coasts warm. Ocean's sweeping influence is enhanced with warm sea currents that wash the western banks of the continig. The average temperature in January is positive and varies around the territory from north to south from 0 to 6 ° C. When invasion of arctic air, it can be reduced (on the Scandinavian coast up to -25 ° C, and in French - to -17 ° C). During the spread of tropical air to the north, the temperature sharply rises (for example, it often reaches 10 ° C). In winter, large positive deviations of the temperature from the medium latitudinal (20 ° C) are noted on the West Coast of Scandinavia. The temperature anomaly on the Pacific Coast of North America is less and is not more than 12 ° C.

Summer is rarely hot. The average temperature in July is 15-16 ° C.

Even during the day the air temperature rarely exceeds 30 ° C. Because of frequent cyclones, for all seasons, cloudy and rainy weather. Especially a lot of cloudy days happens on the west coast of North America, where before mining systems Cordillere Cyclones are forced to slow down their movement. In connection with this, the big monotony is characterized by weather in the south of Alaska, where there are no time in our understanding. There is an eternal autumn, and about the occurrence of winter or summer resemble only plants. The annual precipitation ranges from 600 to 1000 mm, and on the slopes of the mountain ranges - from 2000 to 6000 mm.

In conditions of sufficient moisture on the coasts, broad-sided forests are developed, and in excessive-coniferous conditions. The lack of summer heat reduces the top border of the forest in the mountains up to 500-700 m above sea level.

Moderate climate of eastern coasts of continents It has monsoon features and is accompanied by a seasonal change of winds: the North-Western flows prevailed in the summer - southeast. It is well expressed on the east coast of Eurasia.

In winter, a cold continental moderate air is distributed with the northwestern wind on the mainland coast, which is the cause of the low average temperature of the winter months (from -20 to -25 ° C). Clear, dry, windy weather prevailing. In the southern regions of the coast of precipitation little. The North of the Amur region, Sakhalin and Kamchatka often fall under the influence of cyclones moving over the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, in winter there is a powerful snow cover, especially in Kamchatka, where its maximum height reaches 2 m.

In summer, the south-eastern wind on the coast of Eurasia is distributed by sea temperate air. Summer is warm, with the average temperatures of July from 14 to 18 ° C. Frequent precipitation, which are due to cyclonic activities. Their annual amount is 600-1000 mm, and most of the part falls in summer. At this time of year, fogs are frequent.

Unlike Eurasia, the East Coast of North America is characterized by sea features of the climate, which are expressed in the predominance of winter precipitation and the sea type of the annual movement of air temperature: the minimum occurs in February, and the maximum in August, when the ocean is warm.

Canadian Anticyclone, in contrast to Asian, unstable. It is formed away from the coast and is often interrupted by cyclones. Winter here is soft, multiserry, raw and windy. In the snowy winters, the height of the snowdrifts reaches 2.5 m. With southern wind, it is often an idol. Therefore, some streets of individual cities in the east of Canada have iron railing for pedestrians. Summer cool and rainy. Annual precipitation - 1000 mm.

Moderate continental climate The most distinctly expressed in the Eurasian mainland, especially in the districts of Siberia, Transbaikalia, the North of Mongolia, as well as on the territory of the Great Plains in North America.

A feature of a moderate continental climate is a large annual amplitude of air temperature, which can reach 50-60 ° C. In the winter months, with a negative radiation balance, the earth's surface is injected. A particularly large cooling effect of the surface of the sushi on the surface layers of air in Asia, where a powerful Asian anticyclone is formed in winter and the weighted, windless weather prevails. Moderate continental air has a low temperature (-0 ° ...- 40 ° C) formed in the anticyclone region. In the valleys and hollows due to radiation intagnese, the air temperature may decrease to -60 ° C.

In the middle of winter, the continental air in the lower layers becomes even colder than the Arctic. This very cold air of Asian Anticyclone spreads to Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, southeastern areas of Europe.

Winter Canadian anticyclone compared to Asian anticyclone is less stable due to the smaller sizes of the North American mainland. The winter is less severe here, and their severity does not increase to the center of the mainland, as in Asia, but, on the contrary, somewhat decreases due to the frequent passage of cyclones. Continental moderate air in North America has a higher temperature than continental moderate air in Asia.

The formation of continental moderate climate has a significant impact of the geographical features of the territory of the mainland. In North America, the Cordiller Mountain Ridges are a natural border separating the coast with the sea climate from inside the mainland areas with a continental climate. In Eurasia, a moderate continental climate is formed on the huge Sushi space, from about 20 to 120 ° C. D. Unlike North America Europe is open to free penetration of sea air from the Atlantic deep into the inner areas. This contributes not only to the western transfer of air masses, prevailing in moderate latitudes, but also the plain nature of the relief, the strong stencil of coasts and deep penetration into the land of the Baltic and Northern Moreley. Therefore, a moderate climate of less continentality is formed over Europe compared to Asia.

In winter, the sea atlantic air moved over the cold surface of the sushi moderate europeous latitudes, long retains its physical properties, and its effects extends to the whole of Europe. In winter, as the atlantic effect is weakened, the air temperature from the west is east. In Berlin, it is in January 0 ° C, in Warsaw -3 ° C, in Moscow -11 ° C. At the same time, isotherms over Europe have a meridional orientation.

Eurasia and North America's conversation with a wide front to the Arctic basin contributes to deep penetration on the mainland of cold air masses throughout the year. The intensive meridional transfer of air masses is especially characteristic of North America, where often the Arctic and tropical air is replaced by each other.

Tropical air entering the plains of North America with southern CyclonesAlso slowly transformed due to the high speed of its movement, greater moisture content and continuous low cloudiness.

In winter, the consequence of intense meridional circulation of air masses is the so-called "racing" of temperatures, their large cross-day amplitude, especially in areas where cyclones are frequent: in the north of Europe and Western Siberia, the great plains of North America.

In the cold period, snow cover is falling out in the form of snow, the snow cover is formed, which protects the soil from deep freezing and creates moisture supply in the spring. The height of the snow cover depends on the duration of its location and the number of drop-down precipitation. In Europe, the steady snow cover on the flat territory is formed east of Warsaw, its maximum height reaches 90 cm in the northeastern regions of Europe and Western Siberia. In the center of the Russian Plain, the height of the snow cover is 30-35 cm, and in Transbaikalier - less than 20 cm. On the plains of Mongolia, in the center of the anticyclonic region, snow cover is formed only in some years. Lack of snow along with a low winter air temperature determines the presence of many years of permissal, which is no longer observed anywhere on the globe under these latimes.

In North America on the great plains, snow cover is insignificant. To the east of the plains in the front-end processes, the tropical air begins to take part, it aggravates the frontal processes, which causes abundant snowfall. In the Montreal area, snow cover is held up to four months, and its height reaches 90 cm.

Summer in the continental regions of Eurasia is warm. The average temperature of July is 18-22 ° C. In the arid areas of the southeast of Europe and Central Asia The average air temperature in July reaches 24-28 ° C.

In North America, continental air is somewhat colder than in Asia and Europe. This is due to the smaller length of the mainland by latitude, the large slication of its northern part of the bays and fjords, the abundance of large lakes and more intensely intensive in the internal areas of Eurasia by the development of cyclonic activities.

In a moderate belt, the annual precipitation on the flat territory of the mainland changes from 300 to 800 mm, on the alps of the alps, the Alps drops over 2,000 mm. Most of the precipitation falls in summer, which is primarily due to the increase in air moisture content. Eurasia has a decrease in precipitation in the territory from the west to the East. In addition, the amount of precipitation decreases from the north to the south due to a decrease in the repeatability of cyclones and an increase in air dryness in this direction. In North America, the decrease in precipitation on the territory is noted, on the contrary, towards the West. What do you think why?

Most of the sushi in the area of \u200b\u200bthe continental temperate climate is occupied by mountain systems. These are the Alps, Carpathians, Altai, Sayan, Cordillera, Rocky Mountains et al. In mountainous areas, climatic conditions differ significantly from the climate of the plains. In summer, the air temperature in the mountains quickly drops with a height. In winter, at the invasion of cold air masses, the air temperature on the plains is often lower than in the mountains.

Great influence on precipitation. The precipitation increases on the winding slopes and at some distance in front of them, and on the leeward - weaken. For example, differences in the annual precipitation between the Western and Eastern slopes of the Ural mountains are 300 mm. In the mountains with a height of precipitation increase to a certain critical level. In the Alps, the level of the largest amount of precipitation falls at a height of about 2000 m, in the Caucasus - 2500 m.

Subtropical climatic belt

Continental subtropical climate Determined by the seasonal change of moderate and tropical air. The average temperature of the coldest month in Central Asia places below zero, in the north-east of China -5 ...- 10 ° C. The average temperature of the warmest month is in the range of 25-30 ° C, while the daytime maxima may exceed 40-45 ° C.

The most strongly continentality of the climate in the air temperature mode is manifested in the southern regions of Mongolia and in the north of China, where in the winter season there is a center of Asian Anticyclone. Here, the annual amplitude of the air temperature is 35-40 ° C.

Sharply continental climate In a subtropical belt for high-mountainous areas of the Pamir and Tibet, the height of which is 3.5-4 km. The climate of the Pamirs and Tibet is characterized by a cold winter, cool summer and a small amount of precipitation.

In North America, a continental arid subtropical climate is formed in closed plateau and in the intermoreflakes located between the coast and rocky ridges. Summer roast and dry, especially in the south, where the average July temperature is above 30 ° C. The absolute maximum temperature can reach 50 ° C and higher. The temperature of +56.7 ° C was registered in the death valley!

Wet subtropical climates It is characteristic of the eastern coasts of the continents to the north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution - southeast of the United States, some southeastern areas of Europe, North India and Myanmar, East China and South Japan, Northeast Argentina, Uruguay and South Brazil, Natal Province coast in South Africa and the east coast of Australia. Summer in wet subtropics prolonged and roast, with the same temperatures as in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds +27 ° C, and the maximum +38 ° C. Winters are soft, with average monthly temperatures above 0 ° C, but random freezers have a destructive effect on plantation of vegetable and citrus. In wet subtropics, the average annual amounts of precipitation range from 750 to 2000 mm, the distribution of precipitation for the seasons is quite uniform. In winter, rain and rare snowfall are brought mainly by cyclones. In summer, the sediments fall mainly in the form of thunderstorms associated with powerful incidents of warm and wet ocean air, characteristic of the monsoon circulation of East Asia. Hurricanes (or typhoons) are manifested at the end of summer and in the fall, especially in the northern hemisphere.

Subtropical climate With a dry summer, typical for Western coasts of continents north and south of the tropics. In Southern Europe and North Africa, such climatic conditions are characteristic of the coasts of the Mediterranean, which served as a reason to call this climate also Mediterranean. A similar climate in Southern California, the central regions of Chile, in the South Africa and in a number of districts in the south of Australia. In all these areas, hot summer and mild winters. As in wet subtropics, frost occasionally occasionally. In the inner areas in the summer, temperatures are significantly higher than on the coasts, and often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. In the summer on the coasts under which the ocean flows are passing, there are often fogs. For example, in San Francisco Summer is cool, foggy, and the warmer month is September. Maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing air flows are mixed towards the equator. The effect of anticyclones and descending air flows over the oceans determine the dryness of the summer season. The average annual precipitation in the conditions of the subtropical climate ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches maximum values \u200b\u200bon the coasts and slopes of the mountains. In the summer, precipitation is usually lacking for normal growth trees, and therefore there is a specific type of evergreen shrub vegetation, known as McWis, Chaparal, Mal and Maccia and Finbosh.

Equatorial climatic belt

Equatorial type of climate It is distributed in the Equatorial latitudes in the Amazon basins in South America and the Congo in Africa, on Malacca and on the Islands of Southeast Asia. Usually mid annual temperature About +26 ° C. Due to the high midday standing of the sun over the horizon and the same duration of the day throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Wet air, cloudiness and thick vegetation intercoms interfere with night-cooled and maintain maximum daily temperatures below +37 ° C, lower than in higher latitudes. The average annual rainfall in wet tropics ranges from 1500 to 3000 mm and they are divided into seasons usually uniformly. The precipitates are mainly associated with the intrachetic convergence zone, which is located a bit north of the equator. Seasonal shifts of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two precipitation maxima during the year, separated by more dry periods. Daily thousands of thunderstorms rolled over wet tropics. In the intervals between them the sun shines in full force.

Climate (from Greek. Klíma, Klímatos's genitive case, literally - slope; implies the slope of the earth's surface to the sun rays)

many years of weather, peculiar to one or another terrain on Earth and is one of its geographical characteristics. At the same time, under the perennial regime means a combination of all weather conditions in a given location for a period of several decades; Typical annual change of these conditions and possible deviations from it in some years; The combination of weather conditions are characteristic of its various anomalies (droughts, rain periods, cooling and so on). Near the middle of the 20th century. The concept of K., previously relating only to the conditions of the earth's surface, was widespread and on high atmospheric layers.

Terms of formation and evolution of climate. The main characteristics of K. to identify the characteristics of the climate, both typical and rarely observed, are needed by many years of meteorological observations. In moderate latitudes, 25-50-year-old rows are used; In the tropics, their duration may be less; Sometimes (for example, for Antarctica, the high layers of the atmosphere) have to be limited to less prolonged observations, given that the subsequent experience can clarify the preliminary ideas.

When studying K. Oceans, in addition to observations on the islands, the information obtained in different time On ships in a particular section of the water area, and regular observations on the weather ships.

Climatic characteristics are statistical conclusions from perennial observation series, primarily above the following main meteorological elements: atmospheric pressure, speed and direction of wind, temperature and humidity, cloudiness and atmospheric precipitation. There is also a duration of solar radiation, visibility range, the temperature of the upper layers of soil and water bodies, evaporation of water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere, height and state of snow cover, various atm. Phenomena and terrestrial hydroelectors (dew, ice, fog, thunderstorms, blizzards, etc.). In the 20th century The number of climatic indicators included the characteristics of the elements of the heat balance of the earth's surface, such as the total solar radiation, the radiation balance, the heat exchange magnitude between the earth's surface and the atmosphere, the cost of heat to evaporation.

Characteristics K. Free atmosphere (see Aeroclimatology) are predominantly to atmospheric pressure, wind, temperature and humidity; These are joined and radiation data.

Perennial averages of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.) of their sums, repeatability and other are called climate norms; Appropriate values \u200b\u200bfor individual days, months, years and other are considered to be deviated from these norms. For the characteristics of K., integrated indicators are also used, i.e. the functions of several elements: various coefficients, factors, indices (for example, continentality, aridness, moisturizing), etc.

K. Special Indicators are used in applied branches of climatology (for example, the amount of temperature of the growing season in agroclimatology, efficient temperatures in bioclimatology and technical climatology, degree-days in the calculations of heating systems, etc.).

In the 20th century The ideas about the microclimate, K. of the surface layer of air, local climate, etc., as well as about MacroLimate - K. territories of the planetary scale. There are also the concepts of "K. Soil "and" K. Plants "(phytoclimat) characterizing the habitat of plants. The term "urban climate" was also widely popular, since the modern large city significantly affects its K.

The main processes forming K. Climatic conditions on Earth are created as a result of the following basic interrelated, cycles of global geophysical processes: heat-rotation, moisture revolution and general circulation of the atmosphere.

Moisture concern is to evaporate water into the atmosphere with water bodies and sushi, including plant transpiration; In the transfer of water vapor into high layers of the atmosphere (see Convection) , as well as air flows of total atmospheric circulation; in the condensation of water vapor in the form of clouds and fogs; in the transfer of clouds by air currents and in the fallout of the precipitation; In the drain of precipitation and in the new evaporation, etc. (see moisture turnover).

Total atmospheric circulation creates mainly wind mode. Global transfer of heat and moisture, local atmospheric circulation (breeze, mining winds, etc.) is associated with the transfer of air mass and moisture, local atmospheric circulation (breeze, mining winds, etc.) Create air transfer of air only over limited areas of the earth's surface, imposing on the overall circulation and affecting climatic conditions in these areas ( See atmosphere circulation).

The impact of geographical factors on K. Climate-forming processes occur under the effects of a number of geographical factors, the main of which are: 1) the geographical latitude, which determines the zonality and seasonality in the distribution of solar radiation coming to the land, and the air temperature, atmospheric pressure, etc.; The latitude affects the wind conditions and directly, since it depends on the rejection force of the earth rotation. 2) Height above sea level. Climatic conditions in the free atmosphere and in the mountains are changing depending on the height. Comparatively small differences in height measured by hundreds and thousands m, Equivalent in their influence on K. Latitude distances in thousands km. In this regard, high-rise climatic belts are traced in the mountains (see Altitude Explanation). 3) Distribution of sushi and the sea. As a result different conditions The propagation of heat in the upper layers of soil and water and due to their absorbing ability differences are created between K. mainland and oceans. The overall circulation of the atmosphere then leads to the fact that the conditions of the Marine K. are distributed with air currents into the mainstream, and the conditions of continental K. - on the neighboring parts of the oceans, 4) orography. Mountain ridges and arrays with different exposure of slopes create large perturbations in the distribution of air flows, air temperature, clouds, precipitation, etc. 5) Ocean flows. Warm currents falling into high latitudes, give warmth to the atmosphere; Cold flows, moving towards low latitudes, cooled atmosphere. Currents affect the moisture turnover, promoting or preventing the formation of clouds and fogs, and on atmospheric circulationSince the latter depends on the temperature conditions. 6) the nature of the soil, especially its reflectivity (albedo) and humidity. 7) Vegetable cover to a certain extent affects the absorption and return of radiation, moisturizing and wind, 8) snow and ice cover. Seasonal snow cover over land, sea ice, permanent ice and snow cover of such territories as Greenland and Antarctica, fibils and glaciers in the mountains significantly affect the temperature regime, wind conditions, clouds, moisturizing. 9) Air composition. In short periods, it does not change significantly in short periods, except for sporadic effects of volcanic eruptions or forest fires. However, industrial areas there is an increase in carbon dioxide content from fuel combustion and air pollution by gas and aerosol waste of production and transport.

Climate and man. Types K. and their distribution on the globe, have the most significant effect on water regime, soil, vegetation cover and animal world, as well as the distribution and yield of S.-H. cultures. K. to a certain extent affects the resettlement, placement of industry, living conditions and public health. Therefore, the correct accounting of features and influences K. is required not only in agriculture, but also when placing, planning, construction and operation of hydropower and industrial facilities, in urban planning, in the transport network, as well as in health care (resort network, climature, struggle against epidemics, social hygiene), tourism, sports. Study of climatic conditions as in general and from the point of view of certain needs of the national economy, generalization and dissemination of data on K. in order to practical use The USSR is carried out by institutions of the USSR Hydrometeorological Service.

Humanity is not yet significantly influenced by K. by directly changing the physical mechanisms of climate-forming processes. The active physico-chemical impact of a person on the processes of formation of clouds and precipitation is already a reality, but it has no climatic significance in its spatial limitity. Industrial activity human society leads to an increase in the content of carbon dioxide, industrial gases and aerosol impurities. This affects not only the vital conditions and health of people, but also on the absorption of radiation in the atmosphere and thereby on the air temperature. The influx of heat into the atmosphere is constantly increasing through the combustion of fuel. These anthropogenic changes K. are especially noticeable in big cities; On a global scale, they are still insignificant. But in the near future you can wait for their significant increase. In addition, affecting one or another of the geographical factors K., i.e., changing the environment in which climate-forming processes occur, people themselves, without knowing or not taking into account, have a long time worsened by K. The irrational lighting of forests, predatory land . On the contrary, the conduct of rational irrigation measures and the creation of oases in the desert improved K. relevant areas. The task of conscious, aimed at improving K. is mainly delivered in relation to the microclimate and local K. Real and safe way This improvement seems to be a targeted expansion of the impacts on the soil and vegetation cover (planting of forest strips, drainage and irrigation of the territory).

Climate change. Research of sedimental deposits, fossil residues of flora and fauna, radioactivity of rocks, etc. Show that K. Lands in various epochs changed significantly. Over the past hundreds of millions of years (before anthropogen), the Earth appears to be more warm than currently: the temperature in the tropics was close to modern, and in moderate and high latitudes are much higher than modern. At the beginning of Paleogen (about 70 million years ago), the temperature contrasts between the equatorial and indoor regions began to increase, but before the beginning of the anthropogen they were less than existing. In anthropogen, the temperature in high latitudes has sharply decreased and polar glaciation arose. The last reduction in glaciers in the northern hemisphere ended, apparently about 10 thousand years ago, after which the permanent ice cover remained mainly in the Northern Arctic Ocean, in Greenland and others. The Arctic Islands, and in the South Hemisphere - in Antarctica.

For the characteristics of K. several of the last thousand years, there is an extensive material obtained using paleographic research methods (dendrochronology, Palinological analysis, etc.), on the basis of the study of archaeological data, folklore and literary monuments, and at a later time - and chronicle testimonies. It can be concluded that for the last 5 thousand years of K. Europe and close to it areas (and probably all the globe) fluctuated in a relatively narrow limits. Dry and warm periods were replaced by more wet and cool. About 500 years BC. e. The precipitates increased markedly and K. became cooler. At the beginning of N. e. He was similar to modern. In 12-13 centuries. K. was softer and dry than at the beginning of N. er, but in 15-16 centuries. Again there was a significant cooling and the architectivity of the seas increased. Over the past 3 centuries, an increasing material of the instrumental meteorological observations that have received global distribution has been gained. From 17 to mid-19 centuries. K. remained cold wet, glaciers fell. From the 2nd half of the 19th century. New warming began, especially strong in the Arctic, but embraced almost the entire globe. This is the so-called modern warming continued until the middle of the 20th century. Against the background of the oscillations to K., covering hundreds of years, there were short-term fluctuations with smaller amplitudes. Changes K. are thus rhythmic, oscillatory.

The climatic regime that dominated the anthropogen is warm, with small temperature contrasts and the lack of polar glaciation - was stable. On the contrary, K. Anthropogen and modern K. with glaciations, their pulsations and sharp fluctuations in atmospheric conditions - unstable. According to the conclusions of M. I. Budyko, a very small increase in the average temperatures of the earth's surface and the atmosphere can lead to a decrease in polar glaciation, and the change in the reflectivity (albedo) of the Earth flows from here - to the further warming of their reduction of ice to their complete disappearance.

Climates of the Earth. Climatic conditions on Earth are in close dependence on geographic latitude. In this regard, in ancient times there was an idea of \u200b\u200bclimatic (thermal) belts, the boundaries of which coincide with the tropics and polar circles. In a tropical belt (between the Northern and South Tropics), the Sun is in Zenith twice a year; Daytime duration of the day at the equator for the entire year is 12 h And inside the tropics range from 11 to 13 c.. IN moderate belts (Between the tropics and polar circles) the sun rises and comes every day, but does not happen in the zenith. Its midday height in summer is much more than in winter, as well as the duration of the daytime day, and these seasonal differences grow with approaching the poles. For the polar circles, the sun does not enter the sun, and in winter it does not go through during the larger time, the more latitude of the place. On the poles year is divided into six-month day and night.

Features visible movement The sun is determined by the influx of solar radiation on the upper limit of the atmosphere on different latitudes And at different moments and seasons (the so-called solar climate). In the tropical belt, the inflow of solar radiation on the boundary of the atmosphere has an annual move with a small amplitude and two maxima during the year. In moderate belts, the inflow of solar radiation on the horizontal surface on the border of the atmosphere in summer is relatively different from the tributary in the tropics: the smaller height of the sun is compensated by an increased duration of the day. But in winter, the influx of radiation is rapidly decreasing with breadth. In polar latitudes, with a long continuous day, the summer inflow of radiation is also great; in a day summer Solstice The pole receives even more radiation on the horizontal surface at the boundary of the atmosphere than the equator. But in the winter half of the year, there is no influx of radiation on the pole at all. Thus, the influx of solar radiation on the border of the atmosphere depends only on the geographic latitude and on the time of year and has strict zonality. Within the atmosphere, solar radiation experiences nonlineal influences due to different content of water vapor and dust, different cloudiness and other features of the gas and colloidal state of the atmosphere. The reflection of these effects is the complex distribution of radiation values \u200b\u200bentering the surface of the Earth. Numerous geographical climate factors have both numerous climate factors (the distribution of sushi and the sea, the features of the orography, sea currents, and so on). Therefore, in a complex distribution climatic characteristics The earth's surface zonality is only a background that appears more or less clearly through non-snand influences.

The climatic zoning of the Earth is the separation of territories on the belt, zones and areas with more or less homogeneous climate conditions. The boundaries of climatic belts and zones not only do not coincide with latitudinal circles, but also do not always enhance the globe (zones in such cases are torn to non-closing areas). Zoning can be conducted or actually climatic signs (for example, by the distribution of average air temperatures and amounts of atmospheric precipitation at V. Keppen), or by other complexes of climatic characteristics, as well as on the features of the total circulation of the atmosphere with which the types of climate (for example, classification B. P. Alisova), or By the nature of the geographical landscapes determined by the climate (classification of L. S. Berg). The following characteristic of land climates mainly corresponds to the Ryonation of B. P. Alisova (1952).

The deep influence of the distribution of sushi and the sea on the climate is already visible from the comparison of the conditions of the Northern and South Hemispheres. In the northern hemisphere, the main arrays of sushi are concentrated and therefore its climatic conditions are more continental than in South. Mid-medium surface temperatures in the northern hemisphere in January 8 ° C, in July 22 ° C; In southern, respectively, 17 ° C and 10 ° C. For the entire globe, the average temperature of 14 ° C (12 ° C in January, 16 ° C in July). The most warm parallel of the Earth is a thermal equator with a temperature of 27 ° C - coincides with the geographic equator in January. In July, it shifts up to 20 ° north latitude, and its average annual position is about 10 ° Northern latitude. From the thermal equator to the poles, the temperature drops on average by 0.5-0.6 ° C for every degree of latitude (very slowly in the tropics, faster in uniform latitudes). At the same time, inside the mainland, the air temperature in the summer is higher and in winter lower than above the oceans, especially in moderate latitudes. This does not apply to climate over Greenland ice plateau and Antarctica, where the air is much colder all year round than over the oceans adjacent to them (the average annual air temperatures are reduced to -35 ° C, -45 ° C).

The average annual amounts of precipitation are most high in the anti-essential latitudes (1500-1800 mM.), To subtropics they decrease to 800 mm, In moderate latitudes, increase to 900-1200 mM. and sharply decrease in polar regions (up to 100 mM. and less).

The equatorial climate covers a low atmospheric pressure strip (the so-called equatorial depression) that extends to 5-10 ° K S. and to Y. from the equator. It has a very uniform temperature regime with high air temperatures throughout the year (usually ranges between 24 ° C and 28 ° C, and the amplitude of the temperature on land does not exceed 5 ° C, and the sea may be less than 1 ° C). Air humidity is constantly high, the annual precipitation amount ranges from 1 to 3 thousand. mM. per year, but in places it reaches 6-10 thousand on land. mm. The precipitation is usually falling in the form of a rainfall, they, especially in the internal convergence zone, separating the trade winds of two hemispheres, are usually evenly distributed during the year. Cloudiness is significant. Prevailing natural land landscapes - wet equatorial forests.

On both sides of the equatorial depression, in the fields of high atmospheric pressure, a trade-door climate with a stable regime of the eastern winds (Passyats), moderate cloudiness and sufficiently dry weather prevails in the tropics above the oceans. The average temperatures of the summer months of 20-27 ° C, during the winter months the temperature is reduced to 10-15 ° C. The annual amount of precipitation is about 500 mm, Their amounts increase dramatically on the slopes of the mountainous islands addressed to the Passat, and with relatively rare tropical cyclones.

Oceanic trade windows correspond to the territory of the territory with a climate of tropical deserts, characterized exclusively hot summer (the average temperature of the warmer month in the northern hemisphere about 40 ° C, in Australia to 34 ° C). Absolute temperature maxima in North Africa and inland California 57-58 ° C, in Australia - up to 55 ° C ( highest temperatures air on earth). Middle temperatures of winter months from10 to 15 ° C. Daily amplitudes of temperatures are large (in some places over 40 ° C). Precipitation slightly (usually less than 250 mm, Often less than 100. mM B. year).

In some areas of the tropics (Equatorial Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Northern Australia), the Passyat climate is replaced by the climate of tropical monsoon. The intrachetic convergence zone is shifted here in the summer away from the equator and instead of the Eastern trade in transmission between it and the equator there is a western transfer of air (summer monsoon), with which most of the precipitation is associated. On average, they fall almost as much as in equatorial climates (in Calcutta, for example, 1630 mM. per year, of which 1180 mM. falls over 4 months of the summer monsoon). On the slopes of the mountains addressed to the summer monsoon, the record for the respective areas of precipitation falls out, and in the northeast of India (Cherapundy) the maximum number on the globe (on average about 12 thousand. mM. in year). Summer roast (average air temperatures above 30 ° C), and the most warm month is usually preceded by the onset of the summer monsoon. In the zone of tropical monsoon, in East Africa And in the south-west of Asia, the highest average annual temperatures on the globe (30-32 ° C) are observed. Winter in some areas is cool. The average January temperature in Madras is 25 ° C, in Varanasi 16 ° C, and in Shanghai - only 3 ° C.

In the western parts of the continuity in subtropical latitudes (25-40 ° of northern latitude and southern latitude), the climate is characterized by high atmospheric pressure in summer (subtropical anticyclones) and cyclonic activity in winter, when anticyclones are somewhat shifted to the equator. Under these conditions, the Mediterranean climate is being formed, which is observed, except for the Mediterranean, on the southern coast of the Crimea, as well as in Western California, in southern Africa, the south-west of Australia. With hot, stolen and dry summer here is cool and rainy winter. The amount of precipitation is usually small and some areas with this climate are semi-scenes. Temperatures in summer 20-25 ° C, in winter 5-10 ° C, the annual amounts of precipitation usually 400-600 mm.

Inside the continuity in subtropical latitudes in winter and summer, elevated atmospheric pressure prevails. Therefore, the climate of dry subtropics is formed here, hot and stormy summer, cool - winter. Summer temperatures, for example, in Turkmenistan reach on some days to 50 ° C, and frosts are possible to -10, -20 ° C. The annual precipitation amount is only 120 mm.

At high mountains of Asia (Pamir, Tibet), the climate of cold deserts with a cool summer, very cold in winter and scanty sediments is formed. In Murgab on the Pamir, for example, in July 14 ° C, in January -18 ° C, precipitation is about 80 mM. in year.

In the eastern parts of the mainland in subtropical latitudes, a monsoon subtropical climate (East China, Southeast of the United States, the country of the basin r. Parana in South America) is formed. Temperature conditions are close to districts with the Mediterranean climate, but the precipitation is rich and fall out mainly in the summer, with the oceanic monsoon (for example, in Beijing from 640 mM. precipitation per year 260 mM. falls out in July and only 2 mM.in December).

For moderate latitudes, intensive cyclonic activity is very characteristic, leading to frequent and strong changes in the pressure and air temperature. Western winds prevail (especially above the oceans and in the southern hemisphere). Transition seasons (autumn, spring) are long and expressed well.

In the western parts of the mainland (mainly Eurasia and North America), sea climate with cool summer, warm (for these latitudes) in winter, moderate amount of precipitation (for example, in Paris in July 18 ° C, in January 2 ° C, precipitation 490 mM. per year) without sustainable snow cover. The preciputes increase dramatically on the windy slopes of the mountains. So, in Bergen (from the Western foot of the Scandinavian mountains) precipitation over 2500 mM. per year, and in Stockholm (east of the Scandinavian mountains) - only 540 mm. The effect of spelling orography is expressed even stronger in North America with its meridionally elongated ridges. On the western slopes of the cascade mountains falls in some places from 3 to 6 thousand. mm,whereas behind the ridges, the amount of precipitation decreases to 500 mM. and below.

Incontinental climate of moderate latitudes in Eurasia and North America is characterized by a more or less stable mode of high air pressure, especially in winter, warm summer and cold winter with a steady snow cover. The annual amplitudes of the temperature are large and grow deep into the mainland (mainly due to the increase in the severity of the Wam). For example, in Moscow in July 17 ° C, in January -10 ° C, precipitation is about 600 mM B. year; In Novosibirsk in July 19 ° C, in January -19 ° C, precipitation 410 mM. per year (maximum precipitation everywhere in the summer). In the southern part of the temperate latitudes of the inland areas of Eurasia, climate dryness increases, steppe, semi-desert and desert landscapes are formed, the snow cover is unstable. The most continental climate in the northeastern regions of Eurasia. In Yakutia, the area of \u200b\u200bVerkhoyansk - Oymyakon is one of the winter poles of the northern hemisphere cold. The average temperature of January decreases here to -50 ° C, and the absolute minimum is about -70 ° C. In the mountains and on high plateales of the inner parts of the continents of the northern hemisphere of winter are very severe and low, anticyclone weather, summer is roast, the precipitations are relatively small and fall out mainly in summer (for example, in Ulan-Bator in July 17 ° C, in January -24 ° C , precipitation 240. mM. in year). In the southern hemisphere due to the limited area of \u200b\u200bthe continents on the corresponding latitudes, the intra-projectal climate was not developed.

Monsonic climate of moderate latitude is formed on the eastern outskirts of Eurasia. It is characterized by poorly and cold in winter with the prevailing northwestern winds, warm or moderately warm summer with southeastern and southern winds and sufficient or even abundant summer sediments (for example, in Khabarovsk in July 23 ° C, in January -20 ° C, precipitation 560. mM. per year, of which only 74 mM. falls in the cold half of the year). In Japan and in Kamchatka, winter is much softer, there are many precipitation and in winter and summer; On Kamchatka, Sakhalin and Island, Hokkaido, high snow cover is formed.

The climate of the subarctic is formed on the northern outskirts of Eurasia and North America. WINTERS Live and harsh, the average temperature of the warmer month is not higher than 12 ° C, precipitation is less than 300 mm,and in the north-east of Siberia, even less than 100 mM.in year. With cold summer and perennial Murzlota Even small precipitations create excessive moisturizing and soil fever in many areas. In the southern hemisphere, such a climate is developed only on the Sanctarctic Islands and on the earth of Grayam.

Over the oceans of moderate and subepolar latitudes in both hemispheres, intensive cyclonic activity with windy cloud weather and abundant precipitation prevails.

Climate Arctic basin Stern, average monthly temperatures change from O ° in summer to -40 ° C in winter, on the Greenland plateau from -15 to -50 ° C, and the absolute minimum is close to -70 ° C. The average annual air temperature is below -30 ° C, there are little precipitation (for the most part of Greenland less than 100 mM. in year). The ingredic regions of the European Arctic are distinguished by a relatively soft and humid climate, because Very often penetrate warm air masses from the Atlantic Ocean (on Svalbard in January -16 ° C, in July 5 ° C, precipitation is about 320 mM. in year); Even in the North Pole, sometimes sharp warming are possible. In the Asia-American sector of the Arctic, the climate is more severe.

Antarctic climate is the most severe on earth. On the coasts blow strong windsassociated with the continuous passage of cyclones over the outside the ocean and with the flow of cold air from the central regions of the mainland on the slopes of the ice shield. The average temperature in peaceful -2 ° C in January and December, -18 ° C in August and September. Precipitation from 300 to 700 mM. in year. Inside East Antarctica on a high ice plateau, high atmospheric pressure, the winds are weak, cloudiness is small. The average temperature in the summer about -30 ° C, in the winter about -70 ° C. The absolute minimum at the East station is close to -90 ° C (pole cold of the entire globe). Precipitation less than 100. mM B. year. In Western Antarctica and Southern Pole. The climate is somewhat softer.

LIT: Course of climatology, part 1-3, L., 1952-54; The atlas of the thermal balance of the globe, ed. M. I. Budyko, M., 1963; Berg L. S., Fundamentals of climatology, 2 ed., L., 1938; His climate and life, 2 ed., M., 1947; Brooks K., climates of the past, lane. from English, M., 1952; Budyko M. I., Climate and Life, L., 1971; Ways A. I., climates of the globe, especially Russia, is facilitated. cit., t. 1, M. - L., 1948; Geiger P., climate of the surface layer of air, per. from English, M., 1960; Guterman I. G., the distribution of wind over the northern hemisphere, L., 1965; Drozdov O. A., Fundamentals of climatological processing of meteorological observations, L., 1956; Drozdov O. A., Grigorieva A.S., moisture proof in the atmosphere, L, 1963; Keppen V., Fundamentals of climatology, per. with him., M., 1938; Climate of the USSR, in. 1-8, L., 1958-63; Climatological treatment methods, L., 1956; Microclimate of the USSR, L., 1967; Sapozhnikova S. A., Microclimate and Local Climate, L., 1950; Handbook of the climate of the USSR, in. 1-34, L., 1964-70; Blüthgen J., Allgemeine KlimaGraphie, 2 Aufl., B., 1966; Handbuch der klimatologie. HRSG. Von W. Köppen Und R. Geiger, BD 1-5, V., 1930-36; Hann J., Handbuch Der Klimatologie, 3 aufl., BD 1-3, Stuttg., 1908-11; World Survey of Climatology, ED. N. E. Landsberg, V. 1-15, amst. - L. - N. Y., 1969.

And factors affecting the climate. The main factors are the factors that determine the climate at any point of the globe. These include: solar radiation, and.

In the mountains, climatic conditions are changed with a change in height: it decreases with its increase, the pressure drops, humidity decreases, increases to a certain height, and then decreases, it is difficult to change in speed and direction, other climate indicators are changed. All this allows you to highlight specific high-rise mountains.

The effect of sushi and surface surfaces affects that they practically do not distort the direct impact of the two first climate-forming factors, obtaining the amount of heat corresponding to the latitude and not distorting the direction and speed of the air masses.

In addition to the main factors that have a significant impact on the climate in certain (often extensive) areas. In particular, the distribution of sushi and the sea and the remoteness of the territory from the seas and the oceans. Susha and the sea are heated and cooled in different ways. Sea air masses differ significantly from continental, but when moving deep into mainland, they change their properties. Therefore, on the same latitude there are significant differences in the temperature mode and the distribution of precipitation. So, on the parallel 60 ° S.Sh. The average temperature of January in