Historical theology. Historical geology. Names of geological periods

Historical Geology is a comprehensive science studying the development of the planet and the earth's crust and the sequence of geological events.

Research in the disciplines of the geological cycle is made in a historical context. Each of the sciences considers the development and sequence of studied objects and phenomena. In addition, there are a number of disciplines in geology engaged in the study of general geological history. These include historical geology.

History

Knowledge of the geological history of the Earth was accumulated from ancient times within the framework of a single geological direction. However, the prerequisites for the formation of historical geology originated only by the XIX century, when J. Kuvier, W. Smith, A. Bronjar received conclusions about the sequence of shift horizons with organic residues. It served as the basis for paleontological method, one of the main in this discipline.

The formation of it as an independent science took place in the XIX century. and included two stages allocated on the basis of theoretical provisions used. Thus, in the first half of the century, the development of this discipline was influenced by A. D Orbinhi developed by A.D. "Cywood, and in the second half of it replaced the ideas of evolutionary development Ch. Darwin, J. Lamarca and Ch. Lailee.

In addition, in accordance with the procedure for the formation of close disciplines prevailing in the development of historical geology, this process is up to the middle of the XX century. They are divided into three stages: stratigraphic, paleogeographic, tectonic. In the beginning of the century, stratigraphy was formed: they created the structure of a stratigraphic scale, developed a scale for Europe, chronologically systematized geological material. In the middle of the century began the formation of paleogeography due to the reconstruction of the physico-geographical conditions of J. Dana and V.O. Kovalevsky and the introduction of A. Gressed concepts "Fiti". A little later began to emerge the doctrine of geosynclinal, and by the end of the century - the doctrine of platforms that make up the basis of tectonics. Then the modern stage began.

Historical geology itself was formed in the second half of the XIX century. At the same time, the main directions of research were formulated.

Historical Geology has made a significant contribution to the development of geological knowledge. Thus, within the framework of this science, the laws of the development of geological processes (the formation of continents, the occurrence and transformation of platforms and geosyncline, changes in the nature of magmatism, etc.), was predicted the general focus of the evolution of the planet and the earth's crust.

Modern science

Now historical geology includes two directions:

Study of geological history in the context of tectonics, paleogeography, stratigraphy
Creating a general historical and geological picture with the establishment of patterns and their relationships.

Thus, this science includes geochronology, paleyotectonic, paleogeography, stratigraphy.

Currently, the scope of study of historical geology includes several items. These include the age of breed (chronological sequence of their formation and position in the context, as well as organic residues, history of the development of organisms), physico-geographical conditions (the position of sushi and ocean, climate, relief in various periods of geological history), tectonic situation and magmatism ( The development of the earth's crust, the formation and development of dislocations: raising, folds, deflection, discontinuous disorders, etc.), the relationship of geological processes, the natural deritment of deposits to the magmatic bodies, geological complexes and structures.

Thus, the main goal of historical geology consists in recreating a sequence of geological processes in the depths and on the surface of the planet.

Together with other geological disciplines, historical geology is the basis of general geology, studying the laws of land development. In addition, this science is applied, which is to apply its data to create scientific foundations of searches and exploration of minerals by clarifying the conditions for their genesis and laws of deposits.

This discipline is associated with all geological sciences, since the consideration of items of study in this area occurs in a historical context. In addition, historical geology uses data, conclusions and methods of many of them: stratigraphy, lithology, paleontology, petrology, tectonics, geochemistry, regional geology, paleogeography, geophysics. The closest historical geology to other historical and geological disciplines, such as stratigraphy and paleontology. Moreover, the first of them is sometimes considered to be a section of historical geology. Stratigraphy, including biostratigraphy, is the basis of the science under consideration, establishing a sequence of rock formation, and developing a geochronological system, which ensures interaction with geochronology. Through biostratigraphy, the relationship of historical geology with paleontology is formed. Recreation of physico-geographical conditions based on the data obtained belongs to paleogeography. The study of the development of the earth's crust and the sequences of the processes occurring in it enters the scope of tectonics. The study of the history of the processes of magmatism, metamorphism, volcanism associates historical geology with petrography.

Item, Tasks, Methods

The subject of historical geology is breeds and organic residues, on the basis of which they find out the sequence of geological processes.

The tasks of this science include reconstruction and systematization of the stages of the development of the earth's crust and the biosphere, the clarification of the laws and the driving forces of these processes. This implies the calculation of the age of rocks, recreation of tectonic structures and movements, volcanism, metamorphism, plutoism, physico-geographical conditions of the past.

To clarify the duration and sequence of geological processes, stratigraphy is served. Facial settings are mainly restored by studying rocks and organic residues within the framework of Petrology and Paleontology. The clarification of the sequence of tectonic movements is engaged in tectonics, using disagreement, interruptions in sedimentation, disjunctivities, pliquitative deformations. To establish the laws of the structure and evolution of the earth's crust, these geotectonics, geophysics, regional geology are used.

Historical geology, as mentioned above, applies methods of other geological disciplines:

Biostratigraphy (evolutionary, guiding minerals, paleoecological, quantitative correlation methods),
Geological (lithological, mineral and petrographic, structural, eclaptigraphic, rhythmostratigraphic, climatostratigraphic),
Geophysical (magnetostratigraphic, seismic storage),
Absolute geochronology (urano-toriyevoy-lead, lead, rubidium-strontium, potassium-argon, samarium-neodymium, radiocarbon, trades of fragmentation division),
Historical and geological (facial, formational tests).

In addition to the named applied methods, general theoretical, such as dialectical and actualistic, are used in this science.

Education and work

Historical geology is studied within the framework of geological specialties, as it is the basis of this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. As a separate specialty, it is rare.

The labor sphere is determined by the focus of the specialty and the choice of a graduate, since many of the geological specialties allow working in several professions. Basically, such specialists are working in the production and scientific and educational sphere. As for people specialized in historical geology, they work mainly in science and education.

Conclusion

Historical geology is one of the main disciplines of the geological cycle. It is interconnected with other sciences through the use of their data and methods and the formation of a historical and geological basis for their research. In addition, it is used for deposits. Despite the absence of such a profession, knowledge in this field is used in all sectors of geology.

Historical geology, science, studying the history and patterns of the geological development of the Earth since its inception. The global tasks of historical geology are the allocation and systematization of the natural stages of the development of the earth's crust, the land as a whole and the organic world of the geological past, the clarification of the general patterns of the geological development of the Earth and transforming it processes. Among the private tasks: determination of the age of rock, reconstruction of physico-geographical (landscape-climatic) conditions of the earth's surface of the past, paleotectonic and paleogeodynamic environment, study of the history of geological processes (volcanism, plutoism and metamorphism), tectonic movements and deformations, patterns of development of the structural crust and lithosphere in general. To solve these tasks, data and methods of stratigraphy and geochronology, paleogeography, historical geotectonics and historical geodynamics are used. In addition, historical geology is also associated with regional geology, paleontology, litology, mineralogy, petrology, geochemistry, geophysics and other sciences and use their methods. Among the main methods of determining the relative and isotopic (absolute) geological age of rock, the actualistic method in combination with the facies analysis, methods of analysis of facies, capacities and volume of deposits, formation and lithodynamic complexes, interruptions and disagreements; Paleomagnetic, seismic stratigraphic, etc.

As a complex science, covering all aspects of the geological history of the Earth, historical geology developed in the process of becoming stratigraphy, paleogeography, geotectonics and geology as a whole (see historical essays of the relevant articles). Modern historical geology, along with the solution of retrospective tasks of restoring the geological past land, puts the task of the forecast of its future changes. The applied value of historical geology is determined by the use of established patterns in the history of the formation of the earth's crust for creating the theoretical basis of the rational search for the mining deposits in it.

The most important problems of historical geology are regularly discussed at the sessions of the International Geological Congress, in Russia - on annual tectonic, stratigraphic and lithological meetings.

Lit.: Leonov G. P. Historical Geology: Basics and Methods: Precambria. M., 1980; Reed G., Watson J. History of the Earth. L., 1981. [T. 1-2]; Windley V. F. The Evolving Continents. 3rd ed. Chichester; N. Y., 1995; KopoNovsky N. V., Khain V. E., Yasamanov N. A. Historical geology. 2nd ed. M., 2006.

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Abstract "Historical Geology"

Section. 1 Precambria

1.1 Organic Mir

1.2 Platform

1.3 geosyncline

1.4 Epoch of Folding

1.6 Minerals

Section 2. Paleozoic Era

2.2.1 Organic Mir

2.2.2 Platforms

2.2.3 Geosyncinal belts

2.2.4 Folding era

2.2.6 Minerals

Section 3. Late Paleozoa

3.1 Organic Mir

3.2 Platforms

3.3 Geosynclinal belts

3.4 Epoch of Folding

3.5 Physico-Geographical Conditions

3.6 Minerals

Section 4. Mesozoic Era

4.1 Organic Mir

4.2 Platforms

4.3 Geosyncline belts

4.4 Epoch of folds

4.5 Physics and Geographical Conditions

4.6 Minerals

5.1 Organic Mir

5.2 Platforms

5.3 Geosyncinal belts

5.6 Minerals

Bibliography

Chapter 1. Historical Geology - Like Science

precambrian Paleozoic fossil geosynclinal

Historical geology includes a number of sections. Stratigraphy is engaged in the study of the composition, place and time of formation of rock formations and their correlation. Paleogeography considers climate, relief, the development of the ancient seas, rivers, lakes, etc. In past geological era. The definition of time, character, the magnitude of the tectonic movements is engaged in geotectonics. The time and conditions of the formation of magmatic rocks restores Petrology. Thus, historical geology is closely connected with almost all areas of geological knowledge.

One of the most important problems of geology is the problem of determining the geological time formation of sedimentary rocks. The formation of geological rocks to plywood was accompanied by all enhancing biological activity, therefore paleobiology is of great importance in geological studies. For geologists, an important point is that evolutional changes in the organisms and the emergence of new species occurs at a certain period of geological time. The principle of final Sukcessia postulates that at the same time in the ocean is common among the same organisms. From this it follows that the geologist, determining the set of fossil residues in the breed, can find at the same time formed rocks.

The boundaries of evolutionary transformations are the boundaries of the geological time of the formation of sedimentary horizons. The faster or shorter this gap, the more opportunities for more fractional stratigraphic divisions of the thickness. Thus, the task of determining the age of sedimentary thickness is solved. Another important task is to determine the habitat. Therefore, it is so important to identify those changes that put the habitat on the organisms, knowing which we can determine the conditions for the formation of precipitation.

Chapter 2. Geological History of the Earth

Section. 1 Precambria

Donkebriev call the oldest stage of the geological development of the Earth, covering the Archean and Proterozoic Era. During this stage, all breeds occurring below the Cambrian deposits were formed, so it is called the Precarch Drive. The Precambrian stage is very different from all later stages - Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The main features of the Precambrian are the following:

1.1 Organic Mir

In the Precambrian there were organisms devoid of skeletal entities. Most of these soft organisms are not preserved in the fossil state, which does not allow paleontologists to restore the organic world of Damcr. According to rare finds, it is undoubtedly established that the simplest unicellular vegetable organisms already existed in Archey, and at the end of the Proterozoy, representatives of most types of animals lived. This indicates a long and complex process of the evolution of the organic world in the Precambrian, which scientists are not yet able to trace.

The latest data obtained in the study of the Archean breeds under the microscope showed that the "Life Rod" dropped almost to 3.5 billion years. Extremely few paleontological finds from Archean breeds, which are still difficult to decipher, are known from Africa, North America, Australia and the European part of Russia. The most ancient of them (3.2--3.4 billion years) occur from South Africa, where the smallest spherical calves belonging to the simplest unicellular vegetation organisms were found. In the younger Archean rocks of South Africa (3 billion years) found in the form of lime crusts the most ancient stromatolys - the products of the life activity of blue-green algae. In the ancient rocks in Ukraine (3.1 billion years), microscopic rounded formations were found, possibly organic origin. Life originated in Archee still under an oxygen-free atmosphere.

In the early protein (2.6--1.6 billion years), the simplest single-celled animals and blue-green algae continued their development. There are few organic residues from the sediments of this time. Organic residues with well-preserved cellular structure are known from Nizhneproterozoic sediments, but all cells were still nuclear-free.

The organic world has reached a variety in Late Proterozoa and especially at its end - Wende. Verkhneproterozoic limestones contain a variety of stromatolites in a massive number, with which the rhyps and vendry stratigraphy is being developed.

The most rich in the paleontological remains of the sediment of the Venda (680--570 million years). They found not only numerous single-celled organisms, but also the undisputed prints of soft-flowered multicellular: intestinal - jellyfish, worms, arthropods, oskalkin and others. Their findings are known from the Vendian sediments of Russia, Ukraine, United States, Africa, Australia.

Very interesting findings of multicellular from South Australia (Ediacar, Flinders Ridge). Here in the Vendian sediments found more than 1,500 prints of a variety of sea jellyfish, worms, arthropods and other inequish animals of good preservation.

Apparently, they lived in shallow lagoons, where they were buried. Medusa swam in shallow water. Finding on the sand, they dressed and left clear casts. Obviously, there were still no predators: animals did not have teeth and no bite trains found in any organism. On the shore of the White Sea, numerous prints of a variety of soft animals and traces of their livelihoods (minks, traces of crawling, nutrition, etc.) were found in the Venndous sediments.

Vend is an important initial stage in the evolution of invertebrates of multicellular animals.

1.2 Platform

Precambrian metamorphic rock rocks are exposed in separate areas that have experienced a long raising. The most extensive areas of the Precambrian breeds are shields - the locations of the surface of the folded base - the foundation of ancient platforms. Within the shields, Precambrian breeds are mainly carried out, developing stratigraphy of Precambria.

Precambrian breeds and Precambrian history are well studied on the Eastern European and North American ancient platforms, within the Baltic and Canadian shields. Here the Precambrian breed is naked on large areas. Huge glaciers who covered these territories during a recent quaternary glaciation, with its movement to the south, removed from the surface of the Precambrian breeds a powerful erection bark, which is widely developed on all the shields of other ancient platforms and greatly prevents the study of the Precambrian.

The East European Platform covers the European part of Russia and Ukraine (without the Crimea, the Caucasus and Carpathians), as well as most of Poland, the eastern part of Germany and the countries of the Scandinavian Peninsula. On the platform allocate the Baltic and Ukrainian shields, between which there is an extensive Russian stove.

The Baltic Shield occupies a significant northwestern part of the platform. In Russia, it consists of Karelia and the Kola Peninsula, outside - Finland, Sweden and a small southern part of Norway.

The entire Baltic Shield is complicated by the Archean and Proterozoic Breeds, which are blocked by quaternary glacial and other continental sediments.

The Archean Group consists of two complexes: Kola and Belomorsky, isolated deeply metamorphiced rocks. The oldest Kola complex has been preserved at very small sites. These are Gneiss, which occurred due to deep metamorphism (ultra-imaging) volcanic rocks of the main composition. The age of the Kola complex of more than 3000 million years.

The White Sea Complex is widespread, breed is exposed along the shores of the White Sea and form the Archean Belomorsk array. These are various gneiss and crystal slates that have occurred at the expense of deep metamorphism of both magmatic and sedimentary rocks. Among them are also marbles. All breeds are very stabbed in complex folds, their power is somewhat kilometers. The age of the Belomorsky complex is determined in the interval of 2900--2600 million years.

The breeds of the Belomorsk Complex are located in relatively simply constructed flattening depressions, differing from real geosyncline. Therefore, they are called "protogenecline" (i.e., the predecessors of geosynclinal). As a result of the White Sea folding, which manifested itself at the end of the Archean era, the protogenencline turned into Archean folded arrays.

Proterozoic breeds are widespread wider than Archean, they form the folded systems of the North-West direction. Three complexes are highlighted in the Baltic shield in the Baltic shield: Nizhnykalel, Verkhnekalel and Yatuli.

The Nizhnekalel complex consists of various crystal shale, quartzites, marbles and gneisses with power in Karelia 2000--3500 m, and in Finland - up to 8000--12000 m. Most of these breeds had marine origins; Initially, they were clay, sandy and carbonate precipitates, which were alternating with the products of underwater vulcanism - lavami, tuffs. Later, they all underwent metamorphism and turned into indicated metamorphic rocks. The Nizhnekalel complex is broken by various intrusions (granites, gabbro, etc.), all rocks are crumpled into complex linear folds. The composition, power and conditions of the occurrence of the rocks of the Nizhnekalel complex indicate that they have been formed already in these geosynclinal conditions. The age of the Nizhnekalel complex corresponds to most of the early proteodes (the breeds were formed in the range of 2600--1900 million years) and at the end of this turns all the rocks were covered by Karelian folding.

Verkhnekalel complex is very different from Nizhnekalelsky both according to the composition and according to the conditions of occurrence. It consists mainly of chip breeds - metamorphized conglomerates, quartzite, quartzitoid sandstones with the abundances of volcanic formations. All these breeds have less power, weaker metamorphic and form more simple folded structures than Nizhnekalel. In nature, they resemble the MOLASS formation, which is formed on the orogenic, final stage of geosynclinal development. Verkhnekalel complex was formed in the interval of 1900-3800 million years.

The Yatuli complex is represented by weak-albehable sedimentary rocks: quartzitoid sandstones, clay and siliceous shales, marbled dolomites that occur almost horizontally and having power up to 700--1200 m. Rarely encounter volcanic rocks. According to the composition of deposits, power and conditions of the location, the Yatuli complex is already responsible for the platform stage of development. The age of the Yatuli complex is the end of the early proteoda (interval of 1800--1650 million years); At this time, a platform case of an Eastern European platform began to form.

After the formation of the Yatuli complex, there was an introduction of peculiar granites Rapacki (in Finnish means "rotten stone"). These dark red granites have very large crystals of field spatts, they were introduced and frozen in platform conditions and did not undergo further deformation and metamorphism. In Karelia, Finland and Sweden, large arrays are folded with these granites, they have long been developed as valuable building material. In St. Petersburg, Alexandrian columns and columns of St. Isaac Cathedral were carved from these granites.

Precambria of the Ukrainian shield differs in the composition and structure of breeds. Almost entire shield is complicated by Archean Gneis and Genisa Gneis. Nizhneproterozoic breeds fill narrow meridionally elongated depressions, stretching to the north outside the Ukrainian shield in Kursk and Voronezh regions. The rocks of the rich rich rich ores of the rogue rich and colossal in the reserves of the Kursk magnetic anomaly deposit are timed to these breeds. In Krivoy Rog, Nizhneproterozoic deposits are part of the Krivoy Rog complex consisting of alternating thin layers of clay shale and ferruginous quartzites. The latter are fine-grained quartzites with oxide supplements of iron - hematite. The length of these thin layers over long distances indicates that ferrous quartzites were formed in marine conditions. The Krivoy Rog complex has a capacity of more than 4000 m and in age is responsible for most of the early proderer (radiometric methods determined the interval of its education - 2600--1900 million years). During the late Proterezhoy, the Baltic and Ukrainian shields were raised areas - demolition sites. The chip breeds of the platform cover accumulated between them on the extensive territory of the Russian slab. In deep deflections - Austcohens - Riper threshing breeds lie, and vendan sandy and clay sediments are widespread, they are located at the base of the East European Platform Platform.

Other ancient platforms

On other ancient platforms, the structure of Damkambria and the Precambrian history in general, resemblance to the Eastern European Platform will be found. In Early Archee, all ancient platforms, the formation of volcanic rocks of the basalt composition and a small number of sedimentary rocks is noted, and in Late Archey in the protogenecline deflection, quite powerful sedimentary and volcanic formations were accumulated. Unlike the Eastern European Platform in the Early Proterezhoye, the territories of the Siberian, North American and South African platforms were the formation of both geosynclinal and platform sediments. In contrast to platform sediments of the cover of ancient platforms, these oldest Nizhneproterozoic platform deposits are called protoplamina. In the Siberian platform, the protoplatform sediments of the oldest Nizhneproterozoic cover are known in Transbaikalia in the western part of the Alandanian shield, north of the edge of the ridge. Here in a major deflection, there are very hollow powerful sediments (up to 10--12 km), consisting of weak-petorable sandstones and clay slates. The most powerful deposits of the ancient protoplatform cover are available in the south of the African-Arabian platform. In the transvale on a significant area, weaker-smeared chip and volcanic rocks, reaching colossal power - 20 km are exposed. The gold and uranium deposits are timed to conglomerates. On all ancient platforms, as in the Eastern European, intensive folding processes were manifested in the second half of the early Proterezhoy, as a result of which, at the end of the early Proterezhoy, a folded foundation of ancient platforms was formed and the accumulation of sedimentary breeds of the platform cover began. The process of accumulation of breeds of the cover especially intensively occurred in the late protein.

1.3 geosyncline

Geosynclinal belts arose to the Proterozoic Era. Small belts - intra-African and Brazilian - existed from the beginning of the Proterozoic era and finished their geosynclinal development at its end. Their structure and geological history are very poorly studied. Big belt began their geosynclinal development from late Proterezhoy. Verkhneproterozoic breeds in them are widely distributed, but on the surface only in separate areas that have experienced a long receding. Everywhere these breeds are metamorphissed to one degree or another and have huge capacity. Up to now, the upper-prototerozoic rocks in different belts have been studied extremely unevenly. They studied in more detail within the Ural-Mongol belt.

This belt covers a huge territory located between the Eastern European, Siberian, Tarim and Sino-Korean ancient platforms. It has a complex geological structure, the study of which (except the territory of the Urals) began practically during the years of Soviet power.

Verkhneproterozoic breeds are widespread very wide within the belt, but they are well studied in the Urals, in Kazakhstan, in Altai, Tian-Shan and in the Baikal folded area.

On the western slope of the Urals there is a complete incision of the Rhyphic and Vendian deposits of high power (up to 15 km). Here, Soviet geologists for the first time, Rhypsian deposits were allocated. The entire incision is divided into 4 complex, which consist of crumpled metamorphic sediment sediments: sandstones, clay shale and limestones with rare bias of volcanic rocks. In limestones, there are various stromatolyts for which Rifey stratigraphy has been developed.

Eastern, in Kazakhstan, on Tien Shan and in the Altai-Sayan Mountain Region, the role of volcanic rocks among Verkhneproterozoic sediments increases dramatically. In some areas, these deposits reaches enormous power - over 20 km. All breeds are intensely twisted and highly metamorphic.

Extensive areas are composed of upper-prototerozoic rocks in Baikalia and Transbaikalia, where they form a complex folded area. Especially widely, very powerful, crumpled rhyme sediment and volcanic formations, which have been formed, undoubtedly, on the main geosynclinal stage are particularly widely. All these Rhypsic deposits are broken by numerous granite intrusions. On rhypsic folded rocks, the threshold breeds of the Venda (up to 6 km), the formation of which took place at the orogenic stage.

The study of Verkhneproterozoic sediments in the Baikal folded area allowed Soviet geologists to establish the largest in the Precambrian to the Epoch of the Gorons, which manifested itself at the end of the Primerozoy in all geosynclinal belts and was called Baikal folding.

1.4 Epoch of Folding

Precambrian epochs of folding, the epoch of increased texton-magmatic activity, which manifested during the Precambrian history of the Earth. Covered the time interval from 570 to 3500 million years ago. It is established on the basis of a number of geological data - changes in the structural plan, manifestation of interruptions and disagreements in the simulation of rocks, sharp changes to the degree of metamorphism. Absolute age D. e. from. And their interregional correlation is established on the basis of the determination of the time of metamorphism and the age of magmatic rocks using radiological methods. Methods for determining the age of ancient rocks allow errors (about 50 million years for the late and 100 million years for early Precambria). Therefore, setting the time D. E. from. much less definitely than the dating of plywood folding eras. Data radiometric definitions indicate the existence of a series of epochs of Tecton-magmatic activity in the Precambrian, which manifested themselves approximately simultaneously on the entire globe. On different continents D. E. from. Received different names.

The most ancient of them - Kola (Samskaya; Baltic Shield), or Transvalskaya (South Africa), manifested itself at the turn of about 3,000 million years ago and was expressed by the formation of the oldest nuclei of the continents. The relics of these nuclei are encountered on all ancient platforms (so far beyond the Sino-Korean and South China). The manifestations of the next era are even widespread in the Baltic Shield of Belomorsk, on Canadian-Kenoran and Africa - Rhodesian; It manifested itself 2500 million years ago, with her the formation of large kernels of the shields of ancient platforms is connected. Rannesel (Baltic Shield), or Erabness (Western Africa), epoch (about 2000 million years ago) had a great importance, which, together with the subsequent Lateacarel epoch (Hudsonian, for the Canadian Shield and Mayombskaya for Africa), which took place about 1700 million years ago , played a decisive role in the formation of foundations of all ancient platforms. Tecton-magmatic epochs in the interval of 1700--1400 million years (for example, Laxford in Scotland - about 1550 million years old) are established only on individual continents.

Planetary value has the Gothic (Baltic Shield), or the Elson (Canadian Shield), the era - about 1400 million years ago, but it expressed not so much in the folding of geosyncline formations, but in the repeated metamorphism and granitization of individual zones within the foundation of the ancient platforms. The next era - Dallands (Baltic Shield), Grenville (Canadian Shield), or Satpur (Industan), which occurred about 1000 million years ago, was the first major era of the folding geosynclinal belts of Neogest. Final from D. E. from. - Baikal (Assinteskaya in Scotland, Kadanja in Normandy and Katangskaya in Africa) - very widely manifested itself on all continents, including Antarctica, and led to the consolidation of significant areas within geosynclinal belts of neogea. Baikal movements began about 800 million years ago, their main impulse occurred about 680 million years ago (before the deposition of the Vennd Complex), the final - at the beginning or in the middle of the Cambr.

By the number of Baikal folded systems on the territory of the USSR include the Timan, Yenisei Dagging Systems, parts of East Sayan, Patomic Highlands; Baikal folded systems of this age are widespread in Africa (Kathangid, Western Congolides, Attakorsk and Mauritano-Senegal zones, etc.), in South America (Brazilides), in Antarctica, Australia and others. Continents. Total trait D. E. from. - a significant development of regional metamorphism and granitization, on the intensity of decreasing from ancient era to later; On the contrary, the scale of the population and the folding itself, apparently, were weaker plywood; Characteristic structural forms, especially for early Precambria, were branched dome.

1.5 Physics and Geographical Conditions

The physico-geographical setting in the Precambrian was different not only from the modern, but also from the one that existed in the Mesozoic and Paleozoa. The Archean Era already existed a hydrosphere and the processes of sedimentation, but the atmosphere of the Earth had no oxygen, its accumulation was associated with the vital activity of algae, which only in the protein won all large and large spaces of the oceanic bottom, gradually enriching the atmosphere oxygen. Seafood processes are directly dependent on physico-geographical conditions; In the Precambrian, these conditions had their own specific features, in many respects other than modern. For example, among the Precambrian rocks, ferrous quartzites, siliceous rocks, manganese ores are often found, and, on the contrary, there are absolutely no phosphorites, bauxites, solenous, coal and some other sedimentary deposits.

All of the specified features of Precambrian greatly make it difficult to restore its geological history. Significant difficulties arise in determining the age of rock. For this purpose, non-remontological methods for determining the relative age of rocks and methods for determining their absolute age are used.

For Precambria, another international geochronological and stratigraphic divisions were not developed. It is customary to allocate two era (groups) - the Archean and Proterozoic, the border between which is often difficult to carry out. Using radiometric methods, it is established that this boundary takes place at the turn of 2600 million years. Proterozoic era (group) is usually divided into 2 subgroups (subgroups), smaller divisions are local regional.

Next division of Precambria

Era (groups)	Divisions of Proterozoy	Main borders
Proterozoic PR (more than 2 billion years)	Late (Upper) Proteroza, or Rifey, PR2 (1030 million years)	Late (Upper) Rifey R3 Middle Rife R2 Early Rifey (Nizhny) R1	End of 570 million 1600 million years
	Early (Lower) Proteroza, or Karelia, PR1 (1000 million years)	2600 million years beginning over 4000 million years
Archean AR (approximately 1.5 billion years old)	There are no generally accepted units, the lower boundary is not installed.

1.6 Minerals

A diverse complex of minerals are associated with the Precambrian strata: over 70% of iron ore reserves, 63% - manganese, 73% - chrome, 61% - copper, 72% - sulfide nickel, 93% - cobalt, 66% - - Uranium ores. In the Precambrian contains the richest deposits of iron ores - ferruginous quartzites and jespilits (Kursk magnetic anomaly, Karsakpay deposit of Kazakhstan, etc.). The aluminum raw materials deposits are also connected with the Precakers (Kyanit and Sillimanitis, Boxits, such as the Soft Boxing Deposit in Russia), manganese (numerous deposits of India). Conglomerates of Precambria Withersland enclose the largest deposits of uranium and gold, and numerous intrinsic and ultrasound rocks in many areas of the world - the fields of copper, nickel and cobalt deposits. Lead-zinc fields are confined to the carbonate rocks, and the tops of the Eastern Siberia doctorate are associated with the Oil fields (Markovskoye deposit in the Irkutsk region).

Section 2. Paleozoic Era

Paleozomian Emra, Paleozomy, PZ (Greek R? Lbytet - ancient, Greek. Hear life) - the geological era of the ancient life of the planet Earth. The most ancient era in Plyonozoic Eon, follows the neoproterozoic era, after her there is a mesozoic era. Paleozoa began 542 million years ago and lasted about 290 million years. It consists of Cambrian, Ordovik, Silurian, Devonsky, Carbon and Perm periods. Paleozoic group first allocated English Geologist Adam Sedzhvik in 1837. At the beginning of the era, the southern continents were combined into a single supercontinent of Gondwan, and by the end of the other continents joined it and the supercontinent of Pangay was formed. The era began with the Cambrian explosion of the taxonomic diversity of living organisms, and ended with a mass perm extinction.

2.1 Organic Mir

In the Cambrian period, the main life was concentrated in the seas. Organisms settled all the variety of available habitats, up to coastal shallow water and possibly fresh reservoirs. The aqueous flora was represented by a large variety of algae, the main groups of which arose in the Proterozoic Era. Starting a promotion Cambrian gradually decreases the spread of stromatolites. This is due to the possible advent of herbivan animals (perhaps some forms of worms) eating stromatolyto-forming algae.

The bottom fauna of the shallow warm seas, coastal shames, bays and the lagoon was represented by a variety of attached animals: sponges, archeoiodates, intestinal (various groups of polyps), stalking igloshimi (sea lilies), prazhelogas (lingul) and others. Most of them were fed by various microorganisms (the simplest, single-celled algae and so on), which they are parted from the water. Some colonial organisms (stromatoporas, tabulats, msanka, archeociats), which have a lime skeleton, were erected at the bottom of the sea reef, like modern coral polyps. To the population in the thicker of bottom sediments, various worms were adapted, including semi-ferrous. On the seabed among the algae and corals were crawled by low-alignmentary igloshrice (starfish, officers, dovers and others) and mollusks with shells. In Kembrian, the first freely floating culbble mollusk - Nautiloids or boat. The Devon appeared more perfect groups of cephalopods (ammonites), and in Nizhny Carbon, the first representatives of higher chasing (Belemnites) have arisen, whose shell has been gradually established and turned out to be imprisoned soft body tissues. In the thicker and on the surface of the water in the seas, animals, drifting for flow and holding on the surface using special swimming bubbles or "floats" filled with gas (shepheric siphofoforms, semiord grapetolites). High-organized animals were inhabited in the Cambrian seas - arthropods: Zhabroj, Helicer and Trilobites. Trilobites reached a heyday in the early Cambrian, at this time up to 60% of the entire fauna, and finally died out in the Perm period. At the same time, the first large (up to 2 meters in length) are predatory arthropod eurprises who have reached the greatest flourishing in the silver and the first half of Devon and disappeared in early Perm when they were given predatory fish.

Starting from the lower Ordovka, the first vertebrates appear in the seas. The oldest vertebrates were fish-like animals, devoid of jaws, with a bodily protected shell (carciro nevertal). In the Ultra Silurian and Devonian sediments, the remains of the oldest interterma, devoid of heavy bone sheep, but coverage of scales begin to meet. The oldest representatives of the fish appeared in the seas and fresh reservoirs of early and medium Devon and were dressed in a less highly developed bone shell (shell fish). By the end of Devon, the shells invertebrates die out, displaced by more progressive groups of jaws. In the first half of Devon, there were already a variety of groups of all classes of fish (leapspeed, two-plating and cystic), which have a developed jaw, real paired limbs and an improved gill apparatus. The subgroup of bullfighting fish in Paleozoic was small. The "golden age" of the two other subgroups came to Devon and the first half of the carbon. They were formed in intracontinental fresh reservoirs, well heated by the Sun, abundantly overgrown with water vegetation and partly wetlands. In such conditions, the lack of oxygen in water has an additional respiratory organ (light), which allows the use of oxygen from air.

2.2.2 Platforms

The geological development of ancient platforms proceeded in more quiet conditions than the development of geosynclinal belts. At the beginning of the early Paleozoa, the platform of the Northern Hemisphere was launched and on large areas were covered with marine waters. The lowering was changed by slow lifts, which at the end of the early Paleozoic led to almost complete drainage of all ancient platforms. The huge platform array of Gondwan existing in the southern hemisphere was raised and only individual edge parts were periodically covered with small shallow seas.

Eastern European Ancient Platform

Most of the territory of this platform during the early Paleozoic was a landing. South of the Baltic Shield was an extensive sea bay, which was located in the so-called Baltic deflection. The sea went into this deflection from the West and in the early Cambrian reached the boundaries of the platform in the mountainous region of the Timan-Pechora Baikalid. In the shallow naval pool in Kembrian, sands and clays of small power were accumulated. In St. Petersburg, the capacity of Cambrian deposits reaches 140 m, the greatest capacity is observed in the Northern Dvina basin-- more than 500 m. Compared to capacity in geosynclinal areas, these capacities seem small.

In Ordovik, the area of \u200b\u200bthe marine pool decreased. In its coastal parts, sands were accumulated, and on a larger area - carbonate iba, of which limestone and Mergeli were formed. Clay precipitates were formed in the extreme West. Among the Ordovik limestones there are combustible shale, which were formed from blue-green algae. They have long been developed in a number of deposits in Estonia. The greatest postposition of the Ordovic is in the West, where the fuses were more intense; In the vicinity of Oslo, the power reaches 350--500 m, and in Russia in the region of Vologda, it is somewhat higher than 250 m.

In the silver, the area of \u200b\u200bthe marine pool continued to decline, but the deposits in its composition and capacity differed little from Ordovican; Among them are dominated by limestone and clay, and there are no combustible shale. The regression of the sea continued throughout the silicone, it led to the establishment of lagural conditions, and at the end of the period - to the complete drainage of the platform.

Siberian ancient platform

During the early Paleozoa in the Siberian platform, maritime conditions were dominated and its geological history differed from the history of the Eastern European Platform. Especially strong lowering occurred in the Cambrian period, when almost the entire territory of the platform (except the Alandan and Anabar shields) was covered by the sea. Among the Cambrian rocks, limestones and dolomites are sharply dominated, they were formed almost everywhere. Only at the beginning of the period in the south in the laguncant conditions was the accumulation of solenous deposits - plaster, anhydrites and rock salts together with carbonate and debris. The capacity of Cambrian breeds in the Siberian platform is much larger than on Eastern European, it reaches 2.5--3 km, and in the south-west even exceeds 5 km.

In Ordovik, the area of \u200b\u200bthe marine pool decreased. Carbonate sediments continued to be accumulated in it, and as it moves to the south-west, the role of a debris material increased.

The power of Ordovician deposits is less than Cambrian, it does not exceed 2 km and is usually 500--700 m.

In the silver, the sea pool continued to decline and at the beginning of the period he occupied about half the platform. It was a huge sea bay located in the northwestern part of the platform, which continued to accumulate carbonate precipitation. Only in the south-west of this basin, as in Ordovic, conglomerates, sandstones and clays were formed. At the end of the silica, the regression of the sea reached its apogee and almost the entire territory of the Siberian platform turned into a low-lying land. The power of silhurine deposits is less than Ordovican, it does not exceed 500 m.

Gondwana

Starting from the Cambrian period, Gondwan was a huge platform array, which during the entire early Paleozoic was in continental conditions and only the edge parts of it were covered with shallow seas. In the territory of the Gondvana processed the processes of erosion, in some places, continental precipitation was accumulated in the depressions.

2.2.3 Geosyncinal belts

During the early Paleozoa, geosynclinal regime dominated on the extensive areas of all geosyncline belts. The exceptions are those areas of belts that have become Baikalides; They developed as young platforms.

The early Paleozoic geological history of geosyncline belts is complex and studied unevenly in different belts. It is more fully restored in the Atlantic and Ural-Mongol belts.

Atlantic geosynclinal belt

This belt covers the coastal sections of Europe and North America. In Europe, the belt includes its northwestern part and a small plot of northeast of Greenland, in North America - a narrow strip of the eastern coast of Canada, USA and Mexico. The central part of the belt is currently engaged in the Northern Widen of the Atlantic Ocean, which in Paleozoic has not yet existed. As an example, consider the early-Paleozoic history of North-Western Europe, where the Grampian geosynclinal system was located.

The grampian geosynclinal system covers Ireland, England and Norway. It includes the rocks of the lower Paleozoic, crumpled into complex folds stretched in the northeast direction. In the western part of England - Wales - are full and well-studied cuts of Cambria, Ordovic and Silura; Here, in the 30s of the last century, the corresponding systems were allocated.

The Wales incision begins with Cambrian sediments consisting mainly of sandstones and clay shale of high power (up to 4.5 km). These marine deposits accumulated in deep geosynclinal deficits separated by geoanticlimal raising - mining sources of demolition. Geosynclinal defeches continued to intensively fall in Ordovic, during this period a powerful stratum (5 km) of clay and volcanic rocks of the main composition was formed. The presence of powerful effusive rocks suggests that in the Ordalic period, strong immersion in geosyncline deflections and recents in geoanticiline led to the emergence of deep faults, according to which the magmatic material was poured onto the surface of the seabed. Close conditions existed at the beginning of the Silician period, but volcanic activities stopped, therefore, clay and sandy precipitations were accumulated. Up-section Silurian deposits increases the role of debris material, it becomes more and more rude. Clay breeds are ever less often and less often, and sandstones and conglomerates prevail sharply. Such a change in breeds in the context indicates the process of general receding in a silver, which led to an increase in demolition from sushi and entering the mass of the debris material. By the end of the period, all the geosynclinal defditioners of Wales were filled with home-free precipitation, reaching very high power in some sections (up to 7 km). Nizhneopeozoic deposits at the end of the Silurian period turned out to be intensely twisted and raised above sea level. Geosynclinal deflection has ceased to exist.

The analysis of the geological cut of Wales allows to build a paleogeographic curve, which displays tectonic movements in the early Paleozoic on the sector of the grampian geosynclinal system. Maximum bending and manifestations of volcanic activity accounted for the first half of the Ordovic. Then the recesses began, which continuously increased and led to a general lift. It is characteristic that other sites of this system have experienced similar development in early Paleozoa. The global processes that engulfed the Grampian system and led to generally reign were called Caledonian folding (from the old name of Scotland - Caledonia), and the structures arisen are called Caledonids. As a result of this folding at the end of the early Paleozoic, the main geosynclinal stage of development was completed in the Grampiana system. Instead of the geosyncline deflection system and geoanticinal lifts, a mountain folded system arose. The completion of the main geosyncinal stage was accompanied by intrusive activity - the introduction of the magma of the granite composition. The considered Geological History of Wales in Early Paleozoic is typical for the development of geosynclinal areas on the main geosynclinal stage.

Caledonian folding manifested itself in other geosynclinal systems of the Atlantic belt, but not everywhere she led to the completion of the main geosynclinal stage and the creation of folded Caledonide systems. Caledonides arose in the northeast of Greenland, on Svalbard, on Newfoundland and in the northern part of the Appalachian mountains. As for the southern Applace and the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, then in these areas of the Atlantic belt, the main geosynclinal stage continued in Late Paleozoa.

Ural-Mongolian geosynclinal belt

The huge territory of this belt has a complex structure. In its modern structure, several areas are distinguished by different collapse. Baikalides are located at the edges of the ancient platforms (Timan-Pechora and Baikal-Yenisei region Baikalid); Caledonides - in the center of the belt (Kokchetavsko - Kyrgyz region) and south of Siberian Baikalid (Altai - Sayan region); Hercinisis covers most of the belt (Ural Tien-Shan and Kazakhstan-Mongol region). In early Paleozoic, these areas developed in different ways. The region of the Baikal Folding Completed Geosyncinal Development, everyone else was on the main geosyncline stage.

Altai-Sayan geosynclinal area. This area covers the mountain and Mongolian Altai, Western Sayan, Tanna-Ola Range and Central Mongolia. Its early Paleozoic history was similar to the history of the Grampiana system - the Caledonian folding was also manifested here, Caledonides were formed and the main geosynclinal stage was completed at the end of the silica. The breeds of volcanogenic and sedimentary, terrigenous and carbonate formations are used to be widespread. Unlike the Grampian Power System of Nizhneepaleozoic sediments, there is much more (Cambria - 8--14 km, Ordovik - up to 8 km, silicon - 4.5--7.5 km).

Kokchetava-Kyrgyz geosynclinal area. This area located in the middle part of the Ural-Mongolian belt is extended by a wide arcuate band from Central Kazakhstan in Northern Tien Shan. Powerful (up to 15 km) are widely common (up to 15 km), sea Cambrian and Ordovician deposits, and Silurian developed slightly and represented by red-colored continental rocks of the MOLASSOVO formation.

Analysis of the composition of rocks and their distribution indicates that the formation processes in the Kokchetava-Kyrgyz region manifested themselves at the end of the Ordovik. At the turn of the Ordovica and the Silur, the main geosynclinal stage ended, and an orogle began in the silver.

Ural Tien Shan Geosynclinal Area. Inside this area, located in the western part of the Ural-Mongolian belt, two geosynclinal systems are distinguished: Ural and South Tien Shanskaya. The geological structure and the geological history of the Ural system were well studied.

The Ural geosynclinal system includes the Urals and New Earth. Being natural pantry huge mineral wealth, the Urals is still the main mining area of \u200b\u200bour country. Its deprants are kept large reserves of a wide variety of minerals.

Cambrian breeds in the Ural system are common in the south, in the extreme north of the Urals and on the new land. A small area of \u200b\u200bdistribution and the predominance of chip rocks suggests that in Cambrian, the Urals was a mountainous country that arose as a result of Baikal folding. The sea existed only in the south and north.

Baikal folding, manifested in the Urals, did not lead to the completion of the geosynclinal regime, as it happened in the nearby Timan-Pechora region. The processes of bending, which began at the end of Cambrian, swept in Ordovic to the entire territory of the Urals and led to the emergence of the Ural geosynclinal system - a number of meridional geosynclinal deficillars separated by geoanticlimal raising. This is evidenced by the widespread of powerful ordowic sediments. In the central part of the Ural system in Ordovic, a geoanticinal raising of the Uraltau arose, which was expressed in the relief of the chain of meridionally elongated islands. This lift shared the Ural into two parts is Western and Eastern, the development of which went in different ways. In the Western deflection in Ordovik, sand-clay and carbonate sediments were accumulated, and in the eastern - powerful volcanogenic sedimentary rocks. The same distribution of deposits has been preserved in the silver when the processes of fissas were accurately intensively, as evidenced by the high power of deposits. In the east, the breed of silica reaches 5 km, and in the West do not exceed 2 km. The high power of deposits and the presence of volcanic rocks in the East are proof of stronger bending and sharp differentiated movements of the eastern part of the Ural geosynclinal system. The formation of depth faults was accompanied by underwater vulcanism. In the West, the sedimentation occurred in more quiet conditions.

The marked pattern of development of geosynclinal deficiency inherent in other geosynclinal systems: the defamations located near the platforms were experiencing more smooth lowering than the devices located away from platforms. This explains the lower power of the deposits and the lack of volcanic material in the oloplatform deflection.

The main difference between the early-Paleosoic history of the Ural geosyncline system from Grampianic is the lack of traces of Caledonian orogenesis in the Urals. The limestones of the upper silver are replaced by the limestones of the Lower Devon without any traces of the break and differ from each other only in the composition of the fossil sea fauna. Caledonian folding in the Urals did not appear, the main geosynclinal stage lasted in Late Paleozoa.

Even a brief consideration of the early Paleozoic history of the three geosyncinal regions of the Ural-Mongolian belt shows that they developed in different ways. Caledonian folding manifested itself in the Altai-Sayan and Kokchetavian-Kyrgyz regions, but at different times. In the Kokchetavsky-Kyrgyz region, it ended on the border of the Ordovic and Silura, and in Altai-Sayan - at the end of the silica. Therefore, the final stage of geosynclinal development in these areas began at different times. In the Ural-Tien Shan region, the Caledonian folding was not manifested and the main geosyncline stage lasted in Late Paleozoa.

Individual phases of Caledonian folds that have manifested during the early Paleozoic have noticeably influenced Paleogeography, which is well reflected by paleogeographic maps.

2.2.4 Folding era

Textonic movements, magmatism and sedimentation. During the early Paleozoa, the earth Bark experienced strong tectonic movements called Caledonian folding. These movements were manifested in geosynclinal belts not at the same time and reached their maximum at the end of the Silurian period. The most widely Caledonian folds manifested itself in the Atlantic belt, the large northern part of which turned into a folded region of Caledonide. Caledonian orogenesis was accompanied by the introduction of various intrusions.

In the tectonic movements of the Early Paleozoic, there is a certain pattern: in Cambrian and the beginning of the Ordovik prevailed the processes of lowering, and at the end of the Ordovik and in the silver - the processes processes. These processes in the first half of the early Paleozoic caused an intensive sedimentation in geosynclinal belts and on ancient platforms, and then led to the creation of the mining chains of Caledonide in a number of geosyncline belts and to the overall regression of the sea from the territory of the ancient platforms.

The main areas of sedimentation were geosynclinal belts, where the accumulation of very powerful, multi-kilometer volcanogenic and sedimentary, terrigenous and carbonate formations was accumulated. The ancient platforms of the northern hemisphere was the formation of carbonate and terrigenous precipitation. Extensive sedimentation areas were located in the Siberian and Chinese-Korean platforms, and on the Eastern European and North American sedimentation occurred in limited sites. Gondwan was mainly the area of \u200b\u200bthe erosion, and the marine sedimentation occurred at minor boundary areas.

2.2.5 Physico-geographical conditions

According to the theory of tectonics of lithospheric plates, the position and outlines of the mainland and oceans in Paleozoic differ from the modern. By the beginning of the era and throughout Cambrian, the ancient platforms (South American, African, Arabian, Australian, Antarctic, Industanskaya), turned 180 °, were combined into a single supercontinent called Gondwayn. This supercontinent was mainly located in the southern hemisphere, from the South Pole to the Equator, and occupied the total area of \u200b\u200bmore than 100 million km. In the Gondwan there were a variety of sublime and low-lying plains and mountain arrays. The sea periodically invaded only in the outskirts of the supercontinent. The rest of the smaller mainland were mainly in the Equatorial zone: North American, Eastern European and Siberian.

There were also microcontinetters:

Middle Eastern, Kazakhstan and others. In the outskirts of the seas were located numerous islands bordered by lowland coasts with a large number of Lagun and Delta River. There was an ocean in the central part of which there were mid-ocean ridges in the central part. In Kembrian, there were two largest plates: the whole ocean proto-kula and mainly the mainland Gondwan stove.

In Ordovik Gondwan moving south, reached the area of \u200b\u200bthe southern geographical pole (now it is the northwestern part of Africa). There was a sense of the ocean lithospheric plate proto-falalon (and probably the proto-Pacific plate) under the northern outskirts of the Gondwan Plate. A reduction in the proto-atlantic depression, located between the Baltic shield, on the one hand, and a single Canada-Greenland shield - on the other hand, as well as the reduction of oceanic space. During the entire Ordovka there is a reduction in oceanic spaces and the closure of the edge seas between the mainland fragments: Siberian, Proto-Kazakhstan and Chinese. In Paleozoa (up to the silica - the beginning of Devon) continued Caledonian folding. Typical Caledonides have been preserved at the British Islands, Scandinavia, Northern and Eastern Greenland, in Central Kazakhstan and Northern Tien Shan, in Southeast China, in East Australia, in Cordillera, South America, Northern Appalachians, Middle Tien Shan and other areas. As a result, the relief of the earth's surface at the end of the Silurian period became sublime and contrast, especially on continents located in the northern hemisphere. In the early Devon there is the closure of the proto-atlantic depression and the formation of the Erstrician mainland, as a result of the collision of the pro-European continent with the pro-North American in the area of \u200b\u200bthe current Scandinavia and Western Greenland. In Devon, the shift of the Gondwana continues, as a result, the South Pole turns out to be in the southern region of modern Africa, and possibly the current South America. During this period, Wpadina Ocean Tethine was formed between Gondwayn and continents along the equatorial zone, three entirely oceanic plates were formed: Kula, Farallon and Pacific (which was immersed under the Australia-Antarctic outskirts of Gondwana).

In middle carbon, there was a clash of Gondwans and Euro-American. The western edge of the current North American continent collided with the northeast outskirts of South American, and the North-West Church of Africa - with the southern edge of the current Central and Eastern Europe. As a result, a new supercontinent Pangeya was formed. In Late Carbon - Early Perm there was a clash of the Euro-American Motherboard with Siberian, and the Siberian continent with the Kazakhstan continent. At the end of Devon, the grandiose era of Gercinskaya folding with the most intense manifestation in the formation of the Mountain Systems of the Alps in Europe, accompanied by intensive magmatic activities, began. In plates, the platform clash appeared mountain systems (with a height of up to 2000--3000 m), some of them existed to our time, for example, the Urals or Pappalachi. Outside Pangai was only Chinese bould. By the end of the Paleozoa in the Permond period, Pangeus was pulled out from the southern pole to the North. The Southern Geographical Pole at that time was within the modern East Antarctica. The Siberian Mainland, which was the northern outskirts, was approaching the northern outskirts, not reaching it 10--15 ° in latitude. The North Pole was in the ocean during the entire Paleozoic. At the same time, a single oceanic pool was formed from the main proto-Pacific, and the Tethys's Ocean with her.

Founder scientists

Nicholas Wall, also known as Niels Stensen, first watched and offered some of the main concepts of historical geology. One of these concepts was that the fossils originally occurred from living organisms.

James Hatton and Charles Lileel also contributed to an early understanding of the history of the Earth. Hatton first suggested the theory of uniformitarianism, which is now the basic principle in all areas of geology. Hatton also supported the idea that the Earth is quite ancient, unlike the prevailing concept of the time in which it was said that the Earth had only a few millennia of their existence. Uniformatism describes the land created by the same natural phenomena that they act today.

History of discipline

The prevailing concept of the XVIII century in the West was faith in the fact that various catastrophic events prevailed in a very short history of the Earth. This point of view was resolutely supported by adherents of Abrahamic religions based on largely literal interpretation of religious biblical texts. The concept of uniformitarianism met considerable resistance and led to disputes and discussions throughout the 19th century. Many discoveries in the 20th century gave enough evidence that the history of the Earth is a product of both gradual incremental processes and sudden cataclysms. Now these beliefs are the foundations of historical geology. Catastrophic events, such as Falling meteorites and large volcanic explosions, form the surface of the Earth along with gradual processes, such as weathering, erosion and precipitation. The present is the key to the past and includes both catastrophic and gradual processes, which gives us to understand the engineering geology of historical territories.

Geological scale of time

It is a chronological dating system that binds geological layers (stratigraphy) with specific temporal intervals. Without a basic idea of \u200b\u200bthis scale, a person hardly understands that studies historical geology. This scale is used by geologists, paleontologists and other scientists to identify and describe various periods and events in the history of the Earth. In essence, modern historical geology is based on it. The table of geological time intervals presented on the scale is consistent with the nomenclature, dates and standard color codes established by the International Stratigraphy Commission.

The primary and largest division of time division are the aons that are consistently walking together: Hadean, Archey, Proteroza and Plyonoza. The aons are divided into eras, which, in turn, are divided into periods, and periods are on the epochs.

In accordance with the eons, eras, periods and epochs, the terms "Enonim", "Erathem", "System", "Series", "Stage" are used to designate layers of rocks that belong to these areas of geological time in the history of the Earth.

Geologists qualify these units as "early", "middle" and "late" when it comes to time, and "lower", "middle" and "top" when it comes to the corresponding stones. For example, the lower Jurassic deposits in chronostratigraphy correspond to the early Jurassic era in geochronology.

History and age of the earth

Radiometric dating data indicate that the land is about 4.54 billion years. Different periods of time on the geological time scale are usually noted by appropriate changes in the formation of the formation, which indicate the main geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinction. For example, the boundary between the chalk period and the paleogenic period is determined by the chalk-paleogenic extinction, which marked the death of dinosaurs and many other groups of life.

Geological units from the same time, but in different parts of the world they often look different and contain different fossils, therefore sediments belonging to the same period of time, historically given different names in different places.

Historical Geology with the basics of paleontology and astronomy

Some other planets and satellites of the Solar System have enough hard structures to keep records of their own stories, for example, Venus, Mars and the Moon. Dominant planets, such as gas giants, do not retain their history comparable. In addition to massive bombers with meteorites, the events on other planets probably had little effect on the ground, and the events on Earth were actually influenced by these planets. Thus, the scale of time scale that binds the planet has only limited meaning for the land time scale, with the exception of the context of the solar system. Prospects for the historical geology of other planets - astroopalegeology - are still discussed by scientists.

Opening Nicholas Stena

At the end of the XVII century, Nikolai Wall (1638-1686) formulated the principles of the geological history of the Earth. The wall argued that the layers of rocks (or strata) were laid sequentially, and each of them is a "cut" of time. He also formulated the superposition law, which states that anyone separately taken by the layer is probably older than those above it, and younger than those below it. Although the principles of the wall were simple, their use turned out to be difficult. The ideas of the wall also led to the discovery of other important concepts that even modern geologists use. During the 18th century, geologists understood that:

The sequences of the layers are often subjected to erosion, distortions, slopes, or even inversion.
The strata laid at the same time in different areas may have a completely different structure.
The strata of any region is only part of the long history of the Earth.

James Hatton and Plutonism

Neptune theories, popular at this time (outlined by Abraham Werner (1749-1817) at the end of the 18th century), were reduced to the fact that all stones and rocks lead their origin from some huge flood. A big shift in thinking occurred when James Hatton presented his theory before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March and April 1785. John McCough later claimed that James Hatton was the founder of modern geology on that very day. Hatton suggested that inside the ground is very hot, and that this warmly was an engine that encouraged to create new stones and breeds. Then the earth was cooled with air and water, in the form of the seas - what, for example, partly confirms the historical geology of the sea over the Urals. This theory, known as "Plutonism", was very different from the Neptunist theory based on the study of water flows.

Opening of other foundations of historical geology

The first serious attempts to formulate a geological scale of time, which can be applied at any point of the Earth, were made at the end of the 18th century. The most successful of those early attempts (including Verner) was divided into four types of earthly crust: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. Each type of cliff, according to the theory, formed during a certain period in the history of the Earth. Thus, it was possible to talk about the "tertiary period", as well as about "tertiary rocks". Indeed, the term "tertiary" (currently - Paleogen and Neogen) is still often used as the name of the geological period that has come after the extinction of dinosaurs, and the term "quaternary" remains the formal name of the current period. The practical tasks of historical geology were provided to the cabinet theorists very quickly, because everything, what they thought of themselves, it was necessary to prove in practice - as a rule, by long excavations.

The identification of the stratum according to the fossil contained in them, first proposed by William Smith, George Kuvier, Jean D "Amalius D" Allah and Alexander Bronnurg at the beginning of the 19th century, allowed geologists to more accurate the history of the Earth. It also allowed them to compare the layers on national (or even continental) borders. If two strata contained the same fossils, then they were laid at the same time. Historical and regional geology provided unbearable assistance to this discovery.

Names of geological periods

In early work on the development of a geological scale of time, British geologists dominated, and the names of geological periods reflect this dominance. "Cambriy" (classical name for Wales), "Ordovik" and "Silur", named after ancient Welsh tribes, were periods defined using Wales stratigraphic sequences. Devon was named after the English County Devonshire, and Carbon was named after obsolete coal measures used by British geologists of the 19th century. The Perm period was named after the Russian city of Perm, because it was determined using the strata in this region by the Scottish geologist Roderik Merchison.

However, some periods were determined by geologists from other countries. The Triassic period was named in 1834 by the German geologist Friedrich von Alberti from three different layers (Triad Latin "). The Jurassic period was named by the French geologist Alexander Bronnärth in honor of the extensive marine limestone rocks of the Jurassic Mountains. The chalk period (from Latin Creta, which is translated as "chalk") was first allocated by the Belgian geologist Jean d "Omalius D" Halloem in 1822 after studying the chalk deposits (calcium carbonate, deposited by marine invertebrates) discovered in Western Europe.

Separation of epochs

British geologists also introduced the periods to sort periods and their separation on the era. In 1841, John Phillips published the first global geological time scale based on the types of fossils discovered in each era. The Phillips scale helped to standardize the use of terms such as Paleozoic ("Old Life"), which he distributed for a longer period than in the previous use, and the Mesozoic ("middle life"), which he independently invented. Those who are still interested to learn about this wonderful science studying the history of the Earth, but there is no time to read the Phillips, wall and Hatton, can advise the "historical geology" of Coronovsky.

- (a. Historic Geology; Historische Geologie; F. Geologie Historique; and. Geologia Histurica) Science, studying history and laws of Geol. Earth development. The tasks of I. G. are the reconstruction and systematization of nature. Stages of development ... ... Geological Encyclopedia

Historical geology Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Historical geology Modern encyclopedia

historical geology - - Themes Oil and Gas Industry EN Historical GEOLOGY ... Technical translator directory

historical geology - The section of geology that studies the history of the development of the Earth since the formation of the earth's crust to its modern state ... Dictionary on geography

Historical geology - Historical geology, studying the history and patterns of land development since the formation of the earth's crust to its modern state. The main section of historical geology stratigraphy. Tasks of historical geology Restoration of the Evolution of the Lik ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Historical geology - The geology industry, which studies the history and patterns of development of the earth's crust and land as a whole. Its main tasks restoration and theoretical interpretation of the evolution of the terrestrial surface and the inhabiting organic world, as well as ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

historical geology - section of geology, studying the history and patterns of the development of the earth's crust and the land as a whole. The main branch of historical geology stratigraphy. Objectives of historical geology Restoration and theoretical interpretation of the evolution of the Little Earth ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Historical geology - section of geology, studying the history and patterns of the development of the earth's crust and the land as a whole. OSN. Branch I. G. Stratigraphy. Tasks I. G. Restoration and theoretical. Interpretation of the evolution of the terrestrial surface and organic. Peace, as well as clarification ... ... Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary

GEOLOGY - (Greek, from GE Earth, and Logos word). Science about the composition and structure of the globe and about the changes that happened in it. A dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. Geology Greek, from GE, Earth, and Logos ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Books

Historical Geology, N. V. Koronovsky, V. E. Khain, N. A. Yasamanov, the textbook was established in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard towards the preparation of Geology (bachelor's qualification). The textbooks are modern ... Category: Textbooks for universities Series: Higher Professional Education. Bachelor. Publisher: Academy, Manufacturer: Academy, Buy for 1230 UAH (Ukraine only)
Historical Geology, D. I. Panov, E. V. Yakovishina, I. V. Shahaimov, L. F. Kopaevich, Guide to practical exercises are intended for students of the geological specialties of universities studying the discipline `Historical Geology`. This will be scheduled from two parts. First ... Category: Miscellaneous Publisher:

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