Soils of mountainous areas. Features of soil formation in the mountains

The peculiarities of soil formation in the mountains are associated with climate change depending on the relief (altitude and exposure of slopes), denudation, leading to the continuous renewal of soils by parent rocks. Mountain soils are stony, gravelly, thin, mostly incomplete.

V mountain systems ah of the world, various structures of vertical zoning are observed, united in 14 types. The most complete vertical soil belts are presented on the northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus (Fig.).

Rice. Diagram of vertical soil zones of the northern and southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus (after S. L. Zakharov)

At the foot of the slope is a semi-desert belt subtropical climate, which is dominated by sierozem. At an altitude of 100 ... 200 m above sea level, it is replaced by a steppe belt with mountain chestnut soils and mountain chernozems, and with 300 m - a forest belt. In the range of heights from 300 to 800 m are common deciduous forests with mountain gray forest soils, from 800 to 1200 m - beech forests with mountain brown forest soils, from 1200 to 1800 m - coniferous forests with mountain podzolic soils. Above this belt is replaced by subarctic (1800 ... 2200 m) and alpine meadows (2200 ... 3500 m) with mountain meadow soils. Eternal snow and ice appear from an altitude of 3500 m.

For the western slope of the Caucasus, where it lingers most of humid air masses from the Black Sea, the following change of soil zones can be traced: up to an altitude of 500 m, mountain red earths dominate under oak-chestnut forests; up to an altitude of 1200 m - mountain brown forest soils under beech forests; up to a height of 1600 m - mountain podzolic soils under fir forests; up to a height of 2000 m - mountain meadow soils under alpine and subalpine meadows; up to a height of 2800 m - exposed rocks with fragmented soils; above are eternal snow and ice.

There is no forest belt in the Central Asian mountain systems (Pamir, Tien Shan). In the soil cover on eluvium rocks, eluvial-deluvial and proluvial deposits are mainly formed mountain gray soils, mountain brown soils. In the area of brown soils at heights of 2200 ... 2800 m of the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai, peculiar juniper soils are distinguished - brown-brown or dark-colored, usually less gravelly than brown. Other, even more exotic soils of the Tien Shan occupy the largest areas in the west (on the Fergana ridge) under walnut forests with maple, apple and shrubs of honeysuckle, cherry plum, euonymus, and almonds.

In intermontane basins and depressions at an altitude of 1000 ... 3200 m, in low basins (1000 ... 2000 m), peculiar mountain light brown soils prevail - mountain analogs of brown semi-desert soils. In the most arid western part of the Issyk-Kul basin, they are replaced by gray-brown desert gypsum-bearing soils, although chernozems are widespread in its northeastern part. The development of a carp belt with solonchaks or carbonate crusts 10 ... 20 cm thick is also characteristic here. The middle-altitude depressions (2000 ... 2800 m) are occupied by chestnut soils, and the highest - by chestnut mountain-valley soils.

For the Kazakh facies mountain areas the wide distribution of subalpine and alpine soils is characteristic.

The vertical spectrum of the Kopetdag is very simple: mountain gray soils, giving way at an altitude of 1200 m to mountain brown and mountain gray-brown soils. In general, the soils are underdeveloped, gravelly, alternating with numerous rocky outcrops.

In the South Siberian mountain region (mountain systems of Altai, Kuznetsk Alatau, Salair, Sayan, Baikal region, Transbaikalia, Stanovoy ridge), steppe, forest-steppe, forest (taiga), meadow and tundra belts are distinguished. The steppe and forest-steppe belts are absent in the mountains of the Stanovoy Range and Northern Transbaikalia, the mountain-meadow belt is found only in the Altai and Sayan Mountains. It is dominated by mountain chernozems, mountain permafrost-taiga, mountain meadow, mountain meadow-steppe, mountain tundra, mainly stony-gravelly soils.

In the Northern Urals, in the tundra belt, large areas are occupied by arctic deserts, stony placers, rock outcrops. In these territories, there are arcto-tundra, mountain tundra soils, below - thin peaty or humus illuvial-humus, and in the taiga-forest belt, mountain taiga-permafrost and peculiar acidic non-podzolized soils, sometimes soddy-calcareous and humus-carbonate soils, prevail. Forest acidic non-podzolized soils are more typical for the Middle Urals. In many respects they are similar to podburs. In the lower belt on the eastern slope, magnesian malts appear on the eluvium of serpentines. Only individual peaks with soddy subalpine soils of large-grass meadows go beyond the forest belt. Sod-podzolic soils appear in the southern part of the Middle Urals. On the Siberian slope, gray forest soils enter a strip of low mountains along the valleys.

Largest areas occupy mountain permafrost taiga soils of Siberia and the Far East and mountain brown forest soils found in the Caucasus, the Carpathians, the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Cantabrian, Iberian and Catalan mountains, the Vosges, the Sudetenland. The second place is occupied by alpine soils found in the Pamirs, Tien Shan, Tibet, Kunlun, Parapamiz-Hindu Kush. The third place is occupied by mountain tundra, mountain podzolic soils, common in the Scandinavian, Peninsky, Ural mountains ah, Big and Small Khingan. Significant areas are occupied by mountain meadow alpine and then mountain brown soils, mountain gray soils, mountain red soils and mountain yellow soils, as well as mountain chernozems, mountain chestnut and brown semi-desert soils. Smaller

the area is occupied by mountain ferruginous, ferralitic, desert soils. In Kamchatka and Kuril Islands Mountain-forest volcanic, mountain-meadow volcanic and mountain-tundra volcanic soils are widespread.

The mountainous parts of the tundra are dominated by stony fields. On heavily gravelly soil-forming rocks, thin peaty-soddy soils are widespread - analogs of arcto-tundra soils, in the middle tundra - soddy subarctic soils without gley, and in the southern subzone - tundra podburs. The arcto-tundra type of mountainous zoning is characteristic of the Taimyr and northern Chukotka mountains.

Mountain podzolic soils are thin. Their profile has the following structure: Ao - forest litter of coniferous litter with a thickness of 1 ... 2 cm; A! (up to 10 cm) - a gray horizon with roots and plant remains, lumpy, with gruss and rubble of local rocks; А 2 (up to 5 cm) - light gray, structureless horizon with gruss and rubble; В or ВС (up to 15 cm) - brownish, lumpy horizon contains a lot of gruss and rubble. The thickness of the profile of mountain podzolic soil rarely exceeds 20 cm, while podzolic soils on the plains are 10 times more thick. These soils are used for pastures and forests.

The forest growing properties of mountain brown forest soils are satisfactory. They are well supplied with nutrients, have a granular-lumpy and lumpy water-resistant structure, providing them with a good water-air regime, a high absorption capacity (30 ... 40 mg eq / 100 g of soil), saturated with bases (calcium and magnesium), contain 6 ... 12% fulvate-humate humus. The structure mechanism in these soils is coagulation (deposition of humus-clay-ferruginous complexes) and biogenic. In this regard, productivity forest plantations high on brown forest soils. However, with improper forest management (clear felling, skidding along the slope) or deforestation, water erosion develops. These soils are used in agriculture for cereals, vegetables, industrial and fruit crops.

Mountain chernozems, mountain brown and mountain chestnut soils are selectively developed for agriculture. They grow grain, vegetables and fruit crops. Brown soils are used for citrus fruits, grapes and fruit, and mountain red soils and yellow soils for the same crops and for tea plantations. Mountain meadow soils at altitudes of 1800 ... 2000 m and higher in conditions of short and cold summers, long and very cold winter, having weakly decomposed humus in horizon A (10 ... 20%), are used mainly for pastures for sheep and rarely in agricultural production.

The development of mountain soils depends on the structure of the relief, fragmented distribution of soils, rockiness and thickness of soils.

During economic activities, soil washout is clearly manifested, mudflows, landslides, and avalanches are formed. Consequently, during their development, it is necessary to provide for the anti-erosion organization of the territory. In the low mountains and foothills, plantation cultivation of soils, terracing of slopes, soil-protective crop rotations, strip farming are used, they streamline logging work, strictly regulate felling, do not allow felling on steep slopes, carry out forest planting work. In mountainous areas, livestock grazing should be regulated.

Plain intramontane and piedmont territories in favorable conditions used in agriculture to grow valuable food and industrial crops, carry out work to remove stony material from fine earth.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal State Educational

institution of higher professional education

“Perm State Agricultural Academy

named after academician D. N. Pryanishnikov "

Department of Soil Science

abstract

on soil science on the topic:

”Mountain soils "

Performed:

student of group A-31

specialty "Agroecology"

Dudina I.P.

Supervisor: professor

Dyakov V.P.

	Introduction
	Vertical zoning
	Conditions of soil formation
	Features of the soil-forming process
	Features of mountain soil types
	Soils of selected mountain areas
	Use and protection
	Conclusion
	Bibliographic list

Introduction

Mountain areas, apparently, were developed first on earth and mountain agriculture is one of the most ancient. Modern mountain agriculture (including mountain valleys and dissected low mountains) is of great importance in many countries. The soils of mountainous territories, despite their frequent thinness and stonyness, have been developed on average in the tropical zone by 9%, in the subtropical zone by 14% and in the subboreal zone by 8%.

The aim of this work is to study the features of the process of soil formation of mountain soils, as well as to study their physical, physicochemical properties. Also in this paper, questions about the distribution patterns, classification and diagnostics of mountain soils are considered.

The main tasks corresponding to these goals are considered:

1) The regularity of the formation and distribution of mountain soils has been studied.

2) The conditions of soil formation in the mountains, as well as the features of the soil formation process of mountain soils are considered.

3) The classification and basic properties (both physical and physicochemical) of mountain soils have been studied.

4) Specific examples of mountain soils of various territories are given.

5) Considered the issue of the use of mountain soils and their protection.

1.Vertical zoning

Regularities of vertical zoning in the mountains are of particular importance in matters of the structure of the soil cover. For the first time, VV Dokuchaev drew attention to these patterns, who, in articles published in 1898-1899, devoted to the doctrine of natural zones, put forward the idea of the vertical zoning of soils in the mountains using the example of the Caucasus.

Vertical zoning should be understood to mean the change of soils depending on the height of the area, which is associated with climate and vegetation changes.

Just as on the plain in the latitudinal direction there is a change of soil zones, in mountainous regions with a change in the height of the terrain, the soil zones are arranged in the form of belts.

Vertical soil zones are not simply repeats of latitudinal soil zones. They are greatly shortened, compressed, and some of them often fall out. This phenomenon is called zone interference. An example of interference is the absence in South Transcaucasia between mountain-steppe chestnut soils and mountain-meadow soils of not only mountain-forest, but also mountain chernozems.

All mountain soils are characterized by a shortened profile and its genetic horizons. A distinctive feature of mountain soils is their skeletal structure - stony or gravelly.

Sometimes, with the height of the terrain, the sequential change of soils is disrupted. The phenomenon of the opposite, or "incorrect" soil bedding is called inversion of soil zones. An example of inversion is the Southern Transcaucasia, where mountain chernozems (for example, the Loi steppe) lie above mountain forest soils.

It happens that one soil zone penetrates into another, which is caused either by the exposure of the slope, or by the penetration of soil zones along the valleys of mountain rivers. This displacement of one zone to another is called migration of soil zones. An example of such an anomaly is the significant movement up the slopes of the northern exposure of mountain-forest soils, and along the southern slopes of mountain-steppe soils. (Gerasimov I.P., 1986)

2.Conditions of soil formation

The conditions for soil formation in mountainous areas are very diverse.

Altitudinal zonation is characterized primarily by a regular change in climate.

With an increase in altitude, the average air temperature decreases by an average of 0.5 ° С for every 100 m. atmospheric precipitation, total solar radiation, the relative humidity of the air rises.

In the mountainous climate, there are sharper contrasts in the diurnal and seasonal cycles than in the corresponding soils of the plains.

The relief of the mountainous areas is complex. It is associated with the geological history of mountain systems and the characteristics of their constituent rocks. The common features of the mountainous relief are its extremely strong dissection and variety of forms. The dominant types of surface in the mountains are slopes of various shapes, steepness and exposure.

The relief determines the strong development of the processes of slope denudation, the formation of intensive lateral subsurface and subsurface geochemical outflows. Denudation processes constantly remove the upper layers of weathering and soil formation products, determine low power soil profile. Thus, mountain soils, on the one hand, are constantly enriched with the products of weathering and soil formation, on the other, they are constantly depleted as a result of intensive geochemical outflow. (Bogatyrev, Vladychensky, 1988)

The soil-forming rocks are various weathering products, mainly of the eluvial type, less often of the accumulative type. The products of weathering of Cretaceous, Tertiary (limestones, sandstones, shales) sedimentary deposits, as well as rocks of magmatic origin, are widespread.

Vegetation is distributed in mountain systems in accordance with the altitudinal zonation. The most common pattern is the change with the height of forest belts to belts of herbaceous, more often meadow, plant communities, subalpine, alpine meadows, and even higher - a belt dominated by rocks, talus, glaciers and snowfields.

The height of the forest belts decreases with increasing aridity and continental climate.

In the regions of volcanic mountains, active volcanoes constantly supply the surrounding space with ash, gases, and solutions. Volcanic soils are usually characterized by high and stable fertility. Buried soils of several cycles are often found, buried with fresh portions of ash, lava flows, and layers of pumice. The indirect influence of volcanism on soil formation is manifested through groundwater fed by volcanic springs and thermal waters, which are enriched with silicon and aluminum compounds. Volcanism is a powerful factor in soil formation. Territories with active volcanoes are characterized by genetically related earthquakes. However, strong earthquakes also cover areas where volcanism does not appear now. In the seismic zones of the Earth, displacements of soil profiles and horizons are often observed. The direct effect of earthquakes on the soil cover can manifest itself in the form of the formation of deep and wide cracks, subsidence and uplifts of individual surface areas by a meter or more, and most importantly massive landslides of huge blocks of soil and rock, which in general deeply changes the topographic and hydrographic situation of the area and, as as a rule, it enhances soil washout and redeposition. In the mountains of the Surkhoba basin (Gissar-Alai), fresh seismic breakdowns of the weathering crust and soil-sod cover are observed on the slopes, in areas of which erosion furrows and gullies have already formed.

Manifold natural conditions soil formation leads to the formation of various mountain soils. The nature of the altitudinal zonation, the number of vertical soil structures are determined by the position of the mountainous country in the system of latitudinal zoning.

In the soil cover of mountainous countries, there are both soils that are characteristic only of mountains, which are absent on the plains, and soils that have analogues on the plains.

The former include mountain-meadow, mountain-meadow chernozem-like and mountain meadow-steppe. All other mountain soils belong to the main types, corresponding to their plain counterparts. (Kovrigo V.P., Kaurichev I.S., 2000)

3.Features of the soil-forming process

The natural landscapes of mountain systems, like those of plains, have gone through a complex history of development. And when we say "mountain soil formation", "mountain soils", we emphasize the special role of tectogenesis, which created mountain systems with their landscapes, in the formation of soils and soil cover in mountains.

The historical development and formation of mountainous landscapes in comparison with the plains are many times more dynamic both in the past and in the present.

Tectogenesis is the rise and fall of the earth's crust, accompanied by denudation, transfer and accumulation of sedimentary deposits

Currently, most researchers believe that the bulk of the crushed material in the alpine-type mountains of the temperate zone (up to particles of silty dimension) was formed mainly during the stages of glaciation. This material makes up the thickness of the parent rocks. During the stages of glaciation, they were affected by nival-glacial, permafrost, solifluction, avalanche and other processes. The rubble strata of surface deposits created by these processes are of a complex nature, which is reflected in their structure and composition.

The composition of these strata is also characteristic. It is a mixture of surface debris and particles of rocks such as granites, granite-gneisses, gneisses, intermediate igneous rocks, crystalline schists and remains of slate schists.

The formation of the soil cover is under the constant powerful influence of tectonic-exogenous processes. Without them, the formation of mountain soils is not possible.

Let us consider in more detail the manifestations of the main exogenous processes with their typification according to the structure of the profiles of soils and rocks.

Cryogenic processes. In alpine-type highlands, cryogenic processes manifested themselves in the creation of mounds, microterraces, small ridges, deep depressions and hollows of various shapes at absolute heights of more than 2500 m.

A striking example of such high mountains is the eastern slopes of the ridge. Hatipara. Currently, snowfields are preserved here until June. Solifluction fast and slow movements have both ancient and modern character. A common feature of solifluction strata is the presence of two to three layers, consisting of one to four soil horizons, often separated by gravelly interlayers with a thickness of 5-40 cm. Here, next to thick (up to 130 cm) solifluction strata, there are solifluction strata of strata up to 70 cm thick, and along the hollows - depressions, the remains of soil layers of 10-20 cm, in some places there are outcrops of parent and underlying rocks. In most cases, there is a combination of cryogenesis with deluvial erosion, landslides, as a result of which there is an extremely variegated combination of parent rocks and soils in terms of thickness, rubble, texture, various deviations in the structure of soils from their "normal" profile.

Modern solifluction processes, not having the scope that was characteristic of them in the postglacial past, are now also ubiquitous. So on the territory of the Lateral Ridge (continuation of the Peredovoye in the Malka-Baksan interfluve) at absolute altitudes of 2700 m, modern solifluction together with snow erosion on slopes of 5-8 ° literally moves 20 cm thick sod before our eyes, rips it off, exposes and sorts crushed stone, creating spots outlets of crushed stone without soil. Here, on slopes of more than 8 °, powerful solifluction formations were observed in the form of microterraces, ridges in combination with hollows. Solifluction strata of such territories (70 cm thick and more) consist of three to four layers, to varying degrees enriched or depleted in humus, crushed stone, and plant roots. Morphologically, they have a modern "live" character.

Avalanche action. Avalanches are a powerful factor in the formation of the relief of highlands.

Avalanches in combination with other exogenous processes, primarily cryogenic and fluvial-deluvial, not only created the relief of the slopes, but also largely reworked the upper layers of bedrock. Their role in crushing coarse-grained material to fine earth is great. Over the course of historical time, avalanches have repeatedly mixed, crushed, and moved rock material from top positions downward.

The result of the action of avalanches is a mixed composition of the original parent rocks, equally "irregular" quantitative combinations along the horizons of the strata of individual mechanical fractions, irregular relationships of clastic material in the soil profiles.

The thickness of the soils coincides with the thickness of the parent material, largely created by the cryogenic-avalanche-deluvial complex of exogenous processes. This thickness is on average 50-100 cm.

Impact melt water... The upper horizons of the soil, especially in the mountain-meadow belt, are usually enriched with dispersed fractions, do not contain or almost do not contain clastic material. The enrichment of the uppermost soil horizon of the high mountains with dispersed particles is determined to a certain extent by their thawing from the snow. And the snow is enriched with dispersed material due to the local eolian transfer from the exposed rocky peaks.

Windblow process, or "root drift". In the forest belt, especially under conifers, a huge role in the constant mixing (past and present) and movement of soil layers is played by windblow, which creates a dimple-tubercular microrelief.

With a windblow, the lower horizons move upward and the entire soil layer is mixed to a depth of 0.5-1 m, followed by its displacement along the slope. In almost most cases, such mixing occurs at the same place every 100-200 years. As a result of this type of phenomena, morphologically distinguishable traces of past phases of soil formation or old exogenous slope processes are not preserved in the soil profiles of the forest belt, though. Undoubtedly, the soil mass summarizes in itself, as it were, in a scattered form, the past stages of soil formation. Morphologically, the soil profile of areas with root drift is a stratum in which soil horizons do not differ or slightly differ. Often spotting, banding is noted in soils due to mixing of different horizons, sometimes interlayers of humus material or material from horizon C in different parts profile.

Denudation-accumulative processes.

The accumulation of valley material involves glacial fluvial, periglacial, avalanche-mudflow, alluvial processes and the surface washout itself. The microrelief of such areas is often complex. The thickness of modern soils is 30-60 cm, and the soil-forming substrate, due to which these valley soils were formed, is a product of the denudation-accumulative processes of the last millennia. The accumulation of the 20-30 cm upper stratum has occurred over the past 700-800 years. (Romashkevich A.I., 1988)

4.Features of mountain soil types

1) Mountain tundra soils are the uppermost link in the system of altitudinal zonation of the soil cover. Domination low temperatures, short frost-free and long growing seasons snow cover cause poorly developing poor vegetation with a predominance of mosses, lichens with rare small shrubs.

Climatic conditions and the nature of vegetation contribute to low biological activity, the accumulation of weakly decomposed organic matter. Under the influence of such conditions, the profile of mountain-tundra soils does not exceed 50-60 cm, their reaction is acidic, saturation with bases is weak (about 13% in the 0-10 layer). The humus is coarse, with a predominance of fulvic acids.

2) Mountain meadow soils occupy the tops and upper parts of the slopes of ridges and mountains of all exposures, are formed on leached weathering products of dense porogas. The soil profile is weakly differentiated and has the following structure: Ad-A-AS-S, where Ad is a sod up to 10 cm thick firmly fastened by the roots of herbaceous vegetation. Under the sod there is a humus horizon A 10-20 cm thick, dark brown in color, often with stony inclusions. The transitional horizon AC 15-25 cm thick, it is lighter. Horizon C - parent rock - eluvium or deluvium of bedrock. It is 80% composed of stony units of various sizes. The thickness of the C horizon ranges from 20 to 30 cm and below it passes into the bedrock.

Table 1

Physicochemical indicators of mountain-forest sod-peaty soils of the alpine belt

(Romashkevich A.I., 1988)

	Sokolov,	Absorbed. Cations, mgEq / 100 g soil
	Sokolov,












Continuation of table 1
Incision number, horizon, depth, cm	Sokolov,	Absorbed. Cations, mgEq / 100 g soil
Incision number, horizon, depth, cm	Sokolov,

3) Mountain meadow-steppe soils, in contrast to mountain-meadow soils, develop in a more arid meadow-steppe belt of mountains. They are formed on less leached soil-forming rocks under conditions of periodically flushed water regime.

Of the great variety of mountain-meadow-steppe soils, the mountain-meadow-steppe chernozem-like soils deserve the greatest attention. These soils develop under subalpine steppe vegetation mainly on the products of weathering of carbonate rocks. They are characterized by the formation of a thicker sod and a more developed humus horizon with a powdery structure. The humus content reaches 20%, its composition is humate-fulvate, the absorption capacity is 40-50 mgEq per 100 g of soil. Mountain-meadow-steppe soils, as well as mountain-meadow soils, are subdivided according to the thickness of the humus horizons, the degree of morphology, leaching and skeletal structure. (Kovrigo V.P., Kaurichev I.S., 2000)

4) Mountain soddy subarctic soils develop under sparse forests with a herbaceous cover. They contain 10% or more humus, have a strongly acidic reaction and high unsaturation with bases. External signs podzolization in most cases is absent. These soils are most widespread in Kamchatka, where they are formed in wet conditions. monsoon climate under birch forests.

5) Mountain podzolic soils are the most common soils in mountainous areas, especially among the mountain systems of northern latitudes. They develop under coniferous forests(pine, spruce, larch, cedar, etc.) with a moss ground cover. Loose weathering products of massive crystalline rocks of varying thickness prevail among the parent rocks. Acidic products formed during the decomposition of forest litter (needles), under the conditions of a leaching water regime, cause the destruction of soil minerals, which leads to the isolation of the podzolized and illuvial horizons. The gross chemical composition and mechanical analysis show a noticeable removal of sesquioxides and a silty fraction from the A2 horizons and their enrichment in the illuvial horizon B. The profile of mountain-podzolic soils is clearly differentiated into genetic horizons A0, A1, A2, B (B1, B2) and C. A0 - forest litter, often with a moss cover, 5-10 cm thick, morphed, semi-decomposed; A1 - a coarse humus layer of low thickness (3-5 cm, less often more), saturated with humus acids; A2 - podzolized horizon, distinctly expressed, whitish, 5-15 cm thick; B - illuvial, brownish-brown, denser, often humus-colored and ocher, 20-25 cm thick. In general, the profile of mountain podzolic soils does not exceed 40-50 cm. Like other mountain soils, they are mostly thin and strongly skeletal.

table 2

Physicochemical composition of mountain podzolic soils

(Romashkevich A.I., 1988)

Incision number, horizon, depth, cm	Sokolov,	Absorbed. Cations, mgEq / 100 g soil
Incision number, horizon, depth, cm	Sokolov,

Mountain podzolic soils are characterized by a low amount of exchange bases, unsaturation of the absorbing complex and, as a consequence, an acidic and strongly acidic reaction. They have a high exchangeable hydrolytic acidity, an increased amount of mobile forms of aluminum and iron.

Humus in the A1 horizon is 4-10%. In its composition fulvic acids prevail over humic ones. Among mountain podzolic soils, there are mountain forest acidic (hidden podzolized), mountainous shallow superficially podzolized, mountain podzolic (weak, medium, strongly podzolic), mountain podzolic illuvial-humus-ferruginous and illuvial-humus.

6) Mountain permafrost-taiga soils are distinguished as an independent type, very widespread in Eastern Siberia... They develop under taiga vegetation on the products of weathering of massive crystalline rocks in a sharply continental climate with a shallow occurrence of permafrost. These soils are characterized by the absence or weak manifestation of signs of podzolization, a small value of the absorption capacity, unsaturation of the absorbing complex with bases, an acid reaction, a high content of mobile iron with its maximum accumulation in the upper part of the profile, a small amount of humus with a predominance of fulvic acids. In addition, surface gleying is characteristic of some permafrost-taiga soils. Among mountain permafrost-taiga soils, there are mountain permafrost-taiga ferruginous soils, mountain permafrost-taiga podzolized and mountain gley-permafrost-taiga soils.

7) Mountain sod-calcareous and permafrost-taiga calcareous soils develop on carbonate parent rocks (limestones) in a humid climate. These soils are characterized by a dark color and a lumpy-granular structure of the upper humus horizon. Its thickness depends on the depth of dense unweathered rocks. Mountain soddy-calcareous soils are usually thin and strongly skeletal, the humus content is 4-6%, nitrogen - 0.2-0.3%, mobile forms of phosphorus are very few. The absorption capacity is 40-6 mgEq per 100 g of soil. The absorbed cations are dominated by calcium and magnesium, the saturation is high, the reaction in the upper horizons is weakly alkaline, and in the lower ones, the alkalinity increases.

Among the soddy-calcareous soils, mountain soddy-carbonate typical, mountain soddy-carbonate leached and mountain soddy-carbonate weakly podzolized are distinguished.

8) Mountain brown forest soils develop in a warm humid climate under deciduous forests consisting of beech, hornbeam, oak, and less often under conifers - of fir and spruce on carbonate-free or low-carbonate soil-forming rocks.

Typical mountain brown forest soils are non-podzolized, less often brown forest soils with signs of weak podzolization or podzolized.

Three subtypes are distinguished among brown forest soils - typical brown forest soils, podzolized brown forest soils, and surface gley brown forest soils.

The profile of brown forest soils consists of horizons A0, A1, B (B1B2) C. Mountain brown forest podzolized soils, in contrast to non-podzolized ones, have a more distinct differentiation of the profile. In these soils, the A2 horizon is distinguished, although not always clearly, - podzolized. The illuvial horizon B is more clearly expressed. Mountain brown forest soils are characterized by a brown color of the entire soil profile, varying over a wide range - from dark brown to light brown, depending on the humus content, the degree of podzolization and parent rock.

The thickness of the humus horizon ranges from 10 to 20 cm, the structure is lumpy-granular or granular-nutty. Horizon B1 is brown in color, lumpy-nutty structure, compacted build, with a large number of stony - cartilaginous inclusions. Parent rock C is more often represented by coarse detrital material with a small admixture of fine earth.

The bulk analysis of typical mountain brown forest soils indicates the absence or very insignificant removal of sesquioxides; in podzolized soils, some movement of them from the upper horizon to the illuvial one is observed.

Table 3

Physical and chemical properties of mountain brown forest

podzolized soil. Caucasus.

(Zonn S.V., 1950)

	suspensions	Absorbed cations mgEq / 100 g soil
	suspensions
Mountain brown forest podzolized.

Humus in horizon A is 5-6%, in some cases higher. Humic acids predominate in the humus of typical brown forest soils. The absorption capacity is 30-40 mgEq / 100 g of soil, the saturation is high, the reaction is slightly acidic. Brown forest podzolized soils have an acidic reaction and are not saturated with bases.

9) Mountain gray forest soils are formed under broad-leaved and mixed herbaceous forests on the weathering products of acidic and basic species.

Horizons A0, A1, A1A2, B, and C are distinguished in the profile of these soils. The humus content in horizon A ranges from 3 to 6%, in individual cases- from 10 to 13%. The absorption capacity is 25-35 mgEq per 100 g of soil.

The reaction of the salt extract in the upper part of the profile is weakly acidic, and in the lower part it is close to neutral (pH 6-6.5). The bulk composition data show some enrichment in silicic acid and depletion in sesquioxides of the upper horizons.

10) Mountain chernozems develop under forb meadow steppes on loess-like eluvial-deluvial and deluvial-proluvial deposits and other products of weathering of sedimentary and igneous rocks. Genetic horizons A0, A, B1, B2, Bk, C. Humus horizon A is dark gray or black in color, granular or lumpy-granular structure. The thickness of the humus horizons (A + B) varies within 30-80 cm. Their profile, in contrast to the chernozems of plain territories, is crushed with the inclusion of coarse fragments of rocks. Humus 5-10%, its distribution along the profile is uniform. Humic acids prevail in the humus composition. The absorption capacity is 30-50 mgEq / 100 g of soil, the saturation of the bases is high, the reaction of the upper horizons of typical chernozems is neutral, the lower ones are alkaline.

Among mountain chernozems there are typical, podzolized, leached, carbonate ones.

11) Mountain chestnut soils were formed under wormwood-fescue vegetation in a highly arid climate on carbonate rocks. In terms of profile structure and properties, mountain chestnut soils are very similar to a similar type of soils in plain territories, however, signs of solonetzicity and salinity are usually absent in them and are noted only for the high mountain plateaus of the Central Tien Shan and other mountain systems of Central Asia.

12) Mountain brown soils develop under dry sparse forests and thickets of shrubs with a dense cover of herbaceous vegetation in a warm and dry subtropical climate. Mountain brown soils contain humus in the upper part of the profile 4-6% with a gradual decrease downward, nitrogen 0.2-0.3%, the absorption capacity and saturation of the absorbing complex with bases are rather high, the reaction in the upper horizons is neutral or slightly alkaline, alkalinity increases downward.

Some clay is observed in the middle part of the profile.

Among mountain brown soils, mountain brown typical, mountain brown leached (boil from hydrochloric acid at a depth of about 1 m), mountain brown carbonate, boiling from the surface, are distinguished.

13) Mountain gray soils develop under wheatgrass-forb vegetation on various rocks. They belong to the subtype of dark gray soils and differ from those of plain areas and foothills in higher humus content, lower carbonate content in the upper horizon, low alkalinity and lack of salinity. Some researchers consider mountain dark gray soils as mountain gray-brown soils.

14) Alpine desert soils.

Among the alpine desert soils, in addition to gray-brown desert and brown desert-steppe soils, there are takyr-like solonetzic and saline soils (salt marshes) with a profile structure characteristic of these soils, but developing in dry and cold alpine conditions with high solar radiation.

5. Soils of individual mountain areas.

Caucasus mountains. Vertical belts are most fully represented on the northern slope of the Caucasus. Here, as you ascend to the tops of the mountains, vertical soil belts are presented - analogs of all zones found in the flat part of Russia.

From the side of the Caspian Sea, from the foot to the top, the next change takes place soil belts: desert-steppe belt with gray soils, mountain-steppe belt with mountain chestnut and chernozems, mountain-forest belt with gray, brown forest and mountain-forest podzolic soils, subalpine belt (at an altitude of 2800-3500 m) with mountain meadow soils, belt eternal snows and glaciers (above 3500 m).

In the Black Sea belt, vertical zoning begins with red earth and yellow-podzolic soils developing under subtropical vegetation. With the height of the terrain, red soils are replaced by brown forest soils.

Ural mountains. Due to the low altitude of the Ural Mountains, the vertical zonation is not always clearly expressed. Northern part The Urals is located in the tundra zone with a predominance of mountain-tundra soils. On the slopes of the mountains, under forest vegetation, mountain gley-podzolic soils develop. A significant part of the treeless area is occupied by mountain meadow soils of alpine meadows.

Under the coniferous forests of the Middle Urals, mountain podzolic and peculiar non-podzol forest acidic soils are formed. In the southern part of the Urals, the vertical zonation becomes more distinct. The highest points (1000-1200 m) here are covered with alpine and subalpine meadows with mountain-peaty and mountain-meadow soils. In the forest-steppe zone, under deciduous forests, mountain gray forest soils are widespread, as well as mountain podzolized leached chernozems, characterized by high humus content.

Mountainous regions of Siberia and the Far East. In this vast territory, several types of mountainous regions are distinguished. In the north-eastern part of Siberia, the largest mountain regions are the Verkhoyansk, Kolymsky, Chersky, Anadyrsky ridges. This low mountains- 2000-2500 m. Basically they are covered with forests with a predominance of larch and Siberian spruce. Mountain-permafrost-taiga and mountain podzolic soils are formed under their cover. Above, mountain-tundra peaty and mountain-peaty-gley soils are formed.

A more complete vertical zonation is expressed in the mountainous regions of Altai and Sayan.

Gorny Altai stands out as component the vast Altai - Sayan mountainous soil province, lying in the central forest-steppe and steppe regions of the subboreal belt. According to the type of vertical zonation structure in the Gorny Altai province, there are three sub-provinces: North, Central, South-East.

Separate ranges of Altai reach 4620 m above sea level (Mount Belukha).

In the Sayan mountain system, the main Sayan ridge stands out, individual peaks of which reach 3490 m above sea level (Munku-Sadyk). Piedmont steppes with chernozems extend up to an altitude of 4000 meters; leached chernozems are widespread in the forest-steppe belt. The forest belt begins at an altitude of 600 meters.

A characteristic provincial feature of the mountain soils of the regions of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia is the wide distribution of permafrost-taiga soils, which are absent in other mountain regions of the country.

Table 4 The structure of the vertical zonation of the soil cover of Gorny Altai by sub-provinces (Kovalev, 1967)	Southeastern sub-province	Absolute height, m
	Southeastern sub-province		Chestnut and light chestnut	Mountain meadow-steppe chernozem-like	Mountain forest long-frozen deep humus	Mountain meadow and mountain tundra
	Central sub-province	Absolute height, m
	Central sub-province		Dark chestnut, southern, carbonate chernozems	Mountain forest chestnut	Mountain forest black-nozem species leached	Mountain-forest brown	Mountain forest peaty	Mountain tundra and mountain meadow
	Northern sub-province	Absolute height, m
	Northern sub-province		Podzolized and leached chernozems	Gray-forest and mountain-forest deep-podzolized	Mountain-forest brown	Mountain forest peat	Mountain-tundra peaty and soddy, mountain-meadow

Mountains of Sakhalin and Kamchatka. The mountains of Sakhalin Island are represented by several ridges of relatively low altitude (1500-1600 m). The soils here are formed in a monsoon climate characterized by cold, wet winters and cool, rainy summers. At the foot of the mountains, meadow and boggy soils of river terraces and sea coasts are widespread, which at an altitude of 400-800 m are replaced by forest soddy acidic and mountain-forest brown soils developing under coniferous forests. At an altitude of 800-1000 m under the dwarf pine, mountain-peaty gley soils are formed, turning into mountain-tundra soils, developing under low-growing shrub vegetation.

In Kamchatka, soil formation, as well as on Sakhalin, proceeds in a monsoon climate.

Volcanic activity has a great influence on soil formation. Volcanic ash, enriched in bases, neutralizes acidic products formed during the decomposition of plant litter. This leads to the development of soils with weak signs of podzolization.

In the modern classification of soils, enriched volcanic ash, are distinguished as an independent type of ash-volcanic soils. In the mountain-taiga belt, mountain podzolic and sod-podzolic soils are formed, which at an altitude of 1000-2000 m are replaced by mountain tundra peaty soils.

Mountain regions of the Baikal and Transbaikalia. These areas are a continuation of the Eastern Sayan Mountains. In general, the mountains are low (no higher than 15,000 m above sea level). The highest ridges are Yablonevy, Nerchinsky, Vitimskoe and Patomskoe highlands.

The lowest areas of intermontane depressions (600-800 m) are occupied by dry steppes with chestnut soils, higher (800-1200 m) - by chernozems.

At an altitude of 1000-1200 m on the northern slopes of the hills, gray forest soils are formed, a little higher - mountain permafrost soddy-taiga, and on rocks of light granulometric composition - mountain podzolic soils. The uppermost "alpine" belt is occupied by mountain - tundra and mountain - meadow subalpine soils (Kaurichev, Panov, Rozov, etc.)

6 use and protection

When developing the natural resources of mountains, it is necessary to take into account that a characteristic, distinctive feature of mountain landscapes is their fragility and instability to various types of anthropogenic impact. Vegetation is extremely important for the preservation of mountain landscapes. Forests and meadows play anti-erosion, water protection and soil protection roles. Forests are a natural defense against the destructive activity of mud-stone flows - mudflows that occur during heavy rains or intense snow melting, and often the only obstacle to avalanches.

The soils of the mountainous regions are used mainly as meadow-pasture and hayfields. Most of the rangelands are located in the mountain-tundra, mountain-meadow and mountain-steppe zones.

In agriculture, mountain brown forest, mountain chernozems and mountain chestnut soils are most intensively used. They cultivate cereals, vegetables, potatoes, a tea bush, grapes (the Caucasus, etc.), fruit and berry crops.

In intermontane and low-mountain basins (Gorny Altai), on chernozem and chestnut soils, grain, grain-fodder and fodder crops are cultivated for the needs of animal husbandry. In addition, industrial crops (hops, potatoes, beets) are grown in the low mountains, and horticulture has developed.

The use of soils in mountainous areas is limited by the strong development of water erosion and especially mudflows. In the development and use of soils, soil protection measures are very important: protection of forests, regulation of runoff by the device of anti-mudflow structures, the use of special system soil cultivation, terracing and afforestation of slopes, correct use pasture land.

The introduction of organic mineral fertilizers, liming of acidic soils, measures to increase the fertility of mountain soils are also necessary for their rational use.

Conclusion

Mountain soils are a geographic group of soils that form in mountains. They differ from flat soils in low thickness (especially on steep slopes), rubble, abundance of primary minerals in their composition, and an indistinct profile. In mountain soils, slope (lateral) currents of soil moisture are developed, which, carrying out the products of soil formation from the soils of the upper and middle parts of the slopes, prevent the formation of illuvial horizons in them. At the same time, significant illuvial horizons are created in the lower parts of the slopes. The distribution of mountain soils is mainly subordinated to vertical (high-altitude) zoning, that is, it depends on the change in air temperature and precipitation with the height of the terrain. In the mountains, there are soils of almost all genetic types that form on the plains. Only mountains are characterized by mountain meadow soils (acidic, contain up to 20-30% humus in the upper sod horizon), mountain meadow-steppe (differ from the previous type in less humus content and a reaction close to neutral), mountain podburs (strongly acidic, upper horizons rich in streaming humus). In agriculture, mountain soils (chernozems of the Lesser Caucasus, brown mountain-forest soils of the inner hollows of the Carpathians, etc.) are used for the cultivation of agricultural crops. The main areas of summer pastures are located on mountain meadow and mountain meadow steppe soils. In areas with highly dissected relief, terracing of slopes is carried out to prevent soil erosion, and ameliorative plantations are created.

Bibliography:

Gerasimov I.P. Genetic, geographical and historical problems of modern soil science. Moscow: Nauka, 1976.298 p.

Gerasimov I.P. Dokuchaev's doctrine and modernity. M .: Mysl, 1986.124s

Mountain soil formation and geomorphological processes. Romashkevich A.I. Moscow: Nauka, 1988.150s

Kovrigo V.P., Kaurichev I.S., Burlakova L.M. Soil science with the basics of geology. M .: Kolos, 2000.416s

Rozov N.N., Stroganova M.N. Soil cover of the world (soil-bioclimatic regions of the world and their agroecological characteristics). M .: Publishing house of Moscow University, 1979.270s

The soils of mountainous regions occupy vast territories of Russia. They are found in Eastern Siberia, the Caucasus, Altai, and the Far East.

The formation of soils in mountainous regions is associated with the manifestation of vertical zoning. The law of vertical zoning was established by V.V.Dokuchaev. Vertical zoning should be understood to mean the change of soils depending on the height of the area, which is associated with climate and vegetation changes.

Just as on the plain in the latitudinal direction there is a change of soil zones, in mountainous regions with a change in the height of the terrain, the soil zones are arranged in the form of belts.

Vertical soil zones are not simply repeats of latitudinal soil zones. They are greatly shortened, compressed, and some of them often fall out. This phenomenon is called zone interference. All mountain soils are characterized by a shortened profile and its genetic horizons. A distinctive feature of mountain soils is their skeletal structure - stony or gravelly.

Sometimes, with the height of the terrain, the sequential change of soils is disrupted. The phenomenon of the opposite, or "incorrect" soil bedding is called inversion of soil zones. It happens that one soil zone penetrates into another, which is caused either by the exposure of the slope, or by the penetration of soil zones along the valleys of mountain rivers. This displacement of one zone to another is called migration of soil zones.

SOIL FORMATION CONDITIONS

The conditions for soil formation in mountainous areas are very diverse.

Altitudinal zonation is characterized primarily by a regular change in climate.

With an increase in altitude, the average air temperature decreases by an average of 0.5 ˚С for every 100 m. With an increase in altitude, the amount of atmospheric precipitation, total solar radiation, and the relative humidity of the air increase.

In the mountainous climate, there are sharper contrasts in the diurnal and seasonal cycles than in the corresponding soils of the plains.

The relief of the mountainous regions is complex. It is associated with the geological history of mountain systems and the characteristics of their constituent rocks. The common features of the mountainous relief are its extremely strong dissection and variety of forms. The dominant types of surface in the mountains are slopes of various shapes, steepness and exposure.

The relief determines the strong development of the processes of slope denudation, the formation of an intense lateral subsurface and subsurface geochemical outflows. Denudation processes constantly remove the upper layers of the products of weathering and soil formation, and determine the low thickness of the soil profile. Thus, mountain soils, on the one hand, are constantly enriched with the products of weathering and soil formation, on the other, they are constantly depleted as a result of intensive geochemical outflow (Bogatyrev, Vasilievskaya, Vladychensky et al., 1988).

Vegetation is distributed in mountain systems in accordance with the altitudinal zonation. The most common pattern is the change with the height of forest belts to belts of herbaceous, more often meadow, plant communities, subalpine, alpine meadows and even higher - by the sparse vegetation of the subnival belt, above which the nival belt is located - the belt of dominance of rocks, talus, glaciers and snowfields.

The height of the forest belts decreases with increasing aridity and continental climate.

The variety of natural conditions for soil formation leads to the formation of various mountain soils. The nature of the altitudinal zonation, the number of vertical soil structures are determined by the position of the mountainous country in the system of latitudinal zoning.

In the soil cover of mountainous countries, there are both soils that are characteristic only of mountains, which are absent on the plains, and soils that have analogues on the plains.

To. The first are mountain-meadow, mountain-meadow chernozem-like and mountain meadow-steppe. All other mountain soils are mainly of the types corresponding to plain analogs.

FEATURES OF MOUNTAIN SOIL TYPES

Mountain tundra soils are the uppermost link in the system of altitudinal zonation of the soil cover. The dominance of low temperatures, short frost-free and growing seasons, long-lasting snow cover cause poorly developing poor vegetation with a predominance of mosses and lichens with rare small shrubs.

Climatic conditions and the nature of vegetation contribute to low biological activity, the accumulation of poorly decomposed organic matter... Under the influence of such conditions, the profile of mountain tundra soils does not exceed 50-60 cm, their reaction is acidic, saturation with bases is weak (about 13% in the 0-10 cm layer). The humus is coarse, with a predominance of fulvic acids.

Mountain meadow soils occupy the tops and upper parts of the slopes of ridges and mountains of all exposures; they are formed on leached products of weathering of dense rocks. The soil profile is weakly differentiated and has the following structure: Ad-A-AS-S, where A d is a sod up to 10 cm thick firmly fixed by the roots of herbaceous vegetation.Under the sod there is a humus horizon A 10-20 cm thick, dark brown in color, often with stony inclusions. The transitional horizon AC 15-25 cm thick, it is lighter; it is a humus horizon with a brownish tint; the number of stony inclusions is greater than in horizon A. Horizon C is a parent rock - eluvium or deluvium of bedrocks. It is 80% composed of stony units of various sizes. The thickness of the C horizon ranges from 20 to 30 cm and passes deeper into the bedrock.

Mountain meadow soils are formed under the influence of the soddy process of soil formation, the intensity of which is determined by the nature of the vegetation and parent rock. On carbonate rocks, the sod process is more pronounced, the soils are formed more powerful and humus. The humus content is within 8-20%. The humus is "coarse", fulvic acids prevail in it. Soils are acidic, mainly due to aluminum. ECO is low, the soil is poorly saturated with bases.

Mountain meadow-steppe soils, in contrast to mountain-meadow soils, develop in a more arid meadow-steppe belt of mountains. They are formed on less leached soil-forming rocks under conditions of periodically flushed water regime.

SOILS OF SEPARATE MOUNTAIN AREAS

From the side of the Caspian Sea from the foot to the top, the following change of soil belts takes place: the desert-steppe belt with gray soils, the mountain-steppe belt with mountain chestnut and chernozems, the mountain-forest belt with gray, brown forest and mountain-forest podzolic soils, the subalpine belt ( at an altitude of 1800-2800 m) and a belt of alpine meadows (at an altitude of 2800-3500 m) with mountain meadow soils, a belt of eternal snows and glaciers (above 3500 m).

Ural mountains. Due to the low altitude of the Ural Mountains, the vertical zonation is not always clearly expressed. The northern part of the Urals is located in the tundra zone with a predominance of mountain-tundra soils. On the slopes of the mountains, under forest vegetation, mountain gley-podzolic soils develop. A significant part of the treeless area is occupied by mountain meadow soils of alpine meadows.

Under the coniferous forests of the Middle Urals, mountain podzolic and peculiar non-podzol forest acidic soils are formed. In the southern part of the Urals, the vertical zonation becomes more distinct. The highest points (1000-1200 m) here are covered with alpine and subalpine meadows with mountain-peaty and mountain-meadow soils. In the forest-steppe zone, under broad-leaved forests, mountain gray forest soils are widespread, as well as mountain podzolized and leached chernozems, characterized by high humus content.

Mountainous regions of Siberia and the Far East. Several mountainous regions are distinguished in this vast territory. In the north-eastern part of Siberia, the largest mountain regions are the Verkhoyansk, Kolymsky, Chersky, Anadyrsky ridges. These are low mountains - 2000-2500 m. Basically, they are covered with forests dominated by larch and Siberian spruce. Mountain-permafrost-taiga and mountain podzolic soils are formed under their cover. Above, mountain tundra peaty and mountain-peaty-gley soils are formed.

A more complete vertical zonation is expressed in the mountainous regions of Altai and Sayan.

Gorny Altai stands out as a constituent part of the vast Al-Thai-Sayan mountain soil province, which lies in the central forest-steppe and steppe regions of the subboreal belt. According to the type of vertical zonation structure in the Gorny Altai province, three sub-provinces are distinguished: North, Central, South-East (Table 57).

57. The structure of the vertical zonation of the soil cover of Gorny Altai in the lodprovinces (Kovalev, 1967)

Northern subprovince		Central sub-provinces		South-Eastern sub-province
	Absolute height, m		Absolute height, m		Absolute height, m
Podzolized and leached chernozems		Dark chestnut, southern, carbonate chernozems		Chestnut and light chestnut
Gray forest and mountain forest deeply podzolized		Mountain-steppe chestnut, less often chernozem (southern slopes)		Mountain meadow-steppe chernozem-like and chestnut-like (southern slopes)
Mountain-forest brown		Mountain-forest chernozem-like leached and carbonate		Mountain-forest long-frozen deep-humus podzolized (in fragments along the northern slopes)
Mountain forest peaty, peaty, often podzolized (northern slopes)		Mountain-forest brown		Mountain meadow and mountain tundra
Mountain-tundra, turfy and soddy, mountainous		Mountain-forest peaty, peaty-humus (northern slopes)
		Mountain tundra and mountain meadow

Separate mountain ranges of Altai reach 4620 m above sea level (Mount Belukha).

In the Sayan mountain system, the main Sayan ridge stands out, individual peaks of which reach 3490 m above sea level (Munku-Sardyk). Piedmont steppes with chernozems extend up to an altitude of 4000 m; leached chernozems are widespread in the forest-steppe belt. The forest belt begins at an altitude of 600 m.

In Kamchatka, soil formation, as in Sakhalin, proceeds in a monsoon climate.

In the modern classification, soils enriched in volcanic ash are distinguished into an independent type of ash-volcanic soils. In the mountain-taiga belt, mountain podzolic and sod-podzolic soils are formed, which at an altitude of 1000-2000 m are replaced by mountain tundra peaty soils.

Mountain regions of the Baikal and Transbaikalia. These areas are a continuation of the Eastern Sayan Mountains. In general, the mountains are low (no higher than 1500 m above sea level). The highest ridges are Yablonevy, Nerchinsky, Vitimskoe and Patomskoe highlands.

The lowest areas of intermontane depressions (600-800 m) are occupied by dry steppes with chestnut soils, higher (800-1200 m) - by chernozems.

At an altitude of 1000-1200 m on the northern slopes of the hills, gray forest soils are formed, a little higher - mountain permafrost sod-taiga, and on rocks of light granulometric composition - mountain podzolic soils. The uppermost “alpine” belt is occupied by mountain-tundra and mountain-meadow subalpine soils (Kaurichev, Panov, Rozov, etc.).

FEATURES OF AGRICULTURAL USE

The soils of the mountainous regions are mainly used as meadow-pasture and hayfields. Most of the rangelands are located in the mountain-tundra, mountain-meadow and mountain-steppe zones.

In intermontane and low-mountain basins (Gorny Altai), on chernozem and chestnut soils, grain, grain fodder and fodder crops are cultivated for the needs of animal husbandry. In the lower mountains, in addition, industrial crops (hops, potatoes, beets) are cultivated, and horticulture has developed.

The use of soils in mountainous areas is limited by the strong development of water erosion and especially mudflows. In the development and use of soils, soil protection measures are very important: forest protection, regulation of runoff by means of anti-mudflow structures, the use of a special soil cultivation system, terracing and afforestation of slopes, the correct use of pasture lands.

The introduction of organic and mineral fertilizers, liming of acidic soils, measures to increase the fertility of mountain soils are also necessary for their rational use.

Test questions and tasks

1. What is the essence of vertical soil zoning? 2. Name the features of soil formation in mountainous regions. 3. Give examples of vertical zonation of different mountain systems. 4. What are the features economic use soils of mountainous areas?

MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN, "" "". ORDER OF THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION

AND THE ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER STATE UNIVERSITY named after M.V. LOMONOSOV

FACULTY OF SOILS

As a manuscript

VLADYCHENSKY Alexander Sergeevich

peculiarities mountain soil formation ii "optimization of the soil-steep cover of mountains (silt, for example, the mountain systems of the subbarezlanago gummdipgo and the subtropical coitineyatazhyga tyapav)

Specialty- 03.00.27 - Soil Science

MOSCOW - 1994

The work was carried out at the Department of General Soil Science, Faculty of Soil Science, Moscow state university named after M.V. Lomonosov.

Official opponents: Doctor of Geographical Sciences

B. L. Ayadonnyuyev

Doctor of Agricultural Sciences

doctor biological sciences I. O. Karaachevskiy;

Lead organization: Institute of Soil Science and Photosynthesis

Ran (pshgao-on-Oka).

The defense will take place on October 28, 1994 at 15:00. 30 minutes. in room M-2 at a meeting of the specialized council D.053.05.31 at Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov at the address: 11В899, Moscow, Vorobyovy Gory, Moscow State University, Faculty of Soil Science.

The thesis can be found in the library of the Faculty of Soil Science, Moscow State University.

Scientific secretary of the specialized council

L, A. Lebedeva

1. Introduction.

1.1 Relevance of teyy.

Mountain systems occupy a quarter of the land Globe... Their nature has many peculiar features that distinguish mountains from the early ones and make it possible to combine a very various complexes landscapes from the tropics to polar belt... The peculiarity of mountain ecosystems determines both the peculiarities of soil formation and the nature of the use of mountain soils. Many researchers consider these features to be so significant that they assert the thesis about the specificity of mountain soil formation and mountain soils in general. There is also a directly opposite opinion, and this question, apparently, can be considered open to this day. The mechanisms of the formation of mountain soils, the specific manifestation of the factors of soil formation in the mountains, the features of the sets and complexes of elementary soil processes have not been sufficiently studied to date.

The mountain systems of the globe are extremely diverse. The problems of mountain soil formation cannot be solved without taking into account their regional and local features, and the theoretical groundwork of modern soil science in this respect certainly requires expansion.

Finally, due to quite understandable objective difficulties, the soil cover of mountains has been studied much less poorly than that of the soil cover of plain territories. Many soils raise questions both in relation to their genetic nature and position in the classification.

The nature of the soil cover of mountains and mountain landscapes as a whole determines the nature of their economic, including agricultural development. Main feature Agriculture in the mountains is the prevalence of extensive handicaps. This determines a strong anthropogenic impact on the landscape envelope, primarily on the soil cover. This poses a series of problems in terms of studying the stability and degradation processes of the soil cover of mountains, which also cannot be considered resolved to date.

1.2. Purpose of work.

On the basis of a coupled study of the factors of soil formation and soils in the main altitudinal zones of mountain systems of the subboreal humid and subtropical continental types, to reveal the features of the manifestation of the factors of soil formation in mountain conditions, the characteristic features of soils and the formation of soil cover.

To achieve these goals of everyday life, the following tasks have been set:

1.2.1. Study of the peculiarities of the influence on soil formation of climate, relief and vegetation in mountain systems of the studied types.

1.2.2. Study of the specific features of mountain soil

and mountain soils.

1.2.3. Study of the consequences of anthropogenic impact on mountain soils and soil stability.

1.3. Research objects.

The gorse systems of the Earth are extremely diverse, and therefore it is hardly advisable to study the problems of mountain soil formation in general, without taking into account the peculiarities of a particular mountainous country. Mountain systems of subboreal humid and subtropical continental types were chosen as the objects of research in this work. The first of them is represented by the Western Caucasus, within which the main studies were carried out in the upper part of the Kuban basin. The subtropical continental type is represented by the mountains of the Southwestern Tien Shan, where the bulk of the research was carried out on the slopes of the Fergana and Alai ranges.

1.4. Scientific novelty of research results.

Based on a comparative analysis of soil formation and soils of mountain systems of subboreal guyid and subtropical continental types, the mechanisms are disclosed and the essence of the specificity of mountain soil formation is shown, which consists in the following:

1.4.1. Forest and meadow ecosystems of mountains are formed in a relatively more wet conditions with a maximum precipitation in the late spring - early summer period and with a less contrasting temperature conditions compared with similar ecosystems of the plains.

1.4.2. The dominant influence on the structure of the soil cover of the high-altitude zones is exerted by the exposure of the slopes; the effect of altitude is absent or very small.

1.4.3. The soil cover of the mountains is composed of soils that are less common or absent on the plains, which is most clearly manifested in the highlands. Mountain meadow soils are formed in specific bioclimatic conditions and have properties that are not typical for soils of grass ecosystems of plains, and the soil cover of the meadow belt has a pronounced spatial heterogeneity, controlled by microclimatic conditions and the nature of the biological cycle.

1.4.4. In the conditions of northern meeslopes in the forest belt of mountains of a subtropical continental type, due to the unique biochemical conditions, high-humus brown-colored slide-differentiated soils are formed, including black-brown soils of walnut-fruit forests, unique in their humus state, and proposed for isolation as an independent type. -brown soils of juniper forestry.

1.5. Protected band.

The concept of mountain soil formation is presented for protection; based

adhering to the following provisions:

1.5.1. Mountain soil formation is a specific form of soil formation process, similar to forest, hydromorphic, etc.

1.5.2. The combination of soil formation factors in the mountains is specific and has no analogues on the plains.

1.5.3. The soil cover of the mountains is specific; it contains a wide range of soils that are absent or rarely found on the plains.

1.5.4. The structure of the soil cover of mountains is controlled by specific laws of altitudinal zonality and exposure differentiation, which are fundamentally different from the laws of latitudinal zoning and beveling, which describe the structure of the soil cover of the plains.

1.6. The practical significance of the work.

The main provisions of the work can serve as a theoretical * basis for constructing and clarifying the existing provisions for the classification of brown-colored poorly differentiated soils, which form the basis of the soil cover of the mountains of the studied types. Research results (“one can be used as a theoretical basis for planning agricultural (pasture) and forestry use of the respective territories, for standardizing anthropogenic loads, as well as when developing recommendations for the restoration of mountain ecosystems exposed to anthropogenic loads. They can be used to develop a system of soil and environmental monitoring.

The main provisions of the dissertation are presented in 32 publications. The results of the studies presented in the work were reported and discussed at meetings of the Department of General Soil Science, Faculty of Soil Science, Moscow State University (1989, 1994), as well as at seminars on mountain soil formation of the same department. They were presented at the VI and VIII delegate congresses of the GP, at the All-Union meeting on mountain soil formation in Kobuleti (1988), at the international conference on soil classification (Kzh ~ ya-Ata, 1988).

1.8. Structure and scope of work.

The dissertation consists of an introduction, five chapters, a conclusion, conclusions, a bibliography and annexes. The thesis is presented on ¿UX pages and contains 3 figures and ro tables. The list of literary sources includes ¿^ "titles of works of domestic and foreign literature.

2. nPGBJEÜA SAYESH1EYASHSGA MINING P0CHVOVZ? DZO! ShKa.

Mountains occupy more than a fifth of the Earth's land mass. Mountain landscapes differ sharply from plain ones both physiognomically and in the processes taking place in them. The unusual nature of the mountains makes us assume a certain originality of their soil cover. Most often

Peculiarities of mountain soil formation are considered to be the dominant role of the relief, which manifests itself through the wide development of slope processes, the formation of soils on the small-parched cover of the weathering products of dense rocks, and some others. The difference in views on the significance of these features has led to the emergence of a controversial problem of the specificity of mountain soil formation, the existence of which is rejected by some authors and recognized by others. Moreover, the very concept of specificity is often interpreted differently.

For the first time, VV Dokuchaev (1949) touched on this issue in his famous work "To the study of natural zones", where he defined the mountain soils of the Caucasus as analogs of plain soils, and analogous altitudinal zonality with latitudinal zonality. Subsequently, the question of the specificity of mountain soil formation was posed more definitely. A number of authors (Zakharov, 1914; Gerasimov, 1948, 1981; Kovda, 1973; Mamytov, 1974, 1987) consider mountain soil formation to be specific, and it is assumed that this position should be taken into account at the classification level.

The opposite position includes the opinions of authors who deny the presence of specificity in mountain soil formation (Glazovskaya, 1972, 1973; Urushadze, 1979a, 19796; 1987 and some others), which, in their opinion, leads to the formation of soils identical to those on the plains. In a peculiar way, according to this point of view, the mountains have not soils, but soil cover.

Another view of mountain soil formation summarizes the provisions according to which the presence of soils characteristic only of mountainous countries is recognized, but the specificity of mountain soil formation and mountain soils is rejected.

Thus, there is big variety views on mountain soil formation and mountain soils, which are reduced not only to the assertion or denial of the specificity of mountain soil formation; take place significant differences in the interpretation of the very concept of specificity. In the context of the problems outlined, this study was carried out.

3. OSHYUGEOGRASHCHSHY SKETCH OF THE WESTERN CAUCASUS 11 SHZAPADSHGO TYAN-WAN.

The huge variety of mountain systems of the Earth makes it incorrect to talk about mountains in general. The paper considers mountain systems of two types, common in the subboreal and subtropical belts: the subboreal humid, an example of which was chosen the Western Kaekae, and the subtropical continental, represented by the mountains of the Western Tien Shan. The most significant characteristic of the mountain system is the altitudinal zonation. Before describing it for each of the studied gsrky systems, it is advisable to give some other physical

co-geographical features.

3.1. Western Caucasus.

Greater Caucasus- the main part of the Caucasian mountainous country - stretches from the northwest to the southeast from the Taman Peninsula to the Absheron Peninsula for a distance of about 1500 km. According to the distribution of heights and other physical and geographical features, the Greater Caucasus is subdivided into several parts; a typical example of the altitudinal zonation of the subboreal humid type is the Western Caucasus, where the studies presented in this work were carried out. In this region of the Caucasus, the altitudinal zonality of this type is expressed as follows.

The steppes of the foothills and low mountains, under which chernozems are formed, are replaced at an altitude of about 500 meters with a belt of broad-leaved, mainly oak-beech-hornbeam forests, under the canopy of which mainly burozems develop. At an altitude of 1300-1500 meters, it is replaced by a belt of coniferous (spruce, fir, pine) forests, within which the prevailing® ™ type of soil is also burozems. The upper border of the belt coniferous forests is at the level of 2000-2300 meters; Eyshe is a belt of subalpine meadows with mountain meadow subalpine soils, replaced at an altitude of about 2500 meters by a belt of alpine meadows with mountain meadow alpine soils. Its upper border lies at an altitude of about 3000 meters above sea level. The subnival belt, which does not have a continuous soil cover, the upper boundary of which is the limit of distribution of higher plants and the nival belt, where rocks, talus, snowfields and glaciers dominate, crown the system of altitudinal zonation of the Western Caucasus.

3.2. South-Zaladnky Tyak-yzk.

Tien Shan is a huge mountainous country belonging to the highest mountain systems of the Eurasian mountain belt, which crosses the entire continent in the latitudinal direction from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic. Within the borders of the Central Asian states adjacent to Russia, the Tien Shan is subdivided into several physical and geographical regions; the altitudinal zonation of the subtropical continental type is clearly expressed in the mountains of the Southwestern Tien Shan, on the slopes of the Fergana and Alai ridges, where the studies were carried out, which formed part of this work. In this area of the Tien Shan, the altitudinal zonality of this type is manifested in the following.

Its lower fragment is represented by subtropical semi-deserts occupying foothill plains, foothills up to heights of 700-800 meters. The basis of their soil cover is made by sierozem. Above is the steppe belt, the soil cover of which is represented by gray-brown soils. At an altitude of about 1000 meters, it is replaced by a forest belt, replaced by a subalpine and even higher alpine belts represented by ecosystems

mami of mountain meadows, meadow-steppes and steppes. The lower border of the nival belt is located at 3800 meters.

The described general characteristics of the altitudinal zonality of the Southwestern Tien Shak in its various parts has its own characteristics. On the slopes of the northwestern tip of the Fergana ridge top part semi-desert belts and most of the steppe belt are occupied by pistachio woodlands. Forest belt, upper bound which lies here at an altitude of 2000 meters, is represented by a kind of unique walnut-fruit forests. On the northern macrosugon of the Alai ridge, the basis of the forest belt is represented by juniper (juniper) forests, which occupy a large altitude range. Their upper limit reaches 3000 meters, and sometimes even higher marks.

4. FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION.

Following the leading position of genetic soil science on the unity of soils and factors of soil formation, it is advisable to start considering the features of the formation of soils and soil cover of mountains with an analysis of the factors. The main attention is paid to the study of the role of climate, relief and vegetation in mountain soil formation. Parent rocks have not been considered, which, however, in no way means an underestimation of their role in soil formation. Their importance as a factor of soil formation has been studied in detail in the works of B.B. Polynov, V.A. Kovda and other classics of genetic soil science. Further study of their influence on soil formation can be the subject of a large-scale independent study, the tasks of which are beyond the scope of this work.

4.1. Climate

The climate, acting as a factor of soil formation, determines the nature of the soil-forming process, and the differentiation of climate within the earth's surface leaves an imprint on the composition and structure of the soil cover, forming, in particular, the system of its latitudinal vocality ..

The climatic factor is very complex, therefore, when assessing it, it is usually characterized by two parameters that are essential for soil formation: heat and moisture supply, which determine the hydrothermal features of the climate. To assess these parameters, the most correct is the use of balance sheet indicators. For heat loss, this value is the radiation balance, for moisture supply - the indicator of productive moisture, calculated as the difference between the amount of precipitation and surface runoff; this indicator allows one to take into account the moisture used for the processes of soil formation, photosynthesis and evapotranspiration. The ratio of two balance quantities (productive moisture V to radiation balance

R) represents the hydrohermal coefficient proposed by A.M. Ryabchikov (1972).

By virtue of the calculation of this coefficient by the balance method, it was he who was chosen from the whole variety of different hydrothermal climate indicators.

The values of this coefficient are clearly differentiated for the landscapes of various natural zones of the plains. TPK, for landscapes of the taiga, mixed and broadleaf forests the characteristic values of the GTC are from 10 to 13, for the forest-steppe - from 7 to 10; for the steppes, its values range from 4 to 7. These regularities are fully illustrated in Fig. 1 (Ryabchikov, 1972). All the variety of land landscapes of the Earth's land is kept within the "field of life" with clearly defined boundaries.

Consideration of the SCC of various altitudinal zones of mountains, calculated from the data of observations of more than 40 meteorological stations, shows that the hydrothermal parameters of soil formation in mountain landtafts differ from those of plain territories. Some mountain landscapes do not fit into the W / R field, which captures the whole variety of flat land landscapes. The position of the points characterizes mountain landscapes (Fig. 1), showing that the latter are formed in the center in relatively humid and somewhat colder conditions in comparison with similar landscapes.

R, kcal / cm2 * year

HEIGHT BELTS

"* Steppe belt" "belt of deciduous forests

ao coniferous belt

forests hell. meadow belt

o 5o "o ....... icTdö" V läoo

Fig. 1. "Khizmi field" of the Earth and the position of mountain landscapes in it

the shafts of the plains. Moreover, for high-mountain landscapes, this is most pronounced. The greatest discrepancy occurs for the meadow belt, to a somewhat lesser extent it is expressed for the belt of coniferous forests. For landscapes below located belts, this discrepancy is manifested to a somewhat lesser extent or is absent altogether. In other words, soil formation in the highlands and partly in the forest belt (at least in its upper part) proceeds under peculiar hydrothermal conditions that have no analogues on the plains.

Analysis of climatographs, allowing to take into account seasonal changes climate shows that in the belt of coniferous forests there is a slightly more contrasting precipitation regime and often lower temperature fluctuations, as well as a slight shift in the maximum precipitation on Sole early date in comparison with the ecosystems of the taiga zone.

The characteristic features of the climate of mountain meadows are low, sometimes negative average annual temperatures, a smooth course of the temperature curve, a relatively uniform distribution of precipitation throughout the year with a maximum in the late spring-early summer period and an unusually large gap between the curves of precipitation and temperature at a low location of the latter. The analysis of the graphs shows that climatically the ecosystems of mountain meadows have no analogues, as evidenced by the comparison of their climatographs with those of the ecosystems of the polar, boreal, subboreal and subtropical belts, as well as other high-altitude zones of mountains. Some ecosystems of humid subtropics have a large gap between the curves of temperature and precipitation, but it still does not reach the same size as for the mountain-meadow belt; in addition, in the subtropics, naturally, the temperature curve is much higher. The taiga and steppe ecosystems of the subboreal belt differ from the ecosystems of the mountain-meadow belt both in the relatively close arrangement of the curves, especially in the steppes, and in a different distribution of precipitation throughout the year.

Noteworthy is the nature of the change climatic conditions with height in the system of altitudinal zonality. As noted above, under the conditions of the plains during the transition from forest landscapes to grassy landscapes, a decrease in the values of the hydrothermal coefficient takes place. In the transition to treeless tundra landscapes, they remain close to those in forests. In the mountains, its highest values are characteristic of the herbaceous ecosystems of the meadow belt; in the forest belt, they are much less. In other words, in the mountains, the transition from forest to grassy landscapes is different from that in the plains. It is neither like the transition from forest to steppes, in which the climate becomes relatively warmer and drier, nor like the transition from forests to tundra, when the climate becomes colder and drier. In the mountains, during the transition from the forest belt to the meadow zone, the climate changes in

side of humidification and cooling. This is what leads to the formation of a kind of mountain meadow ecosystems that have no analogues on the plains; it is this that gives reason to believe that the altitudinal zonality is not an analogue of latitudinal zoning. Soil formation in grassy mountain ecosystems occurs in relatively colder and wetter conditions as compared to forest ones, i.e. a pattern appears opposite to that on the plains.

The foregoing allows us to conclude that the main regularity in the differentiation of the nature of mountainous countries - the altitudinal zonality of landscapes - has fundamentally completely different mechanisms than latitudinal zoning... The essence of these natural phenomena is different, and it is probably impossible to identify them.

4.2 Relief.

The relief, which largely determines the appearance of the earth's surface, is one of the most characteristic physiognomic features of landscapes. The relief is often referred to as the leading factor in soil formation in the mountains; VV Dokuchaev figuratively called the mountainous relief "the arbiter of soil destinies". The influence of relief on soil formation in the mountains is specific and very diverse.

The direct influence of the relief, as is known, is expressed in the movement of soil and soil masses along the slope under the influence of gravity. With all possible complexity systematics of the processes of such movement, they can be divided into two large groups: movement of soil particles: eggs in the form of a suspension in a water (or wind) stream - water erosion and deflation and movement of soil-soil masses proper along the slope (landslide phenomena, solifluction).

In the mountains, the predominant form of slope processes is the movement of soil and soil masses along the slope, and the proportion of processes of surface soil washout is small; this is due to both the originality of the mountainous relief and the small agricultural development of mountainous areas.

Landslides, solifluction and similar movements of soil-ground masses are a necessary component of mountain soil formation and lead to the formation, on the one hand, of soils with reduced profiles, and on the other, soils with buried horizons, buried and polycyclic profiles.

Landslide and solifluction phenomena are widespread in the zone of action of such a slope process specific for mountains as snow avalanches... Their direct eroding effect on the soil cover is small; at the same time, the increased moisture content of avalanche troughs causes landslides and solifluction.

One of the main manifestations indirect influence relief on pschvo-

education is a system of altitudinal zonation of landscapes and soils. Her characteristic feature is the decrease with height in the differences in soils belonging to different mountain systems. The soils of the foothills and foothills of the mountain systems under consideration are represented by very far apart soils - chernozems (Western Caucasus) and sierozem (Southwestern Tien Shan). Soil cover upper belts these mountains are represented by identical or similar soils - respectively mountain meadow and mountain meadow steppe in combination with mountain meadow soils.

The influence of the exposure of slopes on the features of soil formation and the structure of the soil cover was noted in the works of V.M. Frvdland (1984), V.L. Andronnikov and G.A. Shershukova (1978), S. Kerimkhanov (1981), Yu.A. Liverovsky, D.G., Vilenskiy, S.S. Sobolev, M.S. Gilyarova ^ et al (1949), V.F. Samusenko et al (1985).

The structure of the soil cover within the high-altitude 6-belt has been poorly studied, although the soil formation conditions change significantly depending on the exposure of the slope and in height, especially if we take into account that the strike of the belt in height reaches 1 kilometer or more. The study was carried out in two ways: by analyzing soil-geomorphological profiles covering slopes of different exposures, and by comparing a large number soils with the distribution of sampling points over the entire altitude range of the belt and slopes of various exposures using cluster analysis.

The belt of coniferous forests of the Western Caucasus covers the range from 1300 to 2300 m above sea level. The soil formation conditions have a more pronounced exposure than altitudinal differentiation: in particular, the vegetation cover of the northern slopes is represented by dark coniferous (spruce and fir) forests, and the southern ones - by pine forests. Analysis of soil-geomorphological profiles, conjugately laid on the slopes of the northern and southern exposures on. throughout the entire elevation of the belt, he did not find differences in soils either in height or in exposure - everywhere the soil cover is represented by burozems, close to weakly unsaturated burozems. Cluster analysis, carried out for more than 40 sections for more than 30 features, also showed the complete absence of any differentiation in terms of both height and exposure. Thus, despite certain differences in the conditions of soil formation, the soil cover does not show differentiation here. ■<

The forest belt of mountains of the subtropical continental type - the Southwestern Tien Shan - is represented by two groups of forest formations, forming a belt of walnut-fruit and a belt of juniper (juniper) forests. The study of the structure of the soil cover, carried out according to the same scheme as in the Caucasus, showed a completely different picture.

The belt of walnut-fruit forests, stretching from 1000 to 2000 meters above sea level, has a pronounced exposure differentiation of both vegetation and soil cover. The southern mesoslopes are occupied by xerophytic forests and shrubs, under which brown soils are formed. The slopes of the northern and close to it expositions are occupied by black-brown soils under mesophytic walnut forests, i.e., soils of different types are formed on the slopes of different exposures.

In the zone of juniper forests, the main massifs of which are concentrated at heights from 1500 to 3000 meters, a pronounced differentiation of the soil cover was also found, due to the exposure of the slopes. On the southern slopes, brown soils are located under the canopy of low-yield juniper forests; on the northern slopes, under much more productive communities of juniper forests, brown-brown soils are formed.

Thus, in the mountains of the subtropical continental type, there is a clearly expressed exposure differentiation of the soil cover; on the slopes of different exposures, there are soils of different types. Altitudinal differentiation within the forest belt is much less pronounced or absent altogether; the described structure of the soil cover, counterblit by exposure, is manifested in the entire altitude range of the belt.

The absence of altitudinal differentiation of the soil cover within the forest belt of mountains, which has a large (up to 1000 s and more) altitudinal extent, allows us to make an assumption about the significant influence of inversion phenomena on the formation of ecosystems in the forest belt. they are common both in terms of vegetation cover and soil, represented by brown-cut, poorly differentiated soils (brown burozems and those close to them).

The initial reason for the exposure differentiation of the soil cover is the difference in the hydrothermal regime of different slopes, "due to the unequal arrival of solar radiation on them. The close latitudinal location of the Caucasus and the Tien Shan - near the 42nd parallel - determines the potentially close arrival of solar radiation on the horizontal surface. The slopes of the southern exposure can receive direct solar radiation in comparison with northern ones B-10 times more in winter and 1.2-1.5 times more in summer; during the growing season, southern slopes receive 1.6-3 times more direct solar radiation. more than the differences between natural zones or high-altitude zones.

The severity of the exposure differentiation of landscapes and soils depends on the share of direct solar radiation in the radiation balance, which

is determined by the duration of sunshine, which in turn depends on the degree of continentality of the climate. The number of cloudless days in the Southwestern Tien Shan is 100, and in the Western Caucasus - about 60; this also determines the different duration of sunshine, which in the Western Caucasus is no more than 2/3 of that in the Southwestern Tien Shan. This is what determines the different manifestation of exposure differentiation in mountain systems of different types.

Thus, exposure differentiation controls the structure of the soil cover within the altitudinal belt. It is advisable to consider this provision as the law of soil geography, which describes the structure of the soil cover of mountainous countries. Its effect is more pronounced in mountain systems of continental types.

4.3 Vegetation.

Is the vegetation cover the main agent of the biological factor? soil formation. Its functions are realized through the biological circulation of elements. The influence of the biological cycle on soil formation is multifaceted and includes such important components of soil formation as the formation of an organoprofile, soil enrichment with biophilic elements, etc. under coniferous forests. From this point of view, the biological cycle in the coniferous forests of the Caucasus and Tien Shan was analyzed.

Coniferous forests, especially in the Caucasus, are very similar to the coniferous forests of the taiga zone both physiognomically, and in the structure of phytocenoses, and in floristic composition. Their soil cover is completely different.

The coniferous forests of the Western Caucasus are composed mainly of three forest-forming species: Nordman fir (Aales Nordmannlana), eastern spruce (Picea orientalIs) and hooked pine (Plnus hamata). The first information about the elements of the biological cycle under the dark coniferous forests of the Western Caucasus is given in the well-known work of S.V. Zonn (1951), who studied the free composition of the litter of dark coniferous forests. The coniferous forests of the Tien Shan are represented by two groups of forest formations: spruce forests of the Shrenk spruce (Picea Schrenklana), located mainly in the Northern Tien Shan on the slopes of the Terskiy-Ala-Too and Kungei-Ala-Too ranges and in the Dzhungarskiy Ala-Tay, and juniper (juniper) forests, the main areas of which are concentrated in the South-Western Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai. The biological cycle in the spruce forests of the Tien Shan was studied in detail by N.O. Kozhevnikova and V.N. Vtorova (1988); the biological cycle in juniper stands was thoroughly studied by R.D. Golovina (1989).

Coniferous forests of the mountain systems of the subboreal humid (Western Caucasus), subboreal continental (spruce forests of the Tien Shan) and

subtropical continental (juniper forests of the Southwestern Tien Shan) types have a number of common features of the biological cycle. These include, first of all, the leading role of calcium. At all stages of the transformation of organic matter from phytomass to forest litter and the water-soluble substances produced by it, calcium accounts for about half, and often more, of the total content and reserves of ash elements, exceeding the content and reserves of nitrogen. The total ash content is also very high. This sharply distinguishes the mountain coniferous forests, including the forests of the Western Caucasus growing in the most humid climate, from the coniferous forests of the taiga zone and brings them together with deciduous forests.

Differences in the types of biological circulation lead to the formation of different geochemical landscapes. The southern taiga is characterized by acidic class (H-class) landscapes (Perelman, 1975). In the belt of coniferous forests of the mountain systems of the studied types, landscapes of the transitional (H-Ca) or calcium (Ca) classes are formed.

The general features of the biological cycle lead to a certain proximity of the soils that form in the forest dog. Without going into details and debatable problems of their taxonomy, we note that in the overwhelming majority of them they are represented by brown-colored, poorly differentiated soils - burozems and, to a lesser extent, brown and similar soils, which are included, in accordance with the legend of the soil map of the world (1990), in group of cambisols.

It is the features of the biological cycle that determine the weak manifestation of eluvial processes and the absence of eluvial-illuvial differentiation of soil profiles.

4.4. Features of Yroyanlanip soil formation factors about ropas.

The set of soil formation factors is the same for all landscapes of the Earth; in this sense, there are no differences between mountains and plains. There is no specific "mountain" factor in soil formation. However, the manifestation of each factor in the mountains is specific and different from that in the plains. This specificity is manifested in the following.

Peculiar climatic conditions are formed in the mountains, which have no analogues in plain landscapes. Mountain soils, especially alpine landscapes, are formed in a relatively humid and colder climate; this combination of heat and moisture factors does not occur on the plains. These differences increase with height. The change of forest landscapes with grass landscapes with height is accompanied by cooling and an increase in moisture, which is not found on the plains in the system of latitudinal zoning. Altitudinal zonality and latitudinal zoning are not identical phenomena, which are based on different mechanisms.

The specificity of the influence of relief on soil formation is manifested in

the fact that the predominant form of slope processes in the mountains are landslide and solifluction movements of soil-ground masses, leading to the formation of soils with buried horizons and polycyclic profiles. The relief has a significant impact on the structure of the system of altitudinal zonation of landscapes and soils, determining the differentiation of the soil cover within the altitudinal belt. In other words, the leading factor determining the structure of the soil cover in mountainous countries is the orographic factor.

The relief determines the nature of the hydrological regime of mountain soils. The excellent drainage of mountain landscapes determines the absence of the influence of groundwater on soil formation, and the very concept of the level of groundwater in the mountains has no real meaning. Therefore, in the mountains of the types under consideration, the water regime of the flushing, periodically flushing and, less often, non-flushing types prevails. At the same time, the essence of these concepts is somewhat specific, since the moisture of atmospheric precipitation does not merge with soil-ground waters, but their discharge occurs, apparently. through lateral flow into numerous watercourses of various orders.

The biological factor of soil formation is also distinguished by its originality. Mountain coniferous forests, despite many similarities with taiga forests, are characterized by a completely different type of biological cycle. the main feature of which is a large capacity, a high content of ash elements and the dominant role of calcium in it. This brings them closer to deciduous forests.

In addition to the originality of the manifestation of one or another factor of soil formation in the mountains, their combination, the ratio between the manifestation of each of them, is specific. Using the terminology of Ya.M. Godelman (1077), which he used to characterize the combination of elementary soil processes, we can say that the set (set) of soil formation factors in the mountains is not specific, at the same time, their complex (a set with a certain ratio of manifestation of each of them) is such.

e. SOIL OF WESTERN CAUCASUS AND SOUTH-WESTERN TYAN-YIAN.

The specific conditions of soil formation also determine the originality of the soil cover of the mountains. It is dominated by poorly differentiated brown colored soils (Rozanov, 1977). Their set is very wide. A certain proportion of them are soils found only in the mountains, in particular, mountain meadow soils. Many mountain soils are also found in flat conditions, but in the mountains their proportion in the soil cover is immeasurably higher. The latter should include burozems, which form the basis of the soil cover of the forest belt of mountains.

5.1. Burozems.

A very large number of publications have been devoted to the characterization of burozems and the peculiarities of their genesis. In domestic soil science, the first recognition of the possibility of the formation of burozems in the mountainous countries of the subboreal and subtropical belts under forest vegetation of a certain composition was the publication of the famous article by L.I. Prasolov (1929). Several years later, the main provisions in the study of brown soil formation were formulated by B.B. Polynov (1936, 1937). Subsequently, the problems of brown soil formation were thoroughly discussed in the works of S.V. Zonn (1950, 1974); I.P. Gerasimov (1959), V.M. Fridland (1953), B.G. Rozanova (1977), T.F. Urushadze (1987) and others. Studied in the Caucasus (Zonn, 1950; 0ridland, 1953; Urushadze, 1987), in the Carpathians (Vernander, 1947; Gogolev, 1960, 1967; Kanivets, 1991; Topolny, 1991). burozems were subsequently described within other mountain systems: in the Urals (Firsova, 1968; Firsova, Pavlova, 1S83; Firsova, Der-gacheva, 1970); in the northern Tien Shan (Rusakova. 1985; Grishina, Rusakova, 1983).

Diagnostics of burozems is based on several principles. The most commonly used diagnostic criteria are: poor differentiation of the soil profile; its brown color; accumulation of non-silicate iron compounds in the upper part of the profile; acidic or slightly acidic reaction of the entire profile or its upper part; claying of the soil profile, mainly its middle part (formation of the metamorphic horizon W). With regard to the last feature, I must say. what. on the one hand, oya is inherent in many soils of the mountain-forest belt. in particular, brown (Nakaidze. 1977,1980). On the other hand, during the formation of burozems on the products of weathering of dense rocks, which is typical for most mountainous regions, clay formation is often very weak and its diagnosis is difficult.

Thus, the soils that make up the type of burozems are characterized by properties that often fluctuate within very wide limits. Often soils are referred to burozems that do not meet the criteria considered diagnostic; so, for example, this is the case when burozems are isolated without worming of the middle part of the profile. Therefore, important features from the point of view of diagnostics and less studied “genetically” can be considered their humus state and the content of various forms of iron compounds in them. It is these features that are given attention in this work.

Burozems of the Western Caucasus in the belt of coniferous forests are formed under dark coniferous and light coniferous forests, the characteristics of which are given above. Soil-forming rocks are represented here by the products of weathering of granites and, less often, shale. These are acidic soils with low storage capacity.

cathmon exchange, weakly saturated with bases, characterized by a high humus content. They are distinguished by a light particle size distribution and a low silt content, usually not exceeding 10% (Table 1).

An important diagnostic and essential characteristic of burozems is the content and distribution of various iron compounds along the profile. According to S.Z. Zonnu (1982), burozems are characterized by a predominance and increase with depth of the content of weakly crystallized forms of iron with a decrease in the content of amorphous and highly crystallized forms of iron.

In the studied soils, silicate iron is absolutely predominant. Its share in the total amount of iron ranges from 70 to 90 percent and more, which is apparently natural for soils formed on the products of weathering of dense rocks (especially granites). This gives grounds to classify the studied soils as belonging to the siallitic group.

Other characteristic features in the content and distribution of groups and forms of iron compounds in the studied burozems are: dominance among the compounds of crystallized iron of its weakly crystallized forms, and in the group of amorphous compounds - a slight prevalence of compounds associated with humus; higher content of amorphous iron compounds in comparison with crystallized ones.

The organoprofile of the considered soils is distinguished primarily by the coarse nature of humus, which, in combination with the features of the forest litter, which in most cases consists of several subhorizons, makes it possible to characterize the organoprofiles of brown soils under fir, spruce and beech forests as moor, and under pine forests as moor or moor. ...

The fractional composition of humus (Fig. 2) has a number of common features characteristic of all burozems under various plant formations. The most representative in the composition of humus is the I fraction of humic acids. Humic acids of this fraction account for about 3/4 of their total content. The leading role of this fraction in the composition of humus is one of the most characteristic features of the humus state of mountain burozems. Fulvic acids of this fraction make up about half of all fulvic acids, that is, they are also the most representative fraction.

The content of humic acids of the II fraction is low, but they are present in all horizons of the soil profile. The Сгк / Сфк ratio fluctuates around unity in the humus horizons, decreasing with depth. This gives grounds to classify the humus of the studied burozems as humate-fulvate and fulvate-humate types. The coarse nature of humus determines the low value of the degree of humification of organic matter - and low optical densities of humic acids.

Against the background of the general features of the humus state of the soils of the forest belt, certain differences should be noted between soils under different types of

BUROZEM PROPERTIES Table 1

Section Horizon С N PH EKO СНО Jelly 3 0

height depth, X% m-zkv X g of gross

m cm 100 g Shaft-Groups Forms hour- hour-

voye Sili- Svo- Okris-Amortitsy

katnoe! bodn. tadl. fnoe<0,01 <0,00

Pikh-A 4-15 13.50 0.60 22.5 4.6 35.44 46.7 2.07 86.27 13.73 6.37 7.35 29.5 10.0

tarnik AV 15-38 4.23 0.20 21.2 5.1 14.90 50.3 1.80 88.33 11.67 6.11 5.56 35.8 13.9

1600 V 38-54 1.81 0.19 9.5 5.2 9.42 67.4 1.92 91.67 8.33 4.17 4.17 23.9 9.2

VS 54t68 0.74 0.14 5.3 5.1 5.74 80.8 2.64 90.91 9.09 6.06 3.03 20.8 6.8

Elyshk A 5-24 6.42 0.45 14.3 4.9 10.87 43.2 3.60 86.94 13.06 4.17 8.89 38.8 7.8

AB 24-46 4.83 0.30 16.1 5.1 25.08 11.6 3.72 90.86 9.14 0.27 8.87 24.0 7.1

1600 V 46-64 2.61 0.19 13.7 5.3 28.45 27.6 4.68 84.83 15.17 4.06 11.11 22.4 4.2

ВС 64-83 2.38 0.12 19.8 5.5 21.60 n.o. and.ab. but. but. but. but. 23.5 4.6

Pine A 2-12 5.81 0.34 17.1 5.6 21.06 51.0 6.24 88.94 11.06 3.04 8.01 13.0 5.2

AB 12-21 1.49 0.13 11.5 5.8 6.25 71.2 3.12 70.19 29.81 11.86 17.95 14.2 5.2

1600 V 21-36 0.66 0.09 7.3 5.7 8.65 42.5 4.08 87.99 12.01 2.45 9.56 15.0 4.6

EU 36-82 0.58 0.08 7.2 5.9 4.20 84.8 3.84 85.68 14.32 8.33 5.99 13.4 4.5

Buchnyak A 11-24 10.35 0.60 17.2 5.6 26.03 91.2 2.88 87.50 12.50 4.17 8.33 17.0 6.8

AB 24-35 2.61 0.35 7.5 5.9 7.79 100.0 2.16 81.02 18.98 7.41 11.57 23.5 8.9

1400 V 35-54 1.58 0.28 5.6 5.8-12.59 1st. 5 3.72 85.75 14.25 1.34 12.90 24.8 10.3

ВС 54-72 1.05 0.20 5.2 5.7 15.75 59.3 3.24 80.25 19.75 7.10 12.65 23.1 12.0

Humic acids Fulvic acids

50 40 20 О 20 40 60

Ш ГК1 (ШГК2 ЕЭпо BB te 1о E "К1 SI" kg в1 "a

Rice. 2. The composition of the humus of burozems

mi forests. The highest Cr / Cfc ratios, exceeding 1 in soils under spruce forests, give grounds to classify their humus as the fulvate-humate type, in contrast to other soils, where this ratio is usually less than 1. In soils of fir and beech forests, the proportion of humic acids in the composition of humus decreases from the humus horizon to the underlying ones, and the proportion of fulvic acids increases; in soils under pine and spruce forests, the proportion of both groups of humic acids increases due to a decrease in the proportion of "non-extractable residue, which leads to a less dramatic decrease in the humate-fulvate ratio down the soil profile.

The content of different fractions is not the same. The first fraction of humic acids, being predominant in all soils, makes up the largest part of humus in burozems of fir forests. Its share is slightly less under spruce and beech forests, and the minimum is in soils under pine forests. The proportion of non-extractable residue is higher in soils under spruce and pine forests.

The height and exposure of the slopes do not significantly affect the humus state of burozems.

In conclusion of the consideration of burozems of the Western Caucasus, it is necessary to express some considerations regarding the interpretation of their essence.

I in general and diagnostic problems in particular. The most unambiguously interpreted property of burozems is the presence in its profile metamorphically! clay horizon W. However, when they are formed on the products of weathering of dense rocks, which occurs in most cases in mountain ecosystems, such a horizon cannot always be diagnosed, although other properties and soil formation conditions do not contradict the assignment of these soils to burozems. T.Ya.Dronova and T.A. Sokolova (1981) point out the optional presence of a metamorphic clay horizon in the profile of these soils. Some authors, without directly declaring this position, cite the results of the granulometric analysis of soils classified as burozems, which indicate the absence of wedging of both the entire profile and its part (Urupadze, 1987).

In this regard, it seems appropriate to highlight the essential features of burozems that determine their essence and can be used in their diagnostics. These, on the basis of the above, as well as the judgments expressed in the cited works, include the following.

1. Close to unity huma-fulvate ratio with the prevalence of HA fraction I in the humus composition and the presence of HA fraction II throughout the profile.

2. Low values of the optical density of HA.

3. Dominance among compounds of crystallized iron of spruce-boocris-gallivated forms.

4. The predominance of amorphous iron compounds over crystallized ones, and in the group of amorphous compounds - a slight predominance of compounds associated with humus.

B. 2. Gsrpo-lugszsh soil.

Mountain meadow soils are among the soils found only in the mountains. They were studied by S.A. Zakharov (1914), Yu.A. Liverovski (1945), V.M. Fridlandoy (1966), A.N. Gennadiev (1978), A.I. Romazhevich (1988) and other researchers ... This work presents the results of studying the mountain meadow soils of the Western Caucasus. Mountain meadow soils are formed under peculiar conditions of soil formation. It is a humid cold climate, which, as shown above, has no analogues on the plains, and excellent drainage. The weathering products of granites and shales serve as soil-forming rocks. The nature of the biological cycle in mountain meadow biogeocenoses also has specific features.

The vegetation cover of the Adyghe meadows is characterized by high spatial heterogeneity. The most widespread are such plant communities as geranium-penny and variegated meadows, alpine wastelands and alpine carpets (Onipchenko, Minaeva,

Rabotnov, 1987). They occupy various areas of the mesorelief. Geranium-kopeck meadows are most typical on flat slopes; areas of variegated meadows and alpine carpets are located in shallow relief depressions; alpine wastelands occupy positive relief elements, upper parts of convex slopes and ridges. In accordance with this, the communities are differentiated by the thickness of the snow cover, which decreases in the order: Alpine carpets - geranium-penny meadows - alpine meadows - alpine wastelands (Biogeocenoses of the Alpine Wastelands, 1987). In this regard, the alpine wastelands, their soils and phytocenoses experience the strongest cooling in winter; Alpine carpets, protected in winter by the thickest layer of snow, are characterized by the latest onset of the growing season due to late melting of snowfields.

The studied plant communities of the alpine belt differ sharply in species composition. Variegated oyster meadows are distinguished by the absolute predominance of grasses, accounting for almost 907 of the total phytomass, including Festuca varla (75%) and Nardus stricta (11%). Alpine wastelands are characterized by a predominance of lichens (up to 75%), of which the bulk is Cetrarla islandlca (64%), Cladonia pyxldata (7.4%) .. less forbs, dominated by Campanula blebersteiniana (5%) and Antennaria dioica (6%). The distribution of phytomass by species is more uniform in the community of the geranium-penny meadow. Here, almost half of the phytomass is made up of herb species (including Geranium gymnocaulon 29%) and slightly less than a third - cereals (Festuca varla, F. brunnescens, Nardus stricta, Anthoxanthum odoratum). The share of legumes (Hedysarum caucaslcum 16%) is high. The distribution of phytomass among groups of species in alpine carpets is even more even. Here, the phytomass of alaks, forbs and shrubs makes up approximately equal shares; the rest is less than 10%.

The studied plant communities accumulate unequal amounts of phytomass. Its greatest amounts were found in variegated oyster (274 c / ha) and geranium-penny (214 c / ha) meadows, slightly smaller (188 c / ha) - in areas of alpine carpets. Minimal phyto. the mass of the alpine wastelands (149 kg / ha), while lichens make up almost 3/4 of its aboveground part. The phytomass contains a high proportion of dead organs. Their participation is especially significant in the phytomass of the variegated oyster meadow, where the stock of scrub exceeds the stock of aboveground biomass. - In other plant communities, the proportion of scrub is less. As in the overwhelming majority of meadow plant communities, the underground phytomass prevails over the aboveground one. This predominance is especially significant in communities of geranium-penny meadows and alpine carpets (the ratio of aboveground (Gltomass to underground 0.13-0.15).

The proportion of aboveground phytomass in communities of alpine wastelands is higher (the ratio of aboveground phytomass to underground phytomass is 0.5–0.8).

The communities of alpine meadows are characterized by a very sharp decrease in the stock of roots with depth. The upper twenty-centimeter soil layer contains 90 - 98X of all root reserves, while for meadow soils of the plains this figure is 70 - 95X.

The total content of ash elements is close in all considered plant communities and amounts to about 3%. In the communities of variegated oyster and geranium-rutted meadows, the largest share is potassium, for the alpine wastelands the predominance of calcium is characteristic, for the alps;<их ковров - азота. Запасы зольных элементов в изучаемых сообществах в целом соответствуют запасам фитомассы (рис. 3).

Mountain meadow soils forming under the communities of the alpine belt have a number of characteristic features (Table 2). They are distinguished by an acidic reaction, a relatively high cation exchange capacity, and unsaturation. The humus content is high in the humus horizon. decreases sharply with depth, which corresponds to the distribution of underground phytmass reserves. The humus has a rough character; sometimes a dry peat horizon is present in the profile, which makes it possible to classify the organoprofile of mountain meadow alpine soils as a moder.

The composition of humus is sharply dominated by fulvic acids (Fig. 4), that is, it belongs to the humate-fulvate to the fulvate type. In the composition of guinic acids, their first fraction absolutely predominates, the content of the second fraction is small, and in the lower horizons it is absent at all. The degree of humification of the bale.

The studied hot-meadow alpine soils are characterized by a specific humus state, which distinguishes them from flat soils under herbaceous vegetation. This is reflected in the relatively high content of Fulle acids in the composition of humus, which determines its humate-fulvate and fulvate type with a general high content of humus, a predominance of the first fraction in the composition of humic acids and a low degree of humification of organic matter. These features of the humus state can be explained by the climatic features of the alpine belt (low temperatures, a large amount of atmospheric precipitation, sharply prevailing over evaporation, contrasting temperature regime, short PVA). and also, the influence of the acid reaction of soils on the composition of humus. The remains of herbaceous plants, the chemical composition of which favors the formation of humus-type humus, humify under the peculiar bioclimatic and geochemical conditions of the alpine belt with the predominant formation of fulvic acids and the first fraction of humic acids in general.

Within the alpine belt, there is a significant heterogeneity of soil formation conditions, which is ultimately determined by the

N th Co 11d G "A1 R K N0 B Sum" m N SHZ All pusgyal Iam, "" ErZ Pktroeos. meadow VVZg “^ - jup. meadow

Rice. 3. Stocks of ash elements and nitrogen in alpine meadow communities

Humic acids

Fulvic acids

WITHOUT<т<

EZ G KZ Sh tkz

Rice. 4. The composition of the humus of mountain meadow alpine soils

micro- and partly mesorelief through the hydrothermal regime and the nature of the biological cycle. In other words, within the alpine belt, several types of ecosystems are distinguished with a characteristic complex of soil formation conditions in each of them. Therefore, the name of a particular plant community indicates not only character. ter of vegetation cover, but also simultaneously for the whole complex of other factors of soil formation, in particular, the features of the hydrothermal regime.

From these positions, it seems expedient to analyze the structure of the soil cover of the alpine belt and its relationship with the mentioned differentiation of soil formation conditions.

The morphological structure of the profile and the chemical properties of soils under all plant communities make it possible to classify them as mountain meadow alpine common medium-humus soils. In other words, even at the very bottom of the "catfish" taxonomic level, the soils of the alpine belt, which are formed under such different ecological conditions, do not show any differences.

Therefore, we compared the soils directly by their properties, for which the soils under each of the plant associations were characterized by seven polling points for more than twenty characteristics.

The conducted cluster analysis indicates the presence of a certain differentiation of the soil cover of the alpine belt of the Western Caucasus and the confinement of soils with certain) .® properties to certain plant communities with a corresponding complex of soil formation conditions. The most isolated groups are soils with extreme conditions of soil formation - soils of alpine wastelands, which are formed in the most specific dry and contrasting temperature conditions, under the canopy of the least productive plant communities with a peculiar species composition and chemical composition of phytomass. The soils of the Alpine carpets are almost as clearly distinguished, the formation conditions of which are also very peculiar - a thick and long-lasting snow cover, high humidity, a short growing season, the characteristic species composition of the community and the chemical composition of the phytomass. The soils of variegated oyster meadows are distinguished with the least certainty.

Thus, it should be emphasized that the conditions of soil formation within the alpine belt of mountains of the subboreal humid type, which include the Western Caucasus, differ in significant space. trivial heterogeneity. In a rather harsh high-altitude climate, where heat is a factor limiting the course of biological and soil processes, the redistribution of heat and moisture by micro- and partly mesorelief determines the formation of plant communities that are significantly different from each other on their different forms. All of this combined

PROPERTIES OF MOUNTAIN-MEADOW ALPINE SOILS Table d

Community Horizon S. N depth, 2 X cm

C: N pH ECO Exchangeable СНО Р К Mg2 * 7.mg / 100 g

mg-zq / 100 g

Geranium-Ad 0- 7 9.42 0.96 9.8 4.5 42.5 6.4 2.0

kopecks - A 7-19 6.09 0.20 30.4 4.8 27.5 1.4 0.8

arc B 19-39 1.26 0.14 8.9 4.9 25.0 1.2 0.8

ВС 39-57 0.76 0.14 5.4 5.0 25.0 2.0 1.0

Pestroov-syanitsy meadow

Alpine

Ad 0- 7 А 7-27 В 27-48 ВС 48-63

Ad 0- 7 А 7-21 В. 21-36 ВС 36-55

BUT. BUT. 8.6 2.9

47.5 10.0 43.7 3.8 25.0 1.4 25.0 1.8

37.5 32.5 20.0 20.0

4.4 30.3 2.7 32.1

1.4 11.9" 1.4 15.4

0.8 10.4 2.0 6.5

2.0 25.6 1.7 10.0

1.0 10.5 0.7 5.7

0.8 12.0 4.5 7.7

1.2 18.0 1.7 8.2

Alpijs- Ad O- 8 9.70 0.78 12.8

kie A 8-15 5.53 0.22 25.1

carpets b- -15-35 2.87 .0.20 14.3

ВС 35-59 1.50 0.18 8.3

4.2 50.0 4.8 1.6 12.8 3.5 23.1

4.5 30.0 2.0 0.8 9.3 0.7 7.8

4.6 30.0 1.4 0.6 6.7 0.6 6.1

5.8 15.0 1.8 O.b 16.0 9.0 7.7

leads to differentiation of the soil cover according to its properties. The most clearly distinguished mountain meadow soils are formed in extreme - respectively cold and dry and cold and wet - conditions.

In conclusion, it should be noted that mountain meadow soils have specific properties that are usually not typical for soils of herbal ecosystems, in particular, an acid reaction, unsaturation, rough humus with a sharp decrease in its content along the profile and its fulvate composition. The soil cover of the meadow belt has a pronounced spatial heterogeneity.

5.3. Cherko-koryachnevsh soil.

Black-brown soils are one of the main components of the soil cover of the belt of walnut-fruit forests of the Southwestern Tien Shan. For the first time these soils were described by S.S. Neustruev (1912). A major contribution to the study of walnut-fruit forests was made by the South Kirghiz complex expedition of 1944-1946, whose participants published a whole series of works, including on the soils of walnut-fruit forests (Vilensky, 1946; Gerasimov, Liverovsky, 194 ?; Liverovsky, Vilensky. Sobolev et al., 1949; Rozanov, 1953). Subsequently, the features of these soils were studied in the works of A.M. Mamytov (1987),

A.M. Mamytova et al. (1971), Roychenko (1960), V.F. Samusenko (1987),

V.F. Samusenko et al. (1985; 1989).

The unique ecosystems of the walnut-fruit forests of this region of the Tien Shan make up a significant part of all such landscapes in the world. The belt of walnut-fruit forests is located in the altitude range from 1000 to 2000 meters above sea level. It is characterized by a dry subtropical climate with Mediterranean features. Soil breeds are represented mainly by lessash.

As noted above, the soil cover of the walnut-fruit forest belt is distinguished by a clearly pronounced exposure differentiation, according to which black-brown soils occupy the northern exposure mesoslopes. They form under walnut forests (Juglans regla), also confined to the northern slopes. Due to this, there are unique microclimatic conditions here, providing increased moisture content of these ecosystems in comparison with the squabbles of this exposition.

I must say that. being peculiar soils of unique ecosystems of walnut-fruit forests, black-brown soils have certain common features with black-brown soils identified by T.F. Urushadzv (1087) in the Caucasus, dark-colored soils described by G.V. Motuzova (1986) in the mountains Sikhote-Alin. This allows us to consider black-brown and similar soils as specific for mountain systems. They are formed

under the canopy of deciduous forests in warm and relatively humid conditions.

Walnut forests - a fragment of the vegetation cover of the belt of walnut-fruit forests - are very productive plantations. Although the reserves of their aboveground phytomass are not so large and amount, according to V.F. Samusenko et al. (19C9), about 1900 c / ha, the value of annual litter, according to the same authors, amounting to more than 60 c / ra, is very significant and often more than the same indicator for deciduous forests.

Significant reserves of phytomass - up to 200 c / ha - accumulates herbal. walnut forest cover. The given values are close to those for proper grass, including steppe "biogeocenoses. Large reserves of phytomass of the grass cover and, in particular, its underground part largely determine the nature of humus accumulation in black-brown soils.

The peculiarity of the ecosystems of walnut forests, manifested, in particular, in climatic features, the structure of phytocenoses, leads to the formation of unique black-brown soils.

The Pix profile is leached from carbonates and poorly differentiated. The humus horizons have a fine granular, lumpy-granular, nutty-granular structure and are dark brown colored; the lower boundary of AB is located almost at a depth of 1 m. The humus is "soft", there are practically no undeveloped remains. The high humus content and the abundance of root systems determine the low density of the upper soil horizons (Table 3). noticeably increasing from top to bottom. The metamorphic clay content of the profile of black-brown soils is indicated by an increase in silt content in the middle part of the profile. The soils are neutral, have a high cation exchange capacity and are saturated with bases.

The leading soil-forming process in black-brown soils is humus accumulation, therefore their most significant features are determined by the "humus state. \"

The noted features of the biological cycle in combination with favorable climatic and lithological conditions lead to the accumulation of a huge amount of "soft" humus of the mu.ih type; its content reaches 20-25%, which is not found even in fat chernozems. The profile distribution of humus is gradually decreasing. Comparison of the distribution curves of humus and roots of herbal vegetation in the soil profile shows their similar character; this indicates a significant genus of the herbaceous cover in the formation of the organoprofile of black-brown soils.

The humus composition (Fig. B) is dominated by humic acids. Attitude

Community Horizon, C N PH ECO CaCO3 P k Content Density

depth, cm X g y-zkv X mg / 100g fraction of addition,

100 g 2 g / cm3

<0,01 <0,001

Hazel AS! 0-6 14.90 1.18 12.6 7.1 34.20 0 17.1 70.3 65.5 26.2 0.92.

short A 6-25 9.52 0.83 11.4 7.1 33.60 0 20.1 52.5 67.8 32.8 1.12

noccal AV 25-79 4.60 0.44 10.4 7.0 27.50 0 39.9 39.9 68.5 35.3 1.38

B1 79-103 3.46 0.33 10.4 7.0 19.40 0 4.7 21.2 62.7 33.8 1.40

B2 103-162 1.35 0.14 9.2 7.0 13.20 0 2.7 15.6 68.4 32.0 1.38

162-210 n.d. n.d. 8.2 n.d. 32.97 n.d. n.d. 51.5 16.4 1.35

Hazel As! 0-6 12.55 0.98 12.8 6.9 30.15 0 21.2 92.7 32.2 9.4 0.96

undermaturity 6-24 8.30 0.80 10.4 6.9 28.04 0 26.7 82.6 68.7 26.2 0.98

current AB 24-56 5.14 0.59 8.7 6.8 24.13 0 26.5 58.3 64.4 26.5 1.27

В1 56-97 2.96 0.36 8.2 7.0 17.36 0 4.4 41.7 64.7 30.0 1.35

B2 97-137 1.82 0.24 7.6 7.3 12.05 0 1.7 39.1 65.4 32.5 1.42

BC 137-172 0.96 0.13 7.4 7.3 10.02 0 n.d. 18.9 64.3 31.2 1.40

From 172-190. 0.89 0.12 7.4 8.3 n.d. 23.88 n.d. but. 62.7 23.4 1.35

Hazel As! 0-8 9.14 0.95 9.6 6.9 29.80 0 20.1 79.1 64.7 20.7 0.98

forbs - A 8-53 6.71 0.65 10.3 7.2 27.65 0 24.3 68.0 63.8 20.9 1.15

AB 53-89 4.25 0.44 9.7 7.2 24.28 0 25.9 52.0 61.0 21.1 1.35

B1 89-125 2.03 0.24 8.6 7.2 15.84 0 11.2 47.0 63.4 29.1 1.40

B2 125-159 1.06 0.13 8.2 7.9 11.60 0 3.5 39.9 65.3 30.7 1.42

ВС 159-167 0.71 0.09 8.0 8.2 11.14 24.22 0.9 21.1 65.7 24.8 1.35

С 167-190 0.62 0.08 7.4 8.3 n.d. 33.93 n.d. 5.3 65.0 24.4 1.35

Сгк: Сфк is maximal in the lower part of the humus horizon and in the AB horizon.

The dominant composition of humic acids is their second fraction (associated with: salcium HA). however, its predominance is not as significant as in chernozems. In the upper horizons, it is present in almost equal amounts with the first HA fraction, only slightly exceeding it; from top to bottom, its share becomes absolutely predominant. This circumstance is a large proportion of the I fraction of HA with the general predominance of I! fraction - is a characteristic feature of humus in black-brown soils, while for most saturated soils on calcareous parent rocks, an insignificant participation in the humus composition of the I fraction of HA and sometimes even its complete absence is noted.

The guyus state of black-brown soils has a number of specific features that distinguish them from all other poly-humus poorly differentiated soils. First of all, it is an extremely high content of "soft" humus of the mul type. The distribution of humus is also peculiar; The humus profile of black-brown soil cannot be attributed to any of the types of humus distribution in soils identified by V.V. Ponomareva and T.A. Plotnikova (1980).

Distribution of humic acids and fulvic acids along the profile is quite peculiar in black-brown soils. The proportion of HA in the humus composition decreases with depth, and the proportion of FA also decreases. These features sharply distinguish the humus profile of black-brown soils from the humus profile of chernozem, where the content of humic acids decreases with depth with an increase in the content of fulvic acids. Even further, in terms of the distribution of humic acids, black-brown soils are separated from burozems, where PA dominate in the humus composition throughout the profile. More similarity in this trait, apparently, can be found with brown soils.

As noted, humic acids of various fractions are present in the humus of the upper horizons of black-brown soils in approximately equal amounts. This also distinguishes them from chernozems, where fraction II is noticeably predominant, brown soils, where the fraction of fraction I is small and fractions II or III dominate, and from burozems, in which the leading place is occupied by fraction I of humic acids.

The described unique, sometimes even surprising features of the humus state of black-brown soils are determined by a complex of external conditions - a subtropical climate, favorable moisture, the nature of plant litter to soil-forming rocks. According to D.S. Orlov (1985), the depth of humification primarily depends on the period of biological activity (PBA) and the saturation of soils with bases. PBA in black-brown soils is, according to rough estimates, not less than 180

EZgyu Ig "EPZgkz Sh * Yua E3"<1 О«о Ш<ю

Rice. 5. Composition of humus in black-brown soils

IG5 gx1 Yage Shgya EZ "" o v "and SZtg £ 3 *"

Rice. 3. Composition of humus in brown and brown-brown soils

days. Their confinement to the slopes of northern exposures neutralizes the influence of the dry period in late summer - early autumn. Thus, the duration of PBA here is longer than in chernozems, where, according to D.S. Orlov (1985), it has a maximum duration. Another factor - the saturation of soils with bases - is also very favorable: black-brown soils have a neutral reaction and are completely saturated with bases. Based on this, it can be assumed that black-brown soils are formed in ecological conditions that are unique from the point of view of humus formation; an extremely favorable combination of biological, climatic and dialogical features of biogeocenoses of walnut forests creates conditions in which the accumulation of humate soft humus of the mule type is, in principle, apparently close to its maximum. More significant amounts of organic matter in soils can accumulate, probably in the form of peat or coarse humus, where there are many weakly humified organic residues.

5.4. How much brown and brownish-brown.

Brown and brown-brown soils form the basis of the soil cover of the juniper forest belt of the Southwestern Tien Shan. The soils of juniper forests of the Tien Shan have been studied to a lesser extent in comparison with other mountain forest soils. The first descriptions of these soils belong to the pen of S.S. Neustruev (1914, 1915) and V.N. Tagantsev (1914). Subsequently, the soils of the juniper belt were studied to some extent by I. Ontipov-Karataev (1949), I.A. Assing (1961). M.A. Glazovskaya (1946, 1948), A. M. Mamytov (1987), I. V. Openlander (1961), M. A. Pankov (1949), A. N. Rozanov (1950, 1958), G I. Roychenko (1953, 1960). Analysis of the above works shows a wide variety of views and the lack of a common point of view on the genetic essence and classification of soils in juniper forests. This is explained by “both their poor knowledge and a certain variety of soil formation conditions and soil cover of juniper forests, which was noted in Section 4.2.

Juniper forests and elfin woods are located in a wide range of heights from 900 to 3700 m above sea level (Gan and Chub, 1987) and are represented by several types of juniper. In the lower mountainous sub-belt, the Zeravshan juniper (Junlperus seravschanlca) grows, in the middle-mountainous sub-belt, the hemispherical juniper (J. semlglobosa), and in the high-mountainous one, the Turkestan juniper (J. turcestanica). Taking into account the climatic features of different altitude zones and slopes of various exposures, as well as lithological diversity, a very wide variety of soil formation conditions should be noted, which should also determine the corresponding diversity of the soil cover.

In the work, brown and brown-brown soils in the zone of juniper forests of the northern macroslope of the Adai ridge of mid-mountain and high

cohorn subbelts.

The hydrothermal conditions of soil formation in ecosystems of juniper forests are very peculiar. They are characterized by a noticeable moisture deficit (KU 0.2-0.5) with a contrasting humidification regime with a late spring maximum and a late summer - early autumn minimum of precipitation. As it was noted, ■ soil formation is influenced by the relief, which redistributes heat and moisture depending on the exposure of the slopes. The soil-forming rocks are carbonate and are represented by the weathering products of limestone, quartzite and shale.

Juniper forests have a peculiar nature of the biological cycle, which sharply distinguishes them from. other forest ecosystems. According to R.D. Golovina (1989), the characteristic features of juniper forests are their sparseness and clumpiness, high longevity, low biological productivity, "a large participation in the mass of phytocenosis of herbal vegetation. Phytomass of juniper forests, according to R.D. Golovina (1989), as a rule, it fluctuates between 60 - 80 t / ha in the mid-mountain and 140 - 160 t / ha in the high-mountain sub-belts, while the share of grass cover is 5 -22 X of these values, which is much higher than in any other forest phytocenoses, where the share of herbaceous vegetation is fractions or the first few percent. The role of the grass cover is even more prominent when considering the values of litter. Its share in the total mass of annual litter is the overwhelming part - from 75 to 92%. The overwhelming part of ash elements and nitrogen (82 - 97 %) comes with litter of the herbaceous layer.

Thus, it should be concluded that according to some features of the biological cycle, biogeocenoses of juniper forests of the Tien Shan bear many features of herbal biogeocenoses, which inevitably should determine the nature of soil formation.

The marked differentiation of hydrothermal conditions leaves its imprint on the biological cycle. Higher density, more productive phytocenoses are formed on the northern slopes. According to R.D. Golovina (1989), the phytomass reserves in the juniper forests of the northern slopes are about 2.5 times higher than in the southern slopes. A similar picture is observed in the amount of annual litter, albeit with less sharp differences. On the northern slopes, more ash elements and nitrogen enter the soil.

The biological cycle leaves an imprint on the characteristics of soils, primarily on their humus state. One of the characteristic ones. A feature of the organoprofile of brown and brown-brown soils is a similar distribution of the humus content and reserves of underground organs of herbaceous vegetation.

This allows us to conclude that their organoprofile is formed when the

the decisive influence of the grass cover; and the humus profile itself, characterized by a gradually decreasing distribution of humus, rather resembles that of herbaceous rather than forest ecosystems.

The fractional composition of humus (Fig. 6) differs in a number of characteristic features. Fulvic acids prevail in its composition, while the second or third fractions prevail among humic acids, while the fraction of the first fraction is also quite large; the distribution of humic acids by fractions is relatively uniform, with a sharp dominance of the second fraction, as is usually the case in saturated soils on carbonate rocks. it is not necessary, it is given.

One of the characteristic features of juniper soils is the presence of higher silicate iron compounds, and in the group of nonslikate soils, the pre-possession of crystallized over amorphous ones (Table 4).

Against the background of the noted common features of the soils of the juniper forest belt, there is a significant heterogeneity of its soil cover, due to the exposure of the slopes. The difference between the soils of the northern and southern slopes, as shown above, is very significant. They are very different morphologically; the soils of the northern slopes have a larger set of genetic horizons and greater thickness. The soils of the northern slopes have a profile differentiated by acidity, while the soils of the southern slopes are characterized by an alkaline reaction of the entire profile. The soils of the northern slopes are characterized by eluvial or deep-eluvial carbonate profiles; on the southern slopes, the soils have a migration-type carbonate profile. The soils of the northern slopes are distinguished by a significantly higher capacity of cation exchange and lower saturation with bases.

Significant differences in the humus state of soils on the northern and southern slopes are clearly traced. In the soils of the northern slope, the higher content of humic acids, which determines the higher values of the Cg: Cfc ratios (Fig. 6), is due to the greater proportion of the first and, most importantly, the second fraction: the third fraction of HA is more representative in the soils of the southern slope. The content of non-extractable residue is also higher in the soils of the southern slope. The highest values of the extinction coefficients of humic acids are noted on the northern slope.

The organic matter of soils on different slopes differs in the degree of humification; in the soils of the northern slope, it is assessed as medium and high. southern - as low.

In the soils of the northern slopes, the content of non-silicate iron is higher. Within this group of iron compounds, the predominance of their crystallized forms is much less pronounced than in the soils of the southern slopes.

Thus, taking into account the above, as well as the considerations presented in section 4.2., It seems appropriate to attribute the soils

PROPERTIES OF BROWN AND BROWN-BROWN SOILS. Table 4

Soil, Horizon, community depth, cm

Brown М 0-9

Juniper A 9-27

high mountains - B 27-52

ny VS 52-60

Brown A 0-20

Juniper AB 20-31

average - B 31-48

NEW SUN 48-60

Brown-Ace! 0-14

brown A 14-37

Juniper AB 37-51

high mountains - B 51-70

ny BC1 70-92

Brown-Ac1 0-9

brown A 9-27

Juniper AB 27-50

average height - B 50-75

ny VS 76-92

С рн EKO ССОз

% s-zkv Valais

3,16 8.3 27.5 5,0 6.4

1,79 8,4 24,2 9.5 7.4

1,32 8,4 17,2 13.4 8.0

0,86 8,5 20,2 14.6 6.6

2,13 8,5 20,0 8.1 7.6

1,23 8,4 15.9 12,7 7.6

0,89 8,5 19.6 13,4 6.4

0,53 8.8 16,8 13,6 7.6

8,60 6,7 47.3 0 7.2

4,00 6,7 43,0 0 16.8

0.92 7,1 15,9 0 9.2

0,84 7.1 14.1 0 - 8.8

0,62 7,5 13,3 0 10.4

0,36 7,6 14.2 0 8.8

10,84 6,8 59.7 0 7.4

3,26 7,2 23.9 0 8.0

1,97 7,7 19.6 0 8.8

1,22 8,3 14,4 4,9 10.4

0,81 8,5 20,3 11.7 8.8

0,54 8.6 12.3 15,4 8.8

aele ao Sshsh-Svo-Okrks-Ayorf-katn. bodn. melted. noe 2 from gross

79.7 20.3 8.6 11.7

80.0 20.0 13.2 6.8

91.9 8.1 1.8 6.3

83.5 16.5 12.7 3.8

56.4 43.6 23.9 19.7

80.3 19.7 16.5 3.2

72.5 27.5 19.7 7.8

80.4 19.6 12.9 6.7

60.4 39.6 29.2 10.4

■90.2 9.8 0.9 8.9

"59.0 41.0 27.4 13.6

56.0 44.0 ??. About 17.0

79.3 20.7 13.5 7.2

84.8 15.3 9.5 5.7

56.0 44.0 17.0 27.0

47,4 52.6 24.5 28.1

54.9 45.1 22,7 22.4

69.8 30.2 15.8 14.4

65.8 34.2 14.3 19.9

58.2 41.8 14.1 27.7

the belts of juniper forests to two types. The soils of the southern slopes can be classified as brown soils. The soils of the slopes of the northern exposure should be distinguished into an independent new type of soil, giving it the name "brown-brown soils". I must say that this term has already been used. for the name of the soils of the juniper forest belt in general. This proposal gives a new genetic meaning to the term "brown-brown soils".

The soils proposed for isolation as an independent type of brown-brown soils are characterized by a number of features that distinguish them from other poorly differentiated polyhumus soils. The main of these features are the following:

1. "Profile differentiated by acidity with slightly acidic or neutral soil reaction in the upper part and alkaline in the lower one.

2. Carbonate profile of eluvial or deep-eluvial types.

3. Close content in the group of non-silicate iron compounds of amorphous and crystallized forms of them.

4. The humate-fulvate composition of humus with the predominance of their second fraction in the group of humic acids.

6. CONSEQUENCES OF ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON MOUNTAIN SOILS AND THEIR STABILITY.

6.1. The main forms of economic development of mountainous areas.

Mountain ecosystems are highly dynamic and less stable in comparison with ecosystems of lowland areas. As a result, they are very sensitive to anthropogenic pressure, external influences often lead here to undesirable, often catastrophic consequences.

By now, several main directions of economic development of mountain ecosystems have developed (Kobakhidze, 1988): agricultural, industrial and recreational. Often they are geographically combined, however, as a rule, one of them is dominant.

With the industrial development of mountainous territories, development is mainly gained by enterprises for the extraction and processing of mineral raw materials. In addition, the forest industry is developing in mountain systems with a pronounced forest belt, and energy enterprises are being formed on the basis of the development of hydropower resources.

Recreational development of mountainous areas has become widespread; to one degree or another, it covers almost all mountain systems.

From the point of view of the impact on the soil cover, the greatest

nie has agricultural development. A common feature of the agricultural development of mountain ecosystems is the predominance of extensive forms of farming. This leads to the involvement of a large amount of natural resources, including land resources, in the sphere of agricultural production, which, when they are limited in the mountains, leads to a high level of anthropogenic loads.

Agricultural development of mountainous areas covers all altitudinal zones with the exception of subnival and nival. It includes the agricultural and pastoralist use of mountain ecosystems. Both of them have an arsenal of specific methods of farming in the mountains. In agriculture, this is the conduct of agrotechnical, mainly anti-erosion measures, the selection of crops with a short ripening period, taking into account the short growing season in the upper zones of the mountains, etc. In cattle breeding, this is, first of all, its distant form with periodization of grazing on winter and summer pastures; Alpine and subalpine meadows, where farming is impossible, are used as summer pastures. In most mountainous regions, especially in the highlands, pastoralism and pasture development is "predominant."

6.2. Influence of pasture load as the leading form of economic development of mountain landscapes on their soil cover.

The unsystematic, irrational, lack of scientific substantiation of the use of mountain pastures leads to their degradation. As the load increases, the following three stages are successively replaced. 1. Destruction of vegetation. 2. Destruction of the soil cover. 3. Destruction of the lithosphere. Depending on the intensity of the pasture load and the duration of its impact, pasture digression can stop at one stage or another.

Thinning or complete disappearance of the grass cover as a result of grazing leads to a wide development of erosion processes, as a result of which soils of varying degrees of washout, landslide forms of microrelief, linear erosional forms of micro- and mesorelief, and soils with reduced and polycyclic profiles appear in the soil cover.

The further development of erosion processes can lead to the complete removal of the soil cover, after which the destruction of rocks released to the day surface by geological processes begins.

Thus, the degradation of the soil cover of pastures goes through several stages, while erosion, which is the mechanism of soil destruction, represents the last stages of degradation. Its manifestation is preceded by such processes as dehumification, disaggregation, compaction, depletion of biophilic elements. They worsen soil properties, reduce soil fertility, thereby reducing the productivity of pastures, on the other hand, they lead to a decrease in the stability of the soil cover, from

in combination with the experience of the grass stand stimulates the emergence and development of erosion processes. Therefore, along with the study of erosion processes and eroded soils on pastures, which is usually paid the main attention, no less, "and perhaps more important is to study the earlier stages of soil degradation in pastures. , the results of which are presented in this work, the main attention was paid to the study of this very aspect of the problem of degradation of the soil cover of pastures.

The main object of pasture use is herbal ecosystems; mountain ecosystems are often involved in the cloud. In this case, the main changes occur in the herbaceous layer of the forest community; the tree layer does not undergo significant changes, although in the future such changes are possible due to the deterioration of regeneration.

Grazing leads to a sharp (five or more times) decrease in the aboveground part of the phytomass of the herbaceous layer. The reserves of underground phytomass decrease much weaker or sometimes even slightly increase, which leads to a sharp increase in the share of the latter.

The floristic composition of communities changes - the proportion of grasses decreases or they disappear altogether, which leads to a decrease in the strength of the sod. The floristic diversity of communities is decreasing, in which forbs begin to dominate and species with no forage value appear. The reserves of ash elements in the phytomass decrease and the ratio between them changes, primarily due to a decrease in the proportion of silicon. ... In general, during grazing, hundreds of kg / ha of ash elements and nitrogen are removed from the biological cycle.

One of the most significant consequences of grazing is the formation of secondary spatial heterogeneity of vegetation and soil cover. As a result of uneven trampling and grazing on grazing areas, there are highlights of varying degrees of disturbance. It is usually advisable to distinguish the following elements of heterogeneity:,

1.An animal trail

2.Broken area

3.Unbroken area

Phytomass stocks are regularly decreasing from uncropped areas to paths. At the same time, the proportion of cereals and partly legumes on the trails is higher than in the soddy areas.

Secondary soil cover heterogeneity, the same. as well as vegetable, it is very large. Fluctuations on some grounds between the outlets within this or. the other site often exceeds the differences between sites. Therefore, it is advisable to make all conclusions about changes in the properties of the soil and vegetation cover when this is done.

circumstances, comparing with each other not just different areas, but certain compartments within them.

The physical properties of soils have been changed to the greatest extent on abattoir paths. The soil density value under the paths is usually almost one and a half times higher than in unbroken areas. The highest hardness values are also typical for trails, the lowest for unbroken areas.

A sharp decrease in phytomass reserves, especially on trails, leads to soil dehumification; the intake of organic matter with the excrement of grazed animals does not compensate for the resulting deficit. The highest humus content is typical for the soils of unbroken areas, the lowest for soils under the paths. The knocked-down areas occupy an intermediate position.

The secondary heterogeneity of vegetation and soil cover, which has arisen as a result of grazing, very strongly differentiates soil properties. This circumstance must be taken into account in soil, botanical and other studies related to pasture digression. Comparison of different areas in different grazing or conservation regimes should be carried out only taking into account the noted secondary heterogeneity. It is necessary to construct appropriately the selection of soil samples, accounting for phytomass, and determination of soil properties. Comparing different areas, it is advisable to compare the same holes, only in this case it is possible to obtain correct conclusions.

7. CONCLUSION.

At the end of the presentation of this work, it is necessary to return to the question of the specificity of mountain soil formation. In addition to the debatable nature of the question of the presence of such specificity, there is a certain ambiguity in the interpretation of this concept itself. It seems appropriate to express the following considerations in this regard.

Mountains represent a group of landscapes that, located in different climatic zones and natural zones of the Earth, have at the same time a number of common properties. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to name the relief characterized by large differences in elevation, the forms of which are represented mainly by slopes of various shapes, steepness and exposure. The nature of the relief determines the wide development of mass transfer processes along the slopes, excellent drainage of mountain landscapes, a sharp change in bioclimatic conditions at short distances, leading to the formation of a system of altitudinal zonation and the manifestation of exposure differentiation of the soil cover, and other features. In other words, the features of each specific mountain system depend on its confinement to that sum of another natural zone, but in

the same burden of different mountain systems are united by a number of common features inherent only in mountainous landscapes, which is reflected in soil formation.

In this sense, an analogy can be drawn here with forest landscapes. The diversity on Earth is extremely great - from the forests of the northern taiga to the Elatai tropical forests, but they all have certain common features, due primarily to the nature of the biological cycle in forest ecosystems, microclimatic and some other conditions, which ultimately determines the features of forest soil formation. Similar considerations can be made with respect to soil formation under grass vegetation.

Hydromorphic soil formation, regardless of the zonal affiliation, is also characterized by similar features that appear in various natural zones. It is in the sense of the tagam, as it seems, that the specificity of mountain soil formation should be understood.

In the mountains, there are specific conditions for soil formation that have no analogues on the plains. In the belt of coniferous forests there is a more contrasting river, precipitation and often lower temperature fluctuations. as well as a slight shift in the maximum precipitation to an earlier date in comparison with the ecosystems of the taiga zone. The belt of mountain meadows is characterized by a smooth change in temperature throughout the year, a relatively uniform distribution of precipitation with a maximum of precipitation in late spring - early summer, and, in general, very wet and cold soil formation conditions.

A characteristic feature of the biological cycle in mountain coniferous forests is the leading role of calcium, which brings them closer to deciduous forests and leads to the formation of landscapes of calcium or transitional classes under their canopy.

The structure of the soil cover of the mountains is governed by specific laws of altitudinal zonation and exposure differentiation, which are fundamentally different from. laws of latitudinal zonality and facies, describing the structure of the soil cover of the plains.

The noted features of soil formation conditions are! specific specifically for mountainous landscapes and cannot be found in; flat conditions. This leads to the fact that the basis of the soil cover of the mountains is made up of soils that are rarely found or are absent altogether on the plains (poorly differentiated brown-colored soils of the forest belt, mountain-o-meadow soils).

In connection with the foregoing, it seems expedient to distinguish proud soil formation into a separate form of soil formation process, like forest, hydromorphic, and others.

39 -8. CONCLUSIONS.

1. Torn soil formation is controlled by original climatic conditions that have no analogues on the plains. This is especially pronounced in ecosystems of highlands, where soil formation takes place in very humid and relatively cold conditions; in the lower zones of the mountains, this originality is less noticeable or does not manifest itself at all. The change in altitude zones in the mountains obeys different patterns in comparison with the latitudinal natural zones of the plains, in particular, with the cooling and increasing moisture content, forest landscapes are replaced by grassy ones. while on the plains there is an inverse relationship. Altitudinal zonality and latitudinal zoning are not identical phenomena based on different mechanisms.

2. Altitudinal zonality is manifested in different ways in various components of the nature of the mountains. The climate changes most dramatically in the system of altitudinal zonation; changes in the vegetation cover are less abrupt; the soil cover changes most smoothly and within relatively small limits. The altitude gradient decreases in the following order: climate - vegetation - soils.

3. The most widespread slope processes in the mountains are processes associated with the shift of soil-ground masses (landslides, solifluction, etc.), which results in the formation of soils with buried horizons and polycyclic profiles.

4. The structure of the soil cover within the altitudinal belt is determined by the exposure-elephants. The influence of height on the structure of the soil cover within the belt is noticeably less. It is expedient to consider this provision as the law of soil geography, which describes the structure of the soil cover of mountainous countries. Its effect is more pronounced in mountain systems of continental types.

5. The biological cycle in mountain coniferous forests in many respects is close to that in deciduous forests. Its main feature is the active role of calcium. Therefore, in the entire belt of mountain forests, including coniferous ones, landscapes of the calcium (Ca) or transitional (H-Ca) classes are formed, in contrast to the forests of the taiga zone, where landscapes of the acid class prevail.

6. The main reason for the ubiquitous distribution of burozems in the mountain-forest belt is the nature of the biological cycle, which manifests itself against the background of a mild climate and good drainage, which excludes the manifestation of the processes of eluvial-illuvial differentiation of the profile. Due to the lack of signs of intrasoil oglinivanir. in situ in the diagnosis of burozems, it is advisable to use the composition of humus and the ratio between the groups and forms of iron compounds.

7. The uniqueness of mountain landscapes that have no analogues on a par

nakh, leads to the formation in the mountains of a number of peculiar soils that are specific to the mountains.

7.1. Burozems that form in the belt of coniferous forests on the products of weathering of dense rocks do not show signs of metamorphic claying. Their most significant features, which are of diagnostic value, are reflected in the humus state and the composition of iron compounds.

7.2. Mountain meadow soils, which are specific soils of the upper mountain belts, are formed in specific bioclimatic conditions characteristic only of high mountains. The soil cover of the mountain-meadow belt has a pronounced spatial heterogeneity, controlled by microclimatic conditions and the nature of the biological cycle.

7.3. The unique climatic conditions of the northern mesoslopes of the walnut-fruit belt of the Southwestern Tien Shan are very favorable, close to optimal for the processes of guyusokopleya. In combination with the peculiarities of the biological cycle, this leads to the formation of black-brown soils, completely unusual in terms of the humus state.

7.4. The peculiarity of the biological cycle of juniper forests makes them, according to many indicators, to be considered more herbaceous rather than forest ecosystems, which is reflected in the properties of the soils of the juniper belt. It is advisable to distinguish two types of soils within its limits - brown, confined to the slopes of the southern exposure, and brownish brown, located on the northern slopes.

8. It is advisable to single out mountain soil formation as a separate form of soil formation process, like forest, hydromorphic, etc.

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Themes of walnut-fruit forests of the South-Western Tien Shan. // Scientific. report higher. schools. Biol. Science, 1992, N 9 (345). S.1E0-141.

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ESSAY

"Features of the morphology of mountain soils"

Completed: Checked:

Student gr. SE-31 Doctor of Geological Sciences, Professor

Ivanov A.A. Meltser M.L.

_________________ _________________

Novosibirsk

Introduction. 3

1. Vertical zoning. 4

2. Conditions of soil formation. 6

3. Features of the soil-forming process. 9

4. Features of the types of mountain soils. thirteen

5. Soils of selected mountain areas. 22

6. Use and protection. 26

Conclusion. 28

List of sources. 29

Introduction

The main tasks corresponding to these goals are considered:

1) The regularity of the formation and distribution of mountain soils has been studied.

2) The conditions of soil formation in the mountains, as well as the features of the soil formation process of mountain soils are considered.

3) The classification and basic properties (both physical and physicochemical) of mountain soils have been studied.

4) Specific examples of mountain soils of various territories are given.

5) Considered the issue of the use of mountain soils and their protection.

Vertical zoning

Vertical zoning should be understood to mean the change of soils depending on the height of the area, which is associated with climate and vegetation changes.

Just as on the plain in the latitudinal direction there is a change of soil zones, in mountainous regions with a change in the height of the terrain, the soil zones are arranged in the form of belts.

All mountain soils are characterized by a shortened profile and its genetic horizons. A distinctive feature of mountain soils is their skeletal structure - stony or gravelly.

Conditions of soil formation

The conditions for soil formation in mountainous areas are very diverse.

Altitudinal zonation is characterized primarily by a regular change in climate.

With an increase in altitude, the average air temperature decreases by an average of 0.5 ° C for every 100 m. With an increase in altitude, the amount of atmospheric precipitation, total solar radiation, and the relative humidity of the air increase.

In the mountainous climate, there are sharper contrasts in the diurnal and seasonal cycles than in the corresponding soils of the plains.

The relief determines the strong development of the processes of slope denudation, the formation of intensive lateral subsurface and subsurface geochemical outflows. Denudation processes constantly remove the upper layers of the products of weathering and soil formation, and determine the low thickness of the soil profile. Thus, mountain soils, on the one hand, are constantly enriched with the products of weathering and soil formation, on the other, they are constantly depleted as a result of intensive geochemical outflow.

The height of the forest belts decreases with increasing aridity and continental climate.

In the soil cover of mountainous countries, there are both soils that are characteristic only of mountains, which are absent on the plains, and soils that have analogues on the plains.

The former include mountain-meadow, mountain-meadow chernozem-like and mountain meadow-steppe. All other mountain soils belong to the main types, corresponding to their plain counterparts.

Features of the soil-forming process

The historical development and formation of mountainous landscapes in comparison with the plains are many times more dynamic both in the past and in the present.

Tectogenesis is the rise and fall of the earth's crust, accompanied by denudation, transfer and accumulation of sedimentary deposits

The formation of the soil cover is under the constant powerful influence of tectonic-exogenous processes. Without them, the formation of mountain soils is not possible.

Let us consider in more detail the manifestations of the main exogenous processes with their typification according to the structure of the profiles of soils and rocks.

Avalanche action. Avalanches are a powerful factor in the formation of the relief of highlands.

Impact of melt water. The upper horizons of the soil, especially in the mountain-meadow belt, are usually enriched with dispersed fractions, do not contain or almost do not contain clastic material. The enrichment of the uppermost soil horizon of the high mountains with dispersed particles is determined to a certain extent by their thawing from the snow. And the snow is enriched with dispersed material due to the local eolian transfer from the exposed rocky peaks.

With a windblow, the lower horizons move upward and the entire soil layer is mixed to a depth of 0.5-1 m, followed by its displacement along the slope. In almost most cases, such mixing occurs at the same place every 100-200 years. As a result of this type of phenomena, morphologically distinguishable traces of past phases of soil formation or old exogenous slope processes are not preserved in the soil profiles of the forest belt, though. Undoubtedly, the soil mass summarizes in itself, as it were, in a scattered form, the past stages of soil formation. Morphologically, the soil profile of areas with root drift is a stratum in which soil horizons do not differ or slightly differ. Often in soils spotting, banding is noted due to mixing of different horizons, sometimes interlayers of humus material or material from horizon C in different parts of the profile.

Denudation-accumulative processes.

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