The influence of relief on plant communities. Big encyclopedia of oil and gas

Impenetrable jungle, winding deep rivers, exotic animals, warm sea and the most famous beaches - this is how Brazil is usually described. It is also one of the largest countries in the world in terms of area, the leader in the cultivation of coffee and sugar cane. Want to know more? In this article, we will discuss the main characteristics of Brazil.

General information

The Federative Republic of Brazil is one of the largest states in the world. With an area of 8,515,770 km², it occupies approximately 5.7% of the entire land area of the Earth. Where is Brazil located? It is located on the continent of South America. From the east and partly from the north, the country is washed by the Atlantic Ocean. Apart from Ecuador and Chile, it shares borders with all countries on the mainland.

Brazil has a population of 212 million. In the past, it was a colony of Portugal, and now it is one of the few countries in the world where Portuguese is the official language. The country gained independence in 1822 and since then has gone on an independent path.

Brazil's favorable agricultural climate, mineral wealth, and a skillfully built economy made it the most developed among the countries of Mercosur, and indeed the whole Latin America... The republic exports coffee, orange juice, sugar, soybeans, iron ore, niobium, steel, footwear, manufactures cars, aviation and computer equipment.

Brazil climate

Equatorial, subtropical and tropical natural zones are represented on the territory of the country. Although this is too rough a division. In general, the climate in Brazil can be described as hot and humid, with an average temperature in the country of 20 ° C. However, even within one natural zone, it varies greatly and changes from northwest to southeast.

In the Amazonian Lowland, conditions remain virtually unchanged throughout the year. Average temperatures fluctuate by a maximum of 2-3 degrees and are kept at 24-26 ° C. Air humidity in this region is extremely high (80-98%), and showers last 18 days a year, not stopping from season to season.

A similar type of climate covers the entire coast, but here it is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Rainfall is half that of the Amazon, and temperatures range from 18 to 26 ° C. On the southeastern coast, precipitation intensifies by summer, on the northeastern coast, by autumn and winter.

On the Brazilian and Guiana highlands, along the outskirts of the Amazonian lowland, the climate varies according to the seasons. Winters are usually dry and relatively cool. Summer, on the other hand, is humid and warm. The dry season lasts about 5 months a year with extremely little rainfall.

The driest place in Brazil is the extreme northeast. Here, the average temperatures reach 27 ° C, rain falls irregularly and extremely rarely. In the high-altitude regions of the Atlantic Plateau, the Brazilian climate is also difficult. Showers are common in summer. The temperature rises to a maximum of 22 ° C. There are even frosts in winter.

Relief

The relief of Brazil is uneven and is represented by alternating hills, mountains and valleys. In the northwest of the country, there is a lowland. It covers the Amazon Valley and covers an area of 1.8 km 2.

To the northeast, the lowland passes into the Guiana Highlands. In the south, east and in the center is located Brazilian highlands... Its heights increase to the east and range from 500 to 2000 meters. The highest point, Mount Bandeira, reaches 2897 meters.

The Atlantic Plain stretches along the coast. Near the ocean, it is represented by swamps, sandy beaches and lagoons. To the southwest is the vast Pantanal basin, which is used as a pasture.

Largest river

The territory where Brazil is located is covered with dense river system... Most of the country belongs to the Amazon Basin, stretching across four more countries. It is the deepest river with the world's largest basin.

The Amazon stretches for almost 7000 km and, together with all its tributaries, covers
7 180 000 km². Its regime is influenced by oceanic tidal waves. Periodically, the river overflows its banks, flooding the valley within 90 km.

The northern and southern tributaries of the river are located in different hemispheres, which is reflected in its high flow. When the floods on one side end, on the other - they begin. The yellow and muddy Amazon replenishes the World Ocean by 7 thousand cubic meters of water annually. Its runoff is 15% of the total runoff of all rivers on the planet.

From wet forests to desert cacti

Brazil's vegetation is as diverse as its climate and topography. In the Amazonian lowland, humid equatorial jungle forests grow, represented by ferns, mosses, lianas, orchids, cocoa, the tallest trees with a crown branching only at the top. The world's largest water lilies are also found here.

In the extreme northeast, where there is too little rainfall, there are only low shrubs and cacti. Mangroves grow at river estuaries on the coast. The Brazilian Highlands are covered with tropical and subtropical species that shed their foliage during drought.

In addition, there are savannas, prairies, araucaria and gallery forests in the country. More than 100 species of palm trees, 400 valuable species of trees, cereals, reeds, sedges, all kinds of herbs and flowers grow on its territory.

Animal world

Brazil is one of the first places in the number of amphibians, birds and reptiles living on its lands. There are many exotic and rare species... But due to human activities, most of them are on the verge of extinction.

In the waters of the Amazon River, piranhas are found that can eat a large animal in just a few minutes. It is from here that many aquarium fish species come from, for example, scalars, guppies, swordtails. V Amazonian jungle you can find caimans, tapirs, pumas, leopards, saimir and guariba monkeys.

Brazil is home to the world's smallest rodent - a capybara about a meter in size. There is also an anaconda snake, or water boa, which may well swallow a caiman or a whole boar.

The course of the lesson is fully consistent and built in accordance with the requirements of an innovative form of student-centered learning. The student is recognized as the main subject of the learning process.

During the lesson, the creation of necessary conditions to recognize the individuality of the student, his experience, the possibility of self-education, self-development and self-expression in the course of mastering knowledge. Conditions have been created for dialogue and polylogue, as well as situations for choosing educational tasks and forms of their implementation.

Lesson form- combined, using research materials.

Lesson objectives:

Coordinate the independent work of students taking into account their personality traits, in order to create the most favorable conditions for their manifestation.
Think over the main types of communication, forms of cooperation between students, students and the teacher, taking into account personal interaction, equal partnership in the lesson.
In the conditions of student-centered learning, to provide each student, based on his abilities, inclinations, interests, subject experience, the opportunity to realize himself in the knowledge of the peculiarities of the climatic regions of Eurasia and the climate of our territory.

Tasks:

Using the subjective experience of each student about the climate, the ability to independently obtain information using maps, to form knowledge about the peculiarities of the climatic regions of the temperate zone of Eurasia.
Encourage students to make their own choice and use the most meaningful ways for them to study in depth the material on the marine, continental and monsoon types of climate in Eurasia
Stimulate the student to self-development and self-expression when choosing, performing practical tasks, solving problematic issues.
To assist the creative group in studying the climate of our area, its impact on the economic activities of the population, taking into account the problems of pollution and protection of the atmosphere.
Conduct reflection, assessment of the acquired knowledge.

Equipment:

Map "Climatic zones and regions of the world",

Geographic atlases,

Textbook "Geography of the Belgorod Region" Part I, Moscow: Education, 1980.,

- "Reader on Physical Geography", compiled by N.А. Maximov.

During the classes

I. Frontal conversation:

What is the main reason for the change climatic zones?

What is the largest climatic zone of Eurasia?

What are the climatic regions of the temperate zone?

List the reasons influencing climate change from west to east: (influence constant winds, ocean currents, relief, massiveness of the material, the remoteness of the territory from the oceans - the growth of continentality).

II. Group work.

Teacher: Using the climate characterization plan, characterize the climatic regions of the temperate zone:

Nautical
Monsoon
Continental

The creative group, using maps of the Belgorod region, gives a characteristic of the climate of our area.

Characteristics plan.

Belt, area.
Position.
Temperatures are average in January and July.
The prevailing winds.
Annual precipitation and their regime.

Students characterize the climatic regions of the temperate zone of Eurasia.

Teacher: We learned that the formation of climatic regions big influence renders the massiveness of the material and its length from west to east, therefore, in temperate formed four climatic regions.

Play a significant role constant winds, terrain, ocean currents and the remoteness of the territory from the oceans.

Teacher: We will deepen our understanding of each climatic region of the temperate zone with the help of anticipatory tasks that our students prepared from additional literature.

I want to dwell on the maritime climate in more detail. temperate latitudes... We will now all together visit “cheerful green England”, as the English poets have glorified their country from time immemorial. And in fact, nowhere else can you find such uninhabited, eye-caressing greenery. And all the reason is the maritime climate. Moisture-saturated winds from the ocean hit the British Isles with heavy rains - they do not allow the rivers to become shallow. In London, half the days a year are rainy, in the west and north of the country it rains even more.

The weather in England is very unstable, often deceiving all expectations and becomes the most persistent violator of traditions. A white winter with snow-covered cottages can only be seen on Christmas cards, it often turns into a string of endless rains.

Sometimes in November, when, according to the laws of nature, you are waiting for wetness or dense fog, golden, summer-like warm days will suddenly fall out. Humid climate usually explain the gentle emerald color of the English landscape - meadows and trees, bushes and lawns. Fogs and smogs are frequent in England, which persist for several days, negatively affect the health of people, traffic. But, of course, after fogs and smog, the sea air attracts most of all. The sea is felt everywhere in England.

Why does England have a lot of rainfall all year round? (influence of warm currents and constant westerly winds).

What is the reason for the formation of strong fogs? (wet clash warm air from the sea with colder on land).

What is smog? (mixture of fog and particulate matter).

Together with me you will go to the east coast of Eurasia. There, the climate is influenced by other climate-forming factors and, naturally, the climate will be completely different, gentle in the west. The main factor influencing the climate in the east of Eurasia is becoming monsoon winds, which, as you know, change their direction 2 times a year. I want to dwell on the summer monsoons in more detail.

When the monsoon rains come, one is full of joy. And not only man experiences these feelings and animals, and birds, plants.

With the arrival of the monsoon, monsoon showers come from the Pacific Ocean. They bring coolness to the earth, restore its beauty, fill ponds, streams, rivers with water. On another day, everything is covered with a green carpet, bushes and trees begin to sparkle with emerald foliage. Animals and birds waited for food, and, in short term from the skinny emaciated become strong and well-fed. Rainy doji do not come for a day or even for a week, for the whole summer from May to September. Showers not only bring nature to life, but are also a moment of disaster and alarm for the inhabitants of coastal areas and those living in river basins. The water level rises greatly, filling the surrounding territories, floods come with rains, which often take the lives of people and animals, even at this time fishing stops, since work at sea is not possible, hurricanes and storms are outlined, the wind blows from the sea to dry land.

Name the rivers that are influenced monsoon rains (Cupid, Sungari, Yellow River, Yangtze, Indus, Ganges).

What pressure do you think is being generated over the territory? (low).

Creative Group: characteristics of the climate of the Belgorod region (map page 19).

Moderate continental climate with all seasons.
Southern part of the Central Russian Upland.
The temperature in summer is from +18.5 0 in the west to +19.5 0 C in the southeast.
An area of high pressure - the Voikov Axis - runs through the territory of the Belgorod region. In the northern part, westerly winds prevail, bringing moisture, softening the climate, and to the south of the axis, eastern steppe dry winds, acting withering.
The amount of precipitation ranges from 600mm in the west to 400mm in the southeast.
V winter time and in spring, the influence of arctic air masses is possible, which bring low temperatures in winter and possible frosts in spring even in May, which can negatively and even destructively affect agricultural crops.

The climate has a great influence on the employment of the population in agriculture. The territory of the Belgorod region is divided into 3 agroclimatic regions (map page 23)

I district. It is western and northern regions, the most moisture-rich. The conditions are favorable for the cultivation of spring, winter, grain crops, perennial grasses, sugar and fodder beets, potatoes and sunflowers, fruit and berry crops, dairy and meat cattle breeding.

District II. These are the southwestern regions with a lower level of moisture but high heat supply. Here corn, silage, sugar and fodder beets are cultivated.

III district. These are southeastern regions, more arid, steppe. Spring crops, corn for grain, essential oil crops prevail here. (anise, coriander, hops), meat and dairy cattle breeding and sheep breeding.

In what agroclimatic area is our village located? (2nd district)

What crops are grown in the fields of the Pushkarnoye agricultural firm? (wheat, barley, beets, corn for feed, sunflower, dairy and meat cattle breeding).

Report research work ecological squad.

The environmental unit of our school, and its members are the students of our class, carried out local monitoring around the school about air pollution.

Impact on air pollution of cars. More than 100 cars pass along the school every day, if we take this into account, 1 car per day emits 1 kg of exhaust gases, including carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, lead, sulfur compounds, which affect health.

Qualitative assessment of air dust content.

Held qualitative assessment dustiness of the air. The studies were carried out using adhesive tape. For a week, the tape was covered with dust, but in different places the layer of dust was different. The most dusty part is in front of the school entrance, least of all in the school garden. After all, trees have the ability to purify the air.
Our detachment is fighting the spontaneous fires that the villagers make in the fall after the harvest, and in the spring, cultivating their gardens.

Teacher: We have traced on local material about the influence of various climate-forming factors on climate change, about how the climate affects human economic activity, and also from the work of the ecological detachment we see: human activity is detrimental to the atmosphere, and at the same time affects the health of the people themselves ...

III. Securing the material.

Verification of the actual material.

What are the winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean called?
What is the influence of the warm North Atlantic Current on the climate of Eurasia?
How does relief affect the climate of the Pacific coast of Eurasia?

Ability to work with diagrams.

Using the map, give a description of the Tropical zone of Eurasia (according to the plan, p. 312).
Using the map, describe the climate of the Indian subcontinent
Determine the type of climate from the climatic diagrams.

Causal relationships.

On which slope of the Ural Mountains will precipitation fall more? Why?
Why was the Arabian Desert formed on the Arabian Peninsula?
Explain why the Himalayan foothills have the most a large number of precipitation?

Creative application of knowledge.

Find the deserts of Eurasia on the map of natural zones and explain the reasons for this location.
Find the coldest areas on the map and explain the reasons.
Determine the types of climates of the following objects: Great Britain, Iceland, Kamchatka Island, explain the reasons for the different temperatures.

Assignments for everyone:

Determine the type of climate from the description of the weather.

“Winter weather is unstable, sometimes frost, sometimes thaw. Dry and frosty air cooled over the snowy expanse. It is even colder when the air masses come from the icy Arctic. The thermometer drops to -30 0 С, snow creaks, no breeze, the sun in a clear sky is a red circle. But now the sky was covered by a gray veil of clouds, atmospheric pressure is dropping, noticeably warmer. A damp wind is blowing, snow has fallen. "

Where did the damp wind come from?

What is it called?

IV. Summarizing.

What new things have you learned today?

What have you learned?

How do you rate yourself?

Goals:

educational: to form knowledge about general outline and features of the relief, the main stages of its formation and minerals of Eurasia;
educational: to continue the formation of a scientific worldview when disclosing the issue of the nature of the relief and minerals of Eurasia;
developing: to develop the ability to work with a textbook, additional material, an interactive whiteboard, contour maps, computers.

Be able to:

compare and analyze maps in order to gain new knowledge,
to characterize the main landforms according to the standard plan,
compile sheets of reference signals (LOS), draw conclusions.

Equipment: An interactive whiteboard, a multimedia installation, a physical map of the hemispheres and Eurasia, a computer, notebooks, didactic cards, handouts with a list of the nomenclature.

Lesson progress (40 min.)

1. Org. moment (1 min.)

2. Testing knowledge and skills (5 min.)

A) individual cards-3 people

B) The game "Noughts and crosses"

Today I invite you to remember a game that your grandparents probably played many years ago. Yes, and some of you sometimes, during recess, are addicted to this game. It is called "tic-tac-toe", and everyone knows its conditions.

Leave your comment, thanks!

The relief has a great influence on the climate... Particularly significant influence on the climate is exerted by large landforms - mountains... Mountains trap air masses coming from cold places such as the north. In this case, mountain ranges can be the border separating regions with different climatic conditions.

Thus, the climatic conditions of the regions lying to the north of the Caucasus Mountains will be different from those of the southern ones.

Mountain ranges located perpendicular to the prevailing wet winds create favorable conditions for condensation of water vapor. In view of this, more precipitation falls on slopes facing humid winds than on opposite ones.

The entire Black Sea coastline protected by the Caucasus Mountains is wet and warm winter... In Sochi, the average winter temperature is about 7 °, in Batumi - about 8 °. The amount of precipitation to the south is increasing, and Batumi, as you know, belongs to the rainiest areas in Russia. The Colchis Lowland - the Rioni Valley, surrounded on three sides by mountain ranges and open from the west to the wet sea winds - is very different. high humidity and high temperatures. Tea, bamboo, tangerines, lemons, rice and other subtropical plants are successfully cultivated here.

On the other side of the Caucasian ridge, in the area Mineralnye Vody, frosts in winter reach -30 °, in Pyatigorsk the average January temperature is -5 °. Even the relatively low Ural Mountains influence the distribution of precipitation: the amount of precipitation on the western slope is much higher than on the eastern; the average amount of precipitation in Ufa is 599 mm, in Chelyabinsk - 366 mm. They are located at approximately the same latitude.

The Himalayas have a great influence on the distribution of precipitation. The southwestern very warm and humid monsoon leaves on the southern slopes of the Himalayan mountains such an amount of moisture that is not observed almost anywhere else on the globe. Cherrapunji station was included in all textbooks as a place with the maximum precipitation: on average 11,640 mm fall here per year, of which 10,150 from May to September.

From November to February, precipitation is only 130 mm - a typical expression monsoon climate... On the coast of the Bay of Bengal, through which the monsoon penetrates into northeastern India, the amount of precipitation is only about 200 mm; it does not even approximately reach the same magnitude as in Cherrapunji, where showers are caused by the rise of moist air masses along the slopes of the ridge. In 1861, 22,900 mm of precipitation fell in Cherrapunji, of which 9300 mm in one July; On June 14, 1876, 1,036 mm fell in one day! If this water did not flow down and evaporate, it would give a layer more than 1 m deep. This daily rainfall is approximately double the normal annual rainfall for Moscow.

As the altitude increases, a decrease in temperature occurs due to moving away from the main source of heating - the earth's surface - and an increase in heat loss by radiation! closer to the earth's surface, more dense, wet and dusty layers remain, which retard radiation.

The Cordillera, Himalayas, Karakorum most often exceed 4000 m and are in an area of constant frost. On the slope of Elbrus, on the Shelter of the Nine, for example, the average summer temperature is about 0 °, at the highest peak of Communism about -11 °, at the summit of Chomolungma in the Himalayas, about -28 °. In winter, of course, it is even much colder there and, most importantly, strong winds and storms.

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

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Test

Relief as a climate-forming factor

Introduction

climate-forming space geographic relief

The main factors of climate formation are latitude, solar radiation, atmospheric circulation, underlying surface, distribution of land and sea, remoteness of the territory from oceans and seas, sea currents, topography and terrain height. The main climate-forming factor is latitude.

Basically, the amount of solar radiation and heat received by the earth's surface depends on it, which is expressed in the zonal distribution of air temperatures. All other meteorological elements (atmospheric pressure, winds, humidity, cloudiness and precipitation) are also zoned. Very important climate-forming factors are the distribution of land and sea and the remoteness of the territory from the seas and oceans. Land and sea are heated and cooled in different ways. Sea air masses differ significantly from continental ones; when moving inland, they lose their properties. Therefore, at the same latitude, there are significant differences in temperature and precipitation distribution. So, at a parallel of 60 ° N. NS. the average January temperature in the Atlantic is 0 °, in Leningrad it is already 8 °, in the Urals - 14 °, on the Yenisei - 30 °, and on the Lena - 40 ° C. The amount of precipitation decreases in the same direction: in the coastal regions of Norway, more than 1 thousand mm, in the European part of the USSR - about 500 mm, in Eastern Siberia - about 300 mm per year. There is no less difference in the amplitude of temperatures, in pressure, in the nature and time of precipitation, etc. Therefore, a distinction is made between maritime and continental climates. Marine, or oceanic, climate is the climate of the ocean, islands and western continents in temperate latitudes. It is formed with a high frequency of sea air masses and is characterized by low annual (no more than 10 ° C over the oceans) and daily (no more than 1-2 ° C) temperature and big amount precipitation. Most warm month in a typical maritime climate in the Northern Hemisphere - August, the coldest - February. With the distance inland, the climate becomes more continental. Typically continental climate there is little precipitation, the annual and daily amplitudes of air temperatures are large, the most cold month January, the warmest July. The degree of continentality of the climate can be different. In most cases, it is determined by the annual amplitude of air temperatures. The greater the annual amplitude of air temperatures, the more continental the climate.

The influence of sea currents on the climate is great. They transfer heat from one latitude to another and have a cooling or warming effect on the climate. The coasts of the continents, washed by cold currents, are colder than them internal parts located at the same latitudes. The climate of the coasts washed by warm currents is warmer and milder than inland. Cold currents also increase the dryness of the climate. They cool the lower air layers in the coastal part, and cold air, as you know, becomes heavier, denser, cannot rise, form clouds and give precipitation. Warm currents contribute to the saturation of the air with moisture and the formation of precipitation. A striking example different influence on the climate of warm and cold currents can be the climate east coast Canada and the west coast of Europe between the 55th and 70th parallels. The Canadian coast is washed by the cold Labrador Current, the European coast is washed by the warm North Atlantic. The first lies between the annual isotherms of 0 and -10 ° С, the second - between +10 and 0 ° С. The duration of the frost-free period on the Canadian coast is 60 days a year, on the European coast - from 150 to 210. In Labrador and the Canadian archipelago - tundra, in Europe - coniferous and mixed forests.

The influence of the relief and altitude on the climate is great and varied. Mountain rises and ridges serve as mechanical barriers to the movement of air masses.

In some cases, mountains are the boundaries of climatic regions and exclude the possibility of air exchange. Thus, the dryness of the climate in Central Asia is largely due to the presence of large mountain systems along its outskirts. The location of mountain slopes and ridges in relation to the oceans and sides of the horizon causes different distribution precipitation. For example, the southern slopes of the Himalayas delay the summer monsoons, there is a lot of rainfall, rich vegetation and animal world... The northern slopes of the Himalayas are dry and deserted. In the mountains, climatic conditions change with change absolute height... With altitude, the air temperature decreases, atmospheric pressure drops, humidity decreases, the amount of precipitation increases to a certain height and then decreases, the wind changes in speed and direction with difficulty, other meteorological elements also change. All this leads to the formation of high-altitude climatic zones. The climate in the mountains changes over short distances. It differs significantly from the climate of the neighboring plains.

1. Cosmic factor

The problem of climate change is receiving a lot of attention due to its importance and relevance. Fluctuations in air temperature, precipitation, and other meteorological values have a huge impact on human activities (agriculture, economy). The climate is constantly changing, but in recent centuries it has become more unstable compared to the previous period, as a result of which an acute question arose about monitoring and observing trends in climate change.

Such scientists as M.I. Budyko, E.S. Rubinstein, G.V. Gruza, E.Ya. Rankova, A.N. Afanasyev. Representatives of the Kazan school work in this area: Yu.P. Perevedentsev, M.A. Vereshchagin, K.M. Shantalinsky. In addition, an extensive scientific literature is devoted to global climate change, which identifies some of the factors of climate change. Archaeological research unequivocally proves that the climate of planet Earth has changed quite dramatically. To explain the reasons for this, there are many hypotheses that take into account astronomical and geophysical factors. K. Ya. Kondratov and E. Borisenkov came to the conclusion that the planet's climate will remain unchanged if the Earth's distance from the Sun, the Earth's orbit around the Sun, the speed of its movement and daily rotation, and the angle of inclination of the Earth's axis of rotation to the ecliptic plane do not change). According to M.O. Frenkel, from the beginning of the 40s. of the last century, a period of general warming began. At this time, the influence of anthropogenic factors was just beginning to manifest itself, so the increase in temperature was rather natural. However, since the 70s. natural warming was enhanced by the influence of human activities and eventually became more significant. The Earth's climatic system is influenced by a number of factors, both external and arising in the system itself. From external factors the most clearly manifested fluctuations in the transparency of the atmosphere of a volcanic nature, and of the second - the interaction of oceans and ice, as well as different parts of the oceans with each other. In this case, these factors are superimposed on one another, increasing when the phases coincide and weakening when they differ. One of the most important links in the problem of sunny - atmospheric connections is the stratosphere, which is assigned the role of a trigger (trigger) element, which ensures the transfer of disturbances to the lower layers of the atmosphere. In the stratosphere, ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is absorbed, and during periods of increased solar activity, the heat balance of the stratosphere changes significantly: its incoming part increases, which affects the temperature regime and its circulation. N.V. Ismagilov revealed a positive asynchronous relationship between the level of solar activity in the 11-year cycle and the dates of spring restructuring of circulation. Astronomical factors determine the amount of solar radiation energy arriving at a given section of the upper boundary of the atmosphere for this period time (solar energy flow, insolation). This total flux over all wavelengths at the average distance of the Earth from the Sun is called the solar constant and is equal to an average of 1370 W / m2. External geophysical factors include the mass and composition of the atmosphere, the speed of rotation of the Earth, the location of continents and oceans on the Earth's surface, and volcanic eruptions. The speed of the Earth's rotation partly determines the intensity and nature of atmospheric circulation, different radiation and heat capacity characteristics of the land and ocean surfaces, affects the radiation regime, heat exchange between the atmosphere and the underlying surface, and monsoon effects. The outlines of the oceans determine the direction and nature of currents that transfer heat from the tropical zone to high latitudes. During large explosive volcanic eruptions, large masses of aerosols and gases are thrown into the stratosphere, scattering and absorbing the Sun and IR radiation of the Earth and atmosphere.

2. Global factor

Internal natural factors arise and act within any component of the climate system, or, arising in one of the components, act on another. These include the radiation and absorption of energy by the atmosphere and the ocean, atmospheric circulation, cryosphere (glaciers and underground ice permafrost), a biosphere that reduces the albedo of the underlying surface. Since the mid-60s. In the 20th century, information about the future global warming of the Earth's climate began to appear. Fierce discussions between the opponents and supporters of such a forecast immediately unfolded, the result of which was the creation of several versions of the causes and consequences of climate change. Version one: the Earth's climate is changing, and the main trend of such changes is an increase in the average global temperature. Global warming is caused by the consequences of human economic activity. The increase in the average annual temperature on the planet is associated with the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Supporters of this version believe that warming began to be detected with an increase in the scale of production that consumes hydrocarbon fuels, and thereby provoked Greenhouse effect... Version two: global warming is not associated with the consequences of human economic activity. Many scientists question the human ability to influence the climate on a planetary scale. They believe that anthropogenic change climate can take place only in a large city, with a high concentration of vehicles and industrial enterprises... It is believed that global warming is associated with cosmogenic causes. Note that there have been periods of similar global warming in the history of the Earth. According to the analysis of fossil remains, in Mesozoic era it was 10-15 ° C warmer on Earth than it is now. Version three: with global warming, there is an overlap of both technogenic and cosmogenic causes. Supporters of this version argue that the warming is of a short-term nature and even a cold snap is possible ahead. There are forecasts of climate stabilization by 2010-2015. By this time, the global temperature will rise by only 1.5-2 ° C, and the warming will end there. Supporters of all versions do not deny the fact, albeit short-term, but warming of the planet's climate. The concept of climate change due to an increase in the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide anthropogenic origin. It, or rather its excess in comparison with the usual amount constantly present in the atmosphere and participating in the natural cycle, enters the Earth's atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned, the intensification of the greenhouse effect due to the anthropogenic increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide is not confirmed by the theoretical radiation and heat balance of the Earth. Moreover, this effect is not confirmed by experimental studies, which makes it possible to raise the question of the inconsistency of the anthropogenic concept of global climate change. Anthropogenic emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere cannot be used directly, and without any corrections, to calculate the increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air, since it is readily soluble in water. The seas and oceans contain 50-60 times more of it than the atmosphere. Any increase in the content of CO2 in the air will naturally cause this gas to flow into the hydrosphere - the ocean absorbs CO2 in cold latitudes and releases it at the equator, so the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere at the equator is slightly higher. The hydrosphere is a powerful accumulator that significantly inhibits the growth of carbon dioxide concentration in the air. According to the latest studies, the most reliable in the region of the Hawaiian Islands, where there are no industrial centers, over the past more than a hundred years, the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, according to various estimates, has increased from 320-325 to 342-344 ppm (ppm), that is, by 5.8%. During the same time, the average temperature of the planet increased from 14 ° С to 14.8 ° С, that is, by 5.7%, as a result of which the integral emission of carbon dioxide by the surface of the oceans, primarily in the equatorial regions, also increased on a highly correlated scale (the Hawaiian warm parallel - the tropical equator with an average annual temperature of + 27 ° C, which may be a likely version of an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide). It should be admitted that the obvious inconsistency of the first version does not negate the other two. Indeed, there is an objectively recorded global change climate, and above all an increase in the average temperature of the planet's surface. Over the past hundred years, the average temperature of the Earth has increased by 0.8 ° С. In the Alps and the Caucasus, glaciers have decreased in volume by half, on Mount Kilimanjaro - by 73%, and the level of the World Ocean has risen by 10 cm. a warming of 2.4 ° С. According to generalized regional estimates, an increase in air temperature over a long cold period is 1.4-1.5 times greater than over a short warm one, the instrumentally confirmed global warming is a natural consequence of objective cosmogenic processes with minimal anthropogenic influence. As follows from Fig. 3, over the next 50-100 years, a stable state of the average global temperature will be observed at the level of 14.8-15.4 ° С and its gradual decrease to a minimum value in 27 thousand years, which does not lead to the formation and spread of glacials. This state stabilizes the global climatic situation, however, in the near future, some shifts in climatic zones, changes in the flora and fauna of individual regions and the complication of agricultural production are possible. Nevertheless, technological, economic and environmental preventive measures actively developed by the world community aimed at a comprehensive decrease in the level of anthropogenic influence on the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere of the planet of the rapidly growing energy and technological potential of civilization. With the preservation of the exponential development of the world energy by the end of the XXI century, the total energy potential will be 2.7 * 1023 J / year -5% of the total solar radiation, which, taking into account cosmogenesis, can increase the planet's temperature by a dangerous value of + 3 ° С. Let's hope that a reliable forecast of climate change and the consolidated intellectual and technological potential of civilization will significantly mitigate the consequences of these processes. There are several other anthropogenic factors affecting the global climate, such as: anthropogenic increase in the content in the atmosphere of gases that create a greenhouse effect in it (primarily CO2), heat islands in cities and industrial zones, human economic activity (construction of reservoirs, irrigation lands, deforestation, etc.) Among the main factors and reasons that determine the evolution of global climate Earth's authors include the following: 1) Changes in solar radiation fluxes associated with changes in solar radiation 2) Changes in the distribution of land and sea, determined by plate tectonics, and associated with these processes changes in land orography, ocean circulation and its level 3) Changes in the gas composition of the atmosphere , first of all - the concentration of carbon dioxide and methane 4) Changes in the planetary albedo 5) Changes in the orbital parameters of the Earth 6) Changes of a catastrophic nature - terrestrial and cosmic

Review of studies of long-term fluctuations in air temperature.

Air temperature is one of the main climatic indicators. By studying the spatial and temporal variability of the temperature regime, climate changes are diagnosed on a scale from local and regional to global. M.A. Vereshchagin, Yu.P. Perevedentsev, K.M. Shantalinsky, V.D. Tudriy, S.F. Batrshin and A.I. Bald using the Medium Anomaly Archive annual temperatures air, created at the University of East Anglia, performed an analysis of the secular variation and interannual variability of the global surface thermal regime for 142 years (1856-1997). Estimates of the current state of the climate differ significantly, and the number of discussed issues is growing over time. In this regard, the undertaken analysis was aimed, first of all, at obtaining independent clarifying estimates. The essence of the main results obtained by them is as follows:

1. Starting from the middle of the 19th century, the process of global warming continues, which has already led to an increase in the average global temperature by 0.59 ° С. About 90% of this value is due to variations in CO2 and atmospheric transparency.

2. The intrasecular changes in the average annual air temperatures in the hemispheres had an undulating nature and were characterized by a noticeable isolation, which is explained by the differences in the physical composition and conditions of the functioning of the climatic system in the hemispheres. Averaged over Northern Hemisphere the annual values of the average annual air temperatures during the entire study period invariably exceeded their values for Southern hemisphere; the average value of the differences in the average annual air temperatures between the hemispheres was 1.28 ° C. A group of scientists have found another indisputable confirmation of global climate change on our planet and argue that global warming is the cause of the fall of satellites and space debris.

The greenhouse effect, including due to human activities, leads to global warming. However, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, the opposite situation is developing. Under conditions of extreme rarefaction, it leads to a cooling of the mesosphere (about 50-90 km above sea level) and the thermosphere (more than 90 km). As a result, these layers, and primarily the thermosphere, decrease in volume. At the same time, the atmospheric resistance experienced by the International Space Station (ISS), satellites, and also space debris, which move in their orbits in areas bordering with space. Any change in atmospheric resistance is fraught with serious danger, scientists warn and recall the history of the first American space station Skylab. When the unexpectedly high solar activity warmed up the upper atmosphere and their density increased, the resistance of the atmosphere increased as well. The latter provoked the station's deviation from orbit and its further fall to Earth. Scientists from the US Navy Research Laboratory (NRL), the American University of the Old Dominion and the Canadian University of Waterloo have traced the dynamics of the penetration of greenhouse gases into the upper atmosphere. The new study is based on eight-year data collected using the Canadian ACE satellite, which carried out a mission to study a variety of indicators of the Earth's atmosphere. Based on the new data, scientists have determined that the concentration of carbon dioxide at an altitude of about 100 km is growing at a rate of 23.5 parts per million (ppm) over ten years. This figure turned out to be 10 ppm per decade more than predicted by mathematical models for the upper atmosphere. possible reasons more intensive distribution of carbon dioxide, researchers indicate changes in the processes of circulation and mixing in the upper atmosphere. However, this is still only a hypothesis, and scientists have yet to understand this issue. In the meantime, lead author of the study, John Emmert (John Emmert) confidently states that his team has managed to find another indisputable confirmation of global climate change.

3. Geographic factor (underlying surface factor)

The underlying surface is also an important climate-forming factor. The type of this surface depends on physical properties air masses forming above it. Water and land have different effects on the climate. The climate impact of bare soil and vegetation will also vary. Herbaceous vegetation has a different influence on the climate than forest vegetation. The influence on the climate of continents and oceans is especially great. In the summertime, continents get hotter than oceans. In winter, on the contrary, they are cooled more strongly. Throughout the year, the ocean is the main source of moisture for the Earth, and in the cold season, and heat. Temperature differences between continents and oceans create differences in the distribution of air pressure. Above the continents in temperate sprats, areas of low pressure are established in summer, and high pressure in winter. On the other hand, over the oceans, on the other hand, a relatively high pressure prevails in the summer, and a lower pressure in the winter. As a result, in the summer, air flows to land in the form of an oceanic monsoon, in winter - from land to the ocean in the form of a continental monsoon.

In addition to continents and oceans, the circulation of the atmosphere is greatly influenced by the relief, especially its large forms - mountain ranges and high plateaus, which change the conditions for the movement of air masses. In addition, an increase in the height of the terrain above sea level and differences in landforms lead to changes in the values of solar radiation entering the earth surface... At the same time, these values themselves are in close dependence on the characteristics of the atmospheric circulation. In those areas the globe where descending air currents are observed, for example, in areas of increased pressure, cloudiness develops weakly and has little effect on the arrival and consumption of radiant energy. In areas where ascending air movements are created, a large cloudiness is formed, which significantly changes the radiation regime. In addition, solar radiation, together with atmospheric circulation, can determine the characteristics of the underlying surface. Under their joint action on the surface of the globe, soil-vegetation zones and regions of different nature can be created. Thus, solar radiation, atmospheric circulation and the underlying surface are closely related to each other. The climates of different areas of the globe are created as a result of the interaction of these factors.

4. The influence of relief on the climate of the territories

I will try to prove this factor using the example of Russia.

The relief has a significant influence on the formation of the climate in Russia. The location of the mountains along the eastern and, partially, along the southern outskirts of the country, its openness to the north and northwest provide influence North Atlantic and Northern Arctic Ocean over most of the territory of Russia, limit the influence of the Pacific Ocean and Central Asia. At the same time, the influence Central Asia can be traced more strongly than the influence of the Black Sea or the Near East uplands. The height of the mountains and their location in relation to the prevailing air currents determine the varying degrees of their influence on the climate of neighboring territories (the Caucasus and the Urals). In the mountains, a special, mountainous, climate is formed, which changes with altitude. Mountains exacerbate cyclones. Differences are observed in the climate of the leeward and windward slopes, mountain ranges and intermontane basins. On the plains, there are differences in the climate of uplands and lowlands, river valleys and interfluves, although they are much less significant than in the mountains. Elongated along the meridian Ural ridge contributes to the emergence of cold waves within the district and their penetration far to the south . When the Arctic air masses move from Taimyr to the west, they often accumulate in front of the mountain range in its northern part. As a result of the increase in pressure gradients, these cold air masses break out to the south. Depressions, in the rear of which such a breakthrough occurs, often deepen due to an increase in thermal gradients and accelerate their movement to the northeast.

Raising the terrain on the right bank of the Yenisei towards the Central Siberian Plateau and the areas prevailing over the plateau in winter high pressure often cause stationing of cyclones advancing to the northeast. As a result, heavy precipitation falls on the fronts of these cyclones in winter, causing the formation of a maximum snow cover in the east of the district (Nizhnevartovsk region up to 80 cm). The Ural Mountains also play an important role in the formation of the precipitation regime, mainly in winter, taking away part of the moisture transported from the Atlantic and depositing it on its western slope, within the eastern part of ETR due to the strengthening of upward currents in unstable warm air masses. filling warm sectors of cyclones. Beyond the Urals, within the West Siberian Lowland, during the cold season and especially in winter, i.e. during the period of the most pronounced westerly transfer, a decrease in precipitation is clearly visible in comparison with the same latitudes on ETR ("shadow" of the Urals). As the air masses move further to the east, the amount of precipitation increases due to the sharpening of the fronts and the increase in forest cover along the Ob.

The most important climate-forming properties of the relief include the flatness of the territory. On the plains of the European part and Western Siberia, the air of the Atlantic penetrates far to the east. Moving away from the ocean, the air gradually transforms and turns into continental. Thus, the continentality of the climate is gradually increasing from west to east. The low Ural Mountains are not an obstacle to the spread of Atlantic air from the west. The adjacent plains of Western Siberia facilitate the penetration of Arctic air masses far to the south. The high mountains of the south of our country - the Caucasus, Kopetdag, Tien Shan and Pamir - prevent further movement of air masses to the south from the north. Thanks to their protection, along the southern borders of the Caspian Sea there are territories with subtropical climate... In the temperate zone, within which most of the territory of Russia is located, the seasons are clearly expressed. The most severe season in most of our country is winter. In temperate and high latitudes, the radiation balance at this time of the year is negative. Only in the extreme south does it have a positive value. The earth's surface is strongly cooled in winter and cools the lower layers of the air. This process is especially intense over the regions of Eastern Siberia, far from the oceans. In the north-east of Siberia, in intermontane basins, average January temperatures drop below? 40 ° С, in the Oymyakon area up to -48 -50 ° С. An area of increased pressure is formed here, which spreads throughout Siberia and gives two spurs. One spur expands to the northeast to Chukotka, and the other to the southwest through the south of Western Siberia and the Volga Upland to the lower reaches of the Dniester. In the interior regions of Siberia, within the area of increased pressure in winter, descending air currents dominate. Therefore, a calm, low-cloud frosty weather... Calmness and great dryness of the air make it easier to endure frosts and adapt to them. In winter, the air pressure over Russia is increased, and over the surrounding seas and oceans, it is low. Therefore, air spreading from the territory of the country towards the oceans dominates, with the exception of the European part of the country. The coasts of the Pacific seas are dominated by northwest winds(winter monsoon), which carry cold dry air from continental Siberia. In this regard, in almost all regions of the Far East, winters with little snow and cold. In Vladivostok, which is located at the latitude of Sochi, the average January temperature is -12 ° С, and in Sochi + 6 ° С. Over the coasts of Kamchatka and Sakhalin Island, where continental and sea air masses collide, frontal processes occur, which are often accompanied by squall winds and heavy snowfalls. On the coasts of the seas of the Arctic Ocean in winter, the southwestern and south winds, which carry to the north the continental air of temperate latitudes, flowing from the Asian maximum. On the outskirts of the northern seas, it meets the arctic air, resulting in an arctic front. This front is most clearly expressed over the Okhotsk and Barents Seas, where it causes frequent and strong storms and fogs.

Northeastern winds prevail over the plains of Central Asia and the south of the European part of the country. They are caused by the outflow of air masses to the south from the spur of the area of increased pressure. Since the air moves from the northeast, it brings cold snap and relative dryness to the southern regions of the country, so little snow falls here, and in harsh winters freezes the Sea of Azov and the northern parts of the Caspian and Black Seas. In central and northern parts East- European Plain to the north of the spur of increased pressure, western air currents dominate from the Atlantic Ocean. These air masses always bring moisture in the form of snow or rain. But their temperatures are different. While the southwestern winds bring thaws in winter, the northwestern ones bring relatively cold air from the regions of the North Atlantic and Scandinavia. Above for the most part A large number of cyclones move around the European Plains during the winter. They arise along the polar front, passing west of our country over North Sea... From here, cyclones move eastward, passing over Western and Eastern Europe. Space and ground control over their movement allows forecasting the weather in the European part of the country. With the interaction of continental and sea air masses of temperate latitudes, a polar front is often formed in the central part of the East European Plain. Behind the cyclones that cross the plain from west to east, cold arctic air masses flow southward. Thus, over the territory of the East European Plain, there is an intense interaction of Atlantic and Arctic air masses, sea and continental air of temperate latitudes. Therefore, the weather here is most often unstable and very contrasting, with frequent changes of cold weather and thaws. Within a few hours, the air temperature in winter can change from a few degrees of heat to 21-24 degrees of frost, and rain will be replaced by snow. This change is accompanied by thaws and ice, which have an extremely unfavorable effect on the economic activities of people. Transport suffers from ice; thaws can lead to the death of winter crops. The alternation of frost and thaw leads to the destruction of roads and various structures. Intense cyclonic activity also leads to dissimilarity winter weather different years... For example, in Moscow in January 1988 and 1990. temperatures rose to + 4 ° С, and in 1940 they dropped to -42 ° С. Warm Atlantic air masses, moving eastward, gradually cool down. Therefore, the isotherms over European territory Russia have a meridional direction. Over Eastern Siberia, the isotherms have a closed ring-shaped character, reflecting the continental climate of this territory. The Pacific Ocean has less warming effect on the continent compared to the Atlantic. Therefore, on the Pacific coast, the isotherms are located meridionally only within a narrow strip. Over the southern regions of the country, isotherms extend latitudinally in accordance with the direction of change in the value of total solar radiation and radiation balance.

Conclusion

External climate-forming factors should be considered as the influences entering the input of the climate system, and the properties of the links of the climate system, such as, for example, the topography of the land surface and the ocean floor, the distribution of land and ocean on the Earth's surface, as well as external geophysical factors, for example, the size and shape of the earth must be determined by the boundary conditions. The level of our knowledge does not yet make it possible to implement such Full description climate system. Therefore, they follow the path of physically based simplifications. V modern theory climate as an internal climate system is considered a combination of two of its subsystems - the atmosphere and the ocean. Other links of the climate system are considered to be external, unchanged components. Their state is set by a number of boundary conditions, through which the influence on the dynamics of such an internal climate system of the above is reflected. external and internal climate-forming factors... Finally, only the atmosphere can be considered as an internal climate system. Then the external climate-forming factors should be considered the characteristics that determine the features of the energy interaction between the atmosphere and other links of the climate system, the distribution of oceans and continents on the Earth's surface, the features of the earth's surface relief, internal climate-forming factors - the general circulation of the atmosphere and moisture circulation. It is from these positions that further study of the conditions for the formation of the climate of our planet will be carried out. In addition to continents and oceans, the circulation of the atmosphere is greatly influenced by relief, especially its large forms - mountain ranges and high plateaus, which change the conditions for the movement of air masses. In addition, an increase in the height of the terrain above sea level and differences in the relief forms lead to changes in the values of solar radiation entering the earth's surface. The influence of the relief on the climate is great. The absence of high mountain ranges in the north and west of the country facilitates the penetration of Arctic and Atlantic air masses into the interior regions of the country. The presence of mountain structures on the eastern edge limits the impact of the Pacific Ocean; the low- and mid-mountainous Urals, lying on the path of the Atlantic air, does not prevent its penetration into Western Siberia, and the high-mountainous Caucasus retains the cold air of temperate latitudes at its foot. Mountain ranges have a great influence not only on the climate of the area where they are located, but also on the climate of the areas adjacent to them. Mountains trap air masses, especially cold ones. In this case, mountain ranges can be the border separating regions with different climatic conditions. Thus, in the Crimea, the climatic conditions of the regions lying to the north of the Crimean Mountains are different from those on the southern coast of Crimea. Climates of Transcaucasia thanks to Caucasian ridge significantly differ from the climates of the Ciscaucasia. On Far East the ridges of Dzhugdzhur, Kolymsky and others limit the influence of the Pacific Ocean on the climate only by a narrow coastal strip, which in winter is also facilitated by the winds of the winter monsoon directed from the mainland. On Sakhalin, the Western and Eastern ridges protect the depression located between them from the winds blowing from the cold Sea of Okhotsk and from the Asian mainland. In this regard, in the inner regions of Sakhalin there is a continental climate favorable for plants. The northeastern part of Sakhalin, where the ridges are greatly reduced and turn into a chain of low hills, is completely open to cold winds, due to which a harsh climate is created here, and the area is a typical high latitude tundra.

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