The Supreme Chamber of Parliament of the country voted for the response to the EU's accession to the EU - 27 deputies were made against membership in the European Union, for - 13 parliamentarians.
About the reluctance to join the European Economic Space Citizens of Switzerland declared a referendum in December last year. With a small translate (50.3%), enemy of European integration won.
Do not see the prospects for membership in the EU and many British. On June 23, a referendum will be held in the UK, which will solve the issue of the country's status in the European Union. Minister of Finance of the Joint Kingdom George Osborne I warned that in this case the government will have to raise taxes and cut off social spending. From the exit from the EU, the United Kingdom is warned by the United States.Meanwhile, local media urge the British to vote for the exit from the European Union. For example, the Sun newspaper as negative examples of membership in united Europe leads to greece, Spain with its high unemployment and financial problems of Italy.
According to the estimates of the British Ministry of Finance, if London leaves the EU, it will cost 30 billion pounds ($ 42.4 billion). And how much is enthusiastic and membership in the European Union? AIFRu proposes to consider the examples of the southern states of the old world, whose economies first grew a confident pace, and then rolled into recession.
Greece: hostage creditors
The Greek example is perhaps the most clearly demonstrates that membership in the European Union does not carry automatic benefits and blessness. 35 years old in the European Community did not give Athens with a steadily growing GDP, nor increase living standards, nor industrial growth and agricultural development. On the contrary, Ellad was mired in debt, faced with a record increase in public debt and the fall of macroeconomic indicators. International rating agencies one after the other recent years reduce Greece's credit ratings, close by bringing them to the default level. In the end, Ellada became the first European country with a developed economy that admitted technical default - last year at Athens simply did not find money in order to make a payment to the IMF.
If, before joining the European Union, Greece (however, as many other European countries) provided themselves with agrarian products, and exported goods exported themselves to foreign markets, then after joining the EU, the Greek agricultural industry came at a loss, and the country had to turn from the seller of food in the buyer. To comply with the norms of European legislation, quotas imposed in Greece setting the maximum volume of production of a product. Simply put, local farmers did not have the right to grow vegetables and fruits, producing meat or milk more than allowing quotas. Violation of these requirements is punishable by fines.
Another sphere that Greece was previously proud of is shipbuilding. Before joining the EU, Ellada built a vessel for other states, after -sudious-building factories were closed, and Greece turned into importer of ships. It is clear that the fishing industry (another pride of Greece) after such stress also passed the position.The closure of shipbuilding enterprises did not limit itself - the state remains without sugar and knitted factories. For comparison: in the first years of membership in the EU in Greece, more than 1 million tons of cotton were produced annually, now less than 800 thousand.
The requirements of Brussels, with whom Athens agreed in exchange for membership in the EU, gradually led the economy of the country to decline - without the external financial assistance of Ellad could not live. In the country, there was such a situation that it can only pay for their debts only at the expense of new loans that the International Monetary Fund, the European Central Bank and the European Commission are given only in exchange for the fulfillment of the conditions for saving. And with each time these conditions are all tougher. The "Troika" of creditors, for example, insisted on privatization, increasing taxes, reducing government spending and officials.
Obvious to the world's economic problems of Greece began in the late 2000s. Until 2007, GDP Eldlaces rose as on yeast. And at the end of 2009, its debt exceeded 125% of the country's GDP (300 billion dollars). During 2010, Athens received trenches of financial assistance from Troika. But the testimony of the budget deficit of the country still did not justify the hopes of creditors - by the end of the year it amounted to 23.1 billion euros instead of the 21.9 billion euros scheduled. The Greeks continued to receive loans and in subsequent years, but no billions of euros nor reforms carried out in the package of the IMF and Brussels, the situation was not changed. Today, Greece is a European leader in the ratio of public debt to GDP (182%).Interesting and dynamics of Greece GDP growth rates. By 2008, the ELDA economy slowed down, but inertia demonstrated positive values \u200b\u200b(+ 5.2% in 2006, + 4.3% in 2007, + 1.0% - in 2008). In 2009, she collapsed by 2.3%, next year - already by 3.5%, in 2011 - by 7.1%, in 2012 - by 7.0%, in 2013 - by 3.9%. In plus, Greek GDP came out only in 2014 (0.8%), however, in 2015 declined again - by 2.3%, the Eurostat data is evidenced.
Since the crisis 2008, the unemployment rate is growing in the country - eight years ago, 7.7% of Greeks were considered unemployed, in 2015 - 25.8%. The maximum unemployment rate was recorded in 2013 - 27.5%.
Spain: New roads and record unemployment
Just like Greece and in general, all states joining the European Union, Spain, entering into the EU, agreed to adapt their legislation. However, despite the deep economic difficulties, Madrid, unlike Athens, managed to get more benefits from membership in the European Union.
First of all, by joining the country's European Economic Community (UES) received access to financing from European funds. This money (in six years, from 2000 to 2006, 62.4 billion euros were sent to Spain) went to the development of the economy and infrastructure of the state. So, Spain became the European leader in the length of high-speed highways: in recent years, more than 3,000 kilometers were built in the country. According to the length of high-speed motorways, the state has overtaken even Germany (16,500 kilometers). Passenger traffic of Spanish airports is growing every year, for example, in October last year they served 19 million passengers, which became an absolute maximum.
According to the Institute of International Relations of MGIMO, after Spain's accession to the EU, its GDP per capita increased from 71% to 105%. From 1996 to 2007, the country's GDP rose more than twice.However, the prosperous results of membership in the European Union did not save Spain from economic shock - it began during the global financial crisis 2008-2009. Before him, the country's GDP grew faster than the majority of European states. In 2009, the Spanish economy collapsed by 3.7%, in 2010 the recession was not so strong - just a minus 0.3%, and in 2011 an increase was recorded by 0.1%. True, the following years were again accompanied by a fall - minus 1.6% in 2012 and minus 1.2% in 2013. And last year, Spain grew by 3.1%, evidenced by Eurostat data.
As for the country's countryhold, he since 2008 is inevitably growing - then it accounted for 39.8%, now - 101%.
But finally, unemployment is reduced. In fairness I must say that problems with it existed before the country's entry into the European Union. In certain years, Spain was a European leader in the number of unemployed citizens (2013 - 26.1%). At the end of last year, the employment situation has improved - the unemployment rate decreased to 22.5%.
Portugal: labor productivity above, salary below
For Portugal, EU membership brought both weighty advantages and negative consequences.
The most important benefit is perhaps the growth of Portugal GDP - in 30 years it increased by 76%. It happened, among other things, because the country has increased the share of exports in the economy - it has grown from 25% to 41%. The share of imports, however, also increased, from 27% to 39%.
During the years of membership in the EU, Portugal managed to increase labor productivity by 70%. In addition, the state of the working hours decreased in the state - if thirty years ago, the Portuguese worked on average for 44 hours a week, then in recent years - 39 hours.
At the same time, the unemployment rate has noticeably increased in Portugal. Thus, the number of citizens trying to find a job for more than a year has increased six times. At the end of last year, the unemployment rate in the country was 12.6%, decreasing compared with 2014 (13.9%). In addition, the position of the busy Portuguese worsened: according to 2013, each fifth employee had a temporary contract. This is 50% more than 30 years ago, when Portugal joined the EU.
Salary also decreased in the country. To understand the situation: in the early 2000s, Portugal was part of the top 15 countries with the highest salary, and in 2013 he fell below Turkey.
As in many other states that were considered agriculturally developed before joining the EU, the contribution of the agrarian sector to the economy of Portugal decreased from 8% (1986) to 2% (2013).
Portugal remains in the list of EU countries with the highest public debt. At the end of 2015, he was 129% of GDP.
Italy: Economic Locomotive
In the magnitude of the economy of Italy is the eighth world economy, the fourth EU economy. At one time, this country even managed to overtake the economy of Great Britain and France. In 1987, Italy became the fifth economy of the world, and in 1991 - the fourth.
In 2000, the leading growth rates of Italian GDP slowed down. Just like Greece and Spain, the country hardly experienced the global financial crisis - lost credit ratings, got into debt, the government had to go to unpopular tough economy measures. In 2010, on the coefficient of debt of the State Dolg of Italy, ranked second in the eurozone after Greece. It accounted for 119% of GDP. In subsequent years, the indicator only grew, at the end of last year it amounted to 135.8% of GDP.From the crisis 2008 in Italy, the unemployment rate was increased from 6.8% to 12.2% (2015).
The removal of Moldova from the European project can lead to a radical change of the opinions of those Moldovans with double citizenship, which do not yet support the unionist offer ...
In Brussels, the clear fate of Western Balkans countries within the European Union is emerging. Surrounded by the EU countries, this region became the subject of a new European strategy of "deserving expansion confidence" and "expanded obligation", which was declared a priority for the PRESIDENTS OF Bulgaria in the EU. European officials expect the first Balkan expansion will take place no earlier than 7 years, after 2025. The first in line is Montenegro and Serbia, and Bur Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo closes this list.
The complete absorption of the Western Balkans and the EU expansion of up to 33 states will receive a specific schedule of implementation and will be carried out on time if the EU completes its own modernization, as well as digital, banking, energy and other integration. The performance of the rule of law, an increase in economic competitiveness and the resolution of territorial disputes with neighbors - these are the conditions for joining the EU. Until then, Brussels are determined to strengthen European democracy, as well as facilitate the decision-making process due to the promotion of voting by the majority of those questions that are considered more sensitive (external and internal policies, etc.).
Next to the east, Moldova, whose European aspirations are recognized, but whose perspective of entry into the EU is not confirmed, faces an increase in unionist discourse in the public space. Champions of unionism are not at all hiding their utilitarian approach to European integration. It seems to not worry about public opinion either in Brussels, nor in Bucharest, nor in Chisinau itself.
Disputes around unionism become more active. Some consider it an anti-constitutional movement and the initiative to dismantle the Moldavian statehood. Others, however, regard it as a manifestation of the right to self-expression and how an attempt to correct the past, a period of World War II, crossed by the agreements.
Nevertheless, there is no awareness of the fact that unionism, regardless of their reasons, is a serious test for the European country agenda. For most unionists, the end result is important, that is, the reunion with Romania is usually presented as the only way to become part of Europe. Unionists, European integration is considered rather as an accelerator of geopolitical connection to the European space, but in no way as the ultimate goal. This contradicts the argument about the internal transformations supported by the EU through the implementation of the Association Agreement, which is aimed at strengthening the stability of Moldavia and, thus, to prevent the collapse of the Moldovan statehood, to which the unionists seek.
European integration in the Western Balkans, the growth of unionism in Moldova
Almost ten years ago, immediately after Romania entry into the EU, politicians on both sides of the rods stated that, only taking a place in the Westernobalkan Train, Moldova would be able to get European perspectives. Separate voices, including President Romania in 2004-2014, Trajan Basescu, even today make it clear that the European Way of Moldova will be successful in the event that it goes through Bucharest.
Real reforms that the European Union will expect from the Western Balkans states as much as necessary for the countries of the Eastern Partnership, which Russia considers as a geopolitical bankrupt. EU entry should be required to precede the meaningful reforms, which none of these regions demonstrates in full and irreversible nature.
Formalness of reforms observed in the countries of the Western Balkans, in the worst case means a deferment of their entry into the EU. A completely different meaning, however, has this detrimentalness for Moldova and other Eastern partnership countries that have been significantly advanced in relations with the EU. For them, fiasco reforms not only dispels the European perspective, but also can stimulate disintegration processes caused by the uncontrolled growth of loyalty to other legitimacy centers rather than these countries themselves.
As long as the unionist movement decisively advocates the union with Romania, the regions in which the Russophilic groups dominate, reserve the right to apply for help from Russia if the modavia disappears as public education.
During the first months of 2018, more than 30 settlements of the country signed declarations on the symbolic association with Romania, thereby noting the century of unification of the Romanian principalities, carried out by one century ago. Although so far this gesture is symbolic, it mobilizes the pro-Russian political forces in Moldova, claiming the need for a strategic dialogue with Russia to save Moldavian statehood.
Topical figures related to unionism
Referring to the protection of personal data, the Romanian authorities do not publish total official data on the number of Moldovan citizens who restored Romanian citizenship and received Romanian passports.
According to unofficial estimates, the number of Moldovan citizens with Romanian documents may exceed 500 thousand people, which is about 1/3 of the country's population. The data available at Eurostat (Eurostat) show only information about the received citizenship (maximum, at 9 thousand 399 people, was in 2009, and at least 29 people, in 2006). This in no way reflects the percentage of persons who have used the procedure for recovering citizenship, which operates for natives of Moldova, Ukraine and other countries in the region.
According to the IPP survey of 2007, only 7% of Moldovan citizens declared their Romanian passport. Simplification of the procedure for the restoration of Romanian citizenship, especially during the second presidential period of Trajana Basescu, as well as the removal of restrictions for Romanian citizens to access the labor market in the EU countries, stimulated the interest of Moldovan citizens to Romanian documents.
Recent surveys confirm that the unionist movement becomes more noticeable and attractive for Moldovan. The idea of \u200b\u200bunification with Romania is popular among 15-22% of Moldovan citizens. However, more than 50% oppose this idea.
Russian factor
Russia criticizes the EU plans to enhance European integration in Western Balkans using arguments similar to those with which it condemns the Eastern Partnership. More specifically, Russian diplomacy believes that the EU requires the countries between the West and Russia from countries of these regions. In addition, according to Moscow, the European Union interferes with the internal affairs of the countries of the Western Balkans, promoting the reform program. The Russian side is also concerned about too high speed with which Europeans want to solve the problems existing in the region. Including Moscow concerned about the criteria that were selected by Brussels and relate to the judicial system, democracy, the media, etc.
The transformation of the countries of Western Balkans, as well as countries of the Eastern Partnership, in working democracy - Russia is not very in taste. Therefore, it openly advocates more slow reforms and the absence of any conditions that would stimulate transformations, relevant European model (democracy, justice, etc.). However, the prospect of joining the EU is what countries of the region want, including Serbia, Russia's ally.
In the case of modavia and unionism demonstrating signs of strengthening, Russia does not have a well-pronounced position. First, unionism is used as a horror stroke, so that the pro-Russian forces can mobilize the electorate in parliamentary elections, which may be held in December 2018. Secondly, due to the strengthening of unionism, President Igor Dodon and other Russian politicians will receive new arguments in order to return the country's federalization on the agenda. Not least, tolerant of unionism, Russia contributes to future hostility in relations between Ukraine with Romania, which are already tense due to adoption of linguistic legislation in 2017, which reduces the share of learning in the native languages \u200b\u200bof ethnic minorities, including Romanian.
Instead of imprisonment ...
Moldovan attitude towards the issue of unification with Romania can vary in the range from ideological and historical considerations to pragmatic and utilitarian arguments. However, it is undoubted that not all Moldovan citizens with Romanian documents are simultaneously concerned by unionism.
The distance of Moldova from the European project can lead to a radical change of the opinions of those Moldovans with dual citizenship, which do not yet support the unionist proposal.
Although it is unpleasant and destroyed for Russia's geopolitical positions in the region, unionism contains elements that can serve as Russian interests. These include stimulating the pro-Russian forces and the ideas of the federalization of Modavia, as well as strengthening the mistrust of Ukraine to Romania.
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The Maastricht Agreement on the creation of EU (February 1992) was important for strengthening European integration processes (February 1992), which was signed by 12 states (Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Denmark, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Greece).
The Maastricht Agreement provided for the transformation of the European Community to the EU and provided the countries of Eastern Europe the right to join him; Every submitted member states on the "citizen of Europe" turned into a "citizen of Europe", which may freely settle in all countries of the Union; Prounted to each citizen (for example, the Frenchman), which lives in Belgium, Italy, Greece, the right to vote and be elected in the country of his stay in the elections in local and European authorities. He created prerequisites for the introduction of a single European currency (no later than 1999).
The Maastricht Agreement on Realities can be compared with the agreement on the creation of the UES in 1957. It is based on three main additions: augmented integration agreement, including the currency union; creation of common foreign policy and security policies and defense; Cooperation of member countries in foreign policy, combating crime. The document was noted the need to "protect common values, fundamental interests and independence of the Union; strengthen all possible means of the Union and its member countries; maintain peace and international security" (Article 1.2).
Governments of member countries agreed:
Start a new stage of European integration, taking into account the historical importance of termination of the division of the European continent and experiencing the need to create a basis for building future Europe;
Confirm your recognition of freedom, democracy, fundamental rights and freedoms of man and the rule of law;
Deepen solidarity between their peoples with respect to their history, culture and traditions;
Promote democratic and efficient functioning of institutions in order to improve the performance of tasks within the Unified System;
Achieve strengthening and merging the economies of its countries, to form an economic and currency union, followed by the introduction of a unified stable currency;
Contribute to the economic and social development of their peoples in the context of creating the domestic market, as well as to implement a policy that would ensure their growth in all areas;
Establish general citizenship;
Conduct a general foreign policy and security policy in order to maintain peace and stability in Europe and the world;
Confirm its goal regarding the free movement of people, while simultaneously guaranteeing the reliability and safety of own peoples;
given the need for European integration to continue the process of creating a more durable union of the peoples of Europe, in which decisions will be accepted with the maximum participation of citizens according to the principle of subsidiarity.
The contract entered into force on November 1, 1993. He began a new stage of cohesion of the peoples of Europe, the purpose of which was: promoting economic and social progress through the creation of the domestic market without the inner borders and establishing an economic and monetary union with a single currency; upholding the interests of the Union in the international arena; strengthening the protection of the rights and interests of representatives of different nationalities of participating countries through the introduction of EU citizenship; Development of close cooperation in the field of justice and domestic policy.
The internal and foreign policy of the EU is based on three basic principles:
Respect for the nationality of citizens of the participating countries;
Compliance with fundamental rights and freedoms, which guarantees the Rome Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of November 4, 1950 and due to those for the participating countries constitutional traditions, that is, the general principles of the Community Rights;
Providing funds necessary to achieve the goal.
In 1994, Austria, Finland and Sweden joined the EU successful negotiations; In 2004 - Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Cyprus, Malta, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, and in 2007 - Bulgaria and Romania.
You can highlight the five main stages of the EU entry process:
1. Advisory Stage - continues before the submission of a country application for accession. Practice shows that at this stage of the country - applicants for entry placed one of three types of associative agreements:
- European Agreement (EUROPEAN AGREEMENT) - In the 90s of the last century, such agreements were concluded with ten former Socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe: Poland (1991), Hungary (1991), Romania (1993), Bulgaria (1993), Czech Republic (1993), Slovakia (1993 ), Estonia (1995), Lithuania (1995), Latvia (1995), Slovenia (1996);
- Association Agreement (Association Agreement) - prisoners with Turkey (1963), Malta (1970) and Cyprus (1972);
- Stabilization and Association Agreement (Stabilization and Association Agreement), signed with the Balkan countries.
The consultative stage is completed by the submission of the applicant's applicant for joining the EU.
2. Estimated stage - continues between the submission of the applicant's applicant on the entry and the beginning of negotiations on accession. At this stage, the country is trying to achieve the criteria for membership in the EU. The state is officially becoming a country - a candidate for joining the EU.
3. Negotiation Stage - It lasts from the beginning to the completion of negotiations on joining. In the negotiation process, the conditions on which each candidate may join the EU, and the timing of adoption, implementation and legal implementation acquis Communautaire. (Joint EU refinement). In some cases, transitional measures are taken into account, but they must be clearly defined by content and duration. Each candidate country is valid for a separate schedule and can be adopted in the EU as soon as it reaches compliance with entry criteria and membership obligations. Negotiations are held in the form of bilateral conferences between member countries and each of the countries - candidates for each of the 31 sections acquis Communautaire: competitive Policy, Transport Policy, Energy, Tax Policy, Customs Union, Agriculture, Justice and Domestic Cases, Financial Scope, Regional Policy, Budget Allowances, etc. The overall success in the negotiation process is estimated by the number of sections on which negotiations are fully completed. The results of the negotiations are involved in the draft agreement on the entry of the candidate country in the EU.
4. Ratification stage - continues between signing an agreement on accession and its ratification. Before signing an entry agreement, it must be filed before the EU Council for approval and to the European Parliament to obtain consent. After signing, the entry agreement is sent to the EU member states and candidate countries for ratifying and adopted by candidate countries a decision regarding admission, if necessary, through the referendum procedure. That is why the successful course of negotiations is not a guarantee of the country's entry into the EU, Norway, the government of which twice (in 1972 and 1994) successfully completed the negotiations and even signed an entry agreement, and did not become a member of the EU, since the issue of joining the EU is not twice Found due support of the population. In 1972, 78% of the population took part in the referendum, 53.5% of which voted against joining the EU. In 1994, opponents of membership in the EU again won, receiving 52.3% of the votes. For the entrance, only 47.7% of those who came to the referendum spoke. Switzerland also filed an application for entry, but the process was not completed, since the referendum in December 1992, the Swiss spoke against the ratification of the Agreement on the European Economic Zone.
5. Implementation stage - Begins after the fulfillment of all ratification procedures and the entry into force of the agreement. Only after that the country becomes a full member of the EU.
Some experts for the previous stage of EU joining the EU rank and the participation of the applicant's country in the European Conference.
European Conference (for the first time it took place on March 12, 1998 in London) - this is a multilateral structure, in which the EU member states and candidate countries discusses pressing issues of cooperation in the field of foreign policy and security, justice and internal affairs.
However, according to other specialists, the meetings of the European Conference in the EU have always been perceived as a symbolic event, participation in which EU countries have always had the nature of the honorable presence. The feasibility of meetings of this format was repeatedly questioned, but the European conference did not stop its activities precisely in order to demonstrate European cohesion around the EU.
Each EU institutional authority has its clearly defined powers regarding the adoption of new members. From the point of view of the sequence of actions and the implementation of the powers of certain EU institutions (Council, Commission and Parliament), you can allocate twelve steps:
1) the European state submits an application for joining the EU Council;
2) the EU Council appeals to the European Commission with a request to express its position on the submitted application;
3) The European Commission presents its assessment of the EU Council;
4) The EU Council unanimously decides to begin negotiations on entering a candidate country;
5) The European Commission proposes, and the EU Council unanimously approves the main components and principles of the EU position in negotiations with the state-candidate;
6) The EU Council is negotiating with the candidate state;
7) the draft entry agreement is agreed between the EU and the candidate state;
8) the draft entry agreement is submitted to the Council of the EU and the European Parliament;
9) The European Parliament approves the entry agreement by a majority;
10) The EU Council unanimously approves an accession agreement;
11) Candidate member countries and country officially sign an entry agreement;
12) Member States and Candidate Country Ratify an entry agreement in accordance with its own constitutional standards. The candidate country becomes a member of the EU.
The conditions of entry into the EU are defined at a meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen (Denmark), held on June 21-22, 1993. Associated states of Central and Eastern Europe, which expressed such a desire to become members of the EU. Entry will take place as soon as the associate will be able to assume membership responsibilities, satisfying the necessary political and economic requirements.
These requirements were called copenhagen criteria:
Stability of institutions that are guarantors of democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect and minority rights (political criterion);
The current market economy and the ability to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the EU (Economic Criteria);
The ability to assume membership in compliance with the goals of the Political, Economic and Currency Union (Membership Criteria)
EU ability to absorb new members at the same time supporting the dynamics of European integration, which is an important factor in the overall interest of both the Union and the candidate states (sometimes this criterion is called independent since its goal is to strengthen European integration.
Each of these four criteria has a number subcriteria. The political criterion includes the following components:
Ensuring freedom of parliamentary and presidential elections and elections to local authorities;
Creating and expanding the activities of democratic institutions, non-governmental organizations, independent media;
Adoption of legislation that reliably protects minority rights, the creation of relevant institutions;
Strengthening the fight against organized crime and corruption;
Solving issues of legal support and strengthening of money laundering;
The creation of reliable institutions in the field of justice and internal affairs bodies, guarantees of the independence of the judiciary, improving the functioning of courts;
Protection of personal rights and freedoms of man.
In decisions of the European Council in Luxembourg, which took place on December 12-13, 1997, noted: Compliance with Copenhagen political the criterion is a prerequisite for starting the negotiations on the association.
EU membership, given the political standards, demanded from a candidate country of stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, respect and protection of national minorities. Future candidate countries should not only consolidate these principles in their constitutions, but also to use them in everyday life. Their constitutions should guarantee democratic freedoms, including political pluralism, freedom of speech and freedom of conscience; Create conditions for the normal functioning of government agencies, conducting free and fair elections, the periodic change of the ruling parliamentary majority, as well as the recognition of an important role of the opposition in political life.
In order to assess the compliance with candidate countries, the Member States was introduced regular monitoring by the EU, the implementation of the mentioned requirements, which relied on the European Commission. In her conclusions, it went beyond the formal description of political institutions and relations between them and evaluated, democracy is real. At the same time, it was checked how constitutional rights and freedoms are protected, in particular, freedom of speech in the process of the activities of political parties, non-governmental organizations and the media.
Two components of the economic criterion also have a number of subcriteria.
"The existence of a market economy" (This component of the economic criterion must be satisfied before the start of negotiations) is estimated by the analysis of the following factors:
Equilibrium between supply and demand is due to free game of market forces; Liberalization of prices and trade;
Lack of significant obstacles to enter the market (creating new enterprises) and exit from the market (bankruptcy);
The presence of a legal framework, including regulation of ownership; execution of laws and contracts;
Achieving macroeconomic stability, including stabilization of the price and stability of public finance and external balance;
Availability of broad consensus relative to the foundations of economic policy;
Sufficient development of the financial sector to send accumulated funds to invest production.
"The ability to cope with competitive pressure and the action of market forces within the European Union" (This component of the economic criterion must be satisfied in the medium term - five years) is estimated by the analysis of the following factors:
The presence of a current market economy with a level of macroeconomic stability sufficient to make the subjects to make decisions in a stable and predictable climate;
A sufficient amount of human and material resources, including infrastructure (energy supply, telecommunications, transport, etc.), education and research and prospect of activities in this area;
The degree of influence of government policies and legislation on competitiveness through trade policy, a policy of competition, state aid, support for small and medium enterprises, etc.;
The level and pace of the country's commercial integration with the European Union before the expansion (both the volume and the structure of trade with member countries);
A sufficient proportion of small firms in the structure of the economy (small firms usually benefit from simplified market access, and the predominance of large firms can mean greater inertness in the adaptation to the market conditions).
The European Council in Copenhagen came to the conclusion that candidate countries should assume the obligations of EU membership in accordance with the objectives of the EU treaty, including the political, economic and currency union. Candidate countries have never been required to take a single currency, but they even had to get ready for full participation in the economic monetary union.
In this regard, the necessary conditions for membership in the EU were: adaptation of the EU right (Acquis), as for the economic and currency union, namely, the completion of the liberalization of the movement of capital; prohibit any direct financing of the public sector through the Central Bank or through the provision of privileged public sector access to financial institutions; Compliance of the Charter of the Central National Bank of the Candidate Country of the EU Establishment, including the Regulation on the independence of the currency control and maintenance of price stability.
The fulfillment of these requirements, as well as the stable implementation of appropriate economic policies and conducting economic reforms, enable candidate countries to participate in the economic and currency union without the introduction of the euro.
It was assumed that at the time of joining new member countries as participants in the economic currency union should act in accordance with section VII of the EU Establishment Treaty, namely: to strictly follow the goals of the Economic Monetary Union; Avoid high budget deficit and clearly comply with the relevant provisions of the Stability and Roste Covenant (adopted by the European Council in June 1997 p.); adapt the statutes of national central banks in order to integrate them into the European system of central banks; Improve the implementation of criteria for rapprochement (convergence).
The criteria for joining the economic monetary union were determined by the Maastricht Treaty. They provided:
Budget deficit no more than 3% of GDP;
Public debt no more than 60% of GDP;
Inflation is no more than +1.5 pp to the average inflation rate of three EU countries with the most stable prices;
The average value of the long-term rate is not higher than 2.0 pp. To the middle level in three EU member countries with maximum price stability;
Holding fluctuations in the EU exchange rate of currencies.
After reaching the Maastricht criteria for rapprochement (convergence) in relation to the price stability, budget deficit, public debt, the stability of the national currency and interest rates of candidate countries can be considered full participants in the economic monetary union.
Third criterion - membership Criteria - It is, according to negotiations of candidate countries, the most difficult to fulfill. In the process
negotiations on EU membership concretized 31 membership criteria. Each of them corresponds to one of the 31 sections of joint creativity. (Acquis Communautaire) EU:
1. Free movement of goods.
2. Free movement of labor.
3. Freedom in the provision of services.
4. Free relocation of capital.
5. Legislation on enterprises.
6. Competitive policy.
7. Agriculture.
8. Fisheries.
9. Transport policy.
10. Tax policy.
11. Economic and currency union.
12. Statistics.
13. Social policy and employment.
14. Energy.
15. Industrial policy.
16. Small and medium enterprises.
17. Scientific and research activities.
18. Education and training.
19. Telecommunications.
20. Policy in the field of culture and audiovisual sector.
21. Regional policy.
22. Ecology.
23. Protection of consumer rights and health.
24. Justice and internal affairs.
25. Customs Union.
26. External relations.
27. General Foreign Policy and Security Policy.
28. Foreign trade.
29. Budget and financial control.
30. Protection of intellectual property rights.
31. Compliance with industrial standards.
It is worth noting that Copenhagen criteria were a kind of community response for numerous appeals in the late 1991 - the first half of 1992 of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe to the EU, and above all of the Visegrad group, with a request to formulate a list of conditions for joining the EU and determine the regime of negotiations on this question. Entering the conditions of entry, the EU countries sought, on the one hand, to prevent the premature expansion of the EU, and on the other, to the persecution of political goals, to ensure the active role of the EU in the region of Central and Eastern Europe.
European Union - Regional Integration of European States
History of creation, countries participating in the Union, Law, goals, objectives and policy of the European Union
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The European Union is determined by
European Union is Economic and political association of 28 European states aimed at their regional integration. Legally, this union was enshrined by the Maastricht Treaty, which entered into force on November 1, 1993, on the principles of European communities. The EU combines five hundred million inhabitants.
European Union is Unique international education: it combines signs of an international organization and the state, but formally is neither one or the other. The Union is not a subject of international public law, however, has the authority to participate in international relations and plays them a big role.
European Union is Combining European States involved in the process of European integration.
With the help of a standardized system of laws operating in all countries of the Union, a general market was created, guaranteeing the free movement of people, goods, capital and services, including the abolition of passport control within the Schengen zone, which includes both member countries and other European states. . The Union takes the laws (directives, legislative acts and decisions) in the field of justice and internal affairs, and also develops a general policy in the field of trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. The environment of the Union has introduced a single currency, the euro, forming the eurozone.
Being a subject of international public law, the Union has powers to participate in international relations and the conclusion of international treaties. A general foreign policy and security policy has been formed, providing for agreed external and defense policy. The permanent diplomatic missions of the EU are established worldwide, representative offices in the United Nations, the WTO, the G8 and the Group of Twenty. EU delegation is headed by the EU ambassadors. In certain areas, decisions are made by independent supranational institutions, and in others - are carried out through negotiations between Member States. The most important EU institutions are the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the European Union Court, the European Accounting Chamber and the European Central Bank. The European Parliament is elected every five years by the EU citizens.
Member States of the European Union
The EU includes 28 countries: Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Germany, France, Denmark, Ireland, Great Britain, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Slovenia , Cyprus (except the northern part of the island), Malta, Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia.
Special and dependent territories of the EU member states
Overseas Territories and Coronal Ownership of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Great Britain), which are part of the European Union through the UK membership in accordance with the Act of 1972 Accession: Normandy Islands: Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney is part of the crown hold of Guernsey, Sarka is part of the corona possession Guernsey, Herm is part of the corona possession of Guernsey, Gibraltar, Maine Island, special territories outside Europe, which are part of the European Union: Azores, Guadeloupe, Canary Islands, Madeira, Martinique, Melilla, Reunion, Ceutin, French Guiana
Also, according to Article 182 of the Treaty of Functioning of the European Union (Treaty On The Functioning Of The European Union), the EU member states associate with the Earth's European Union and the territory outside Europe, which support special relations with: Dania - Greenland, France - New Caledonia, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, French Polynesia, Mayotte, Wallis and Futuna, French Southern and Antarctic Territories, Netherlands - Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, United Kingdom - Anguilla, Bermuda, British Antarctic Territory, British Territory in the Indian Ocean, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Montserrat, Saint Helena Island, Falkland Islands, Pitcairn Islands, Turks and Caicos, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands.
Requirements for candidates for entry into the EU
For joining the European Union, the country candidate must comply with Copenhagen criteria. Copenhagen criteria are criteria for the entry of countries to the European Union, which were adopted in June 1993 at a meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen and were confirmed in December 1995 at a meeting of the European Council in Madrid. The criteria require that the state respected by democratic principles, the principles of freedom and respect for human rights, as well as the principle of the legal state (Article 6, Art. 49 of the European Union Treaty). A competitive market economy should be present in the country, and the general rules and EU standards should be recognized, including the commitment to the goals of the political, economic and currency union.
European Union Development History
EU predecessors were: 1951-1957 - the European coal and steel community (ESU); 1957-1967 - European Economic Community (UES); 1967-1992 - European Communities (UES, Euratom, ESO); From November 1993 - European Union. The name "European communities" is often used in relation to all stages of EU development. The ideas of pan-European, for a long time nominated by thinkers throughout the history of Europe, and special power sounded after World War II. In the post-war period, a number of organizations appeared on the continent: the Council of Europe, NATO, the Western European Union.
The first step towards creating a modern European Union was made in 1951: Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy signed an agreement on the establishment of the European Association of Coal and Steel (ECSC, ECSC - European Coal and Steel Community), the purpose of which was the merger of European resources For the production of steel and coal, by virtue of this agreement joined from July 1952. Therefore, the purpose of deepening economic integration The same six states in 1957 established the European Economic Community (EEC, General Market) (EEC - European Economic Community) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom, Euratom - European Atomic Energy Community). Most important and wide on the competence of these three European communities It was UES, so in 1993 it was officially renamed the European Community (EC - European Community).
The process of development and transformation of these European communities in the modern European Union took place, firstly, the transfer of an increasing number of management functions for a superior level and, secondly, an increase in the number of participants in integration.
On the territory of Europe, the Western Roman Empire, the Frankish State, the Sacred Roman Empire, were unified state formations that are comparable in size with the European Union. During the last millennium, Europe was fragmented. European thinkers tried to come up with a way to unite Europe. The idea of \u200b\u200bcreating the United States of Europe initially arose after the American revolution.
This idea received a new life after World War II, when Winston Churchill declared about the need for its implementation, who called on September 19, 1946 in his speech at Zurich University to the creation of the United States of Europe, similar to the United States of America. As a result, in 1949 the Council of Europe was created - an organization that exists so far (its member is Russia). The Council of Europe, however, was (and remains) with something like the UN regional equivalent, which focused its activities on the problems of human rights in European countries .
The first stage of European integration
In 1951, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy created the European coal and Steel Community (EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL Community), the purpose of which became the association of European resources for the production of steel and coal, which, according to his creators, should have Prevent another war in Europe. The United Kingdom refused to participate in this organization for reasons of national sovereignty. For the purpose of deepening economic integration, the same six states in 1957 established the European Economic Community (EEC, General Market) (EEC - European Economic Community) and the European Atomic Community (EuTOM - European Atomic ENERGY COMMUNITY). The UES was created primarily as the Customs Union of the six states, designed to ensure freedom to move goods, services, capital and people.
Eurath was supposed to contribute to the unification of the peaceful nuclear resources of these states. Most important of these three European communities It was the European Economic Community, so later (in the 1990s) it became referred to simply by the European Community (EC eUROPEAN Community). The UES was established by the Rome agreement of 1957, which entered into force on January 1, 1958. In 1959, the European Parliament was created in 1959, the European Parliament was created - a representative advisory, and later the legislative body. The development and transformation of these European communities into a modern European Union took place by structural simultaneous evolution. and institutional transformation into a more cohesive block of states with a transmission of an increasing number of management functions on a superior level (the so-called European integration process, or groove Union of states), on the one hand, and increasing the number of participants in European communities (and later than the European Union) from 6 to 27 states ( extensions Union of states).
Second stage of European intergation
In January 1960, the United Kingdom and a number of other countries that have not included in the EEC have formed an alternative organization - the European Free Trade Association. The United Kingdom, however, soon realized that the UES is a much more efficient association, and decided to join the UES. Her example followed Ireland and Denmark, whose economy significantly depended on trade with the UK. Norway has been accepted. The first attempt in 1961-1963, however, ended in connection with the fact that the French President de Gaulle imposed a veto on the decision to join new members in the UES. Similarly was the result and negotiations on joining 1966-1967. In 1967, three European communities (the European Association of Coal and Steel, the European Economic Community and the European Community on Atomic Energy) were united into the European Community.
The case has shifted from the dead point only after the class of Charles de Gaulle in 1969 replaced George Pompidou. After several years of negotiations and adaptation of the legislation, the United Kingdom entered the EU on January 1, 1973. In 1972, referendums were underway to join the EU in Ireland, Denmark and Norway. The population of Ireland (83.1%) and Denmark (63.3%) supported accession to the EU, but in Norway, this proposal did not receive the majority (46.5%). The proposal for joining in 1973 was also received by Israel. However, due to the war of "Judgment Day", the negotiations were interrupted. And in 1975, instead of membership in the UES, Israel signed an agreement on associative cooperation (membership). The race submitted an application for accession to the EU in June 1975 and became a member of the community January 1, 1981. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held. In 1985 Greenland He received an internal self-government and after the referendum came out of the EU. Portugal and Spain filed applications in 1977 and became members of the EU from January 1, 1986. In February 1986, a single European act was signed in Luxembourg (Single European Act).
Third stage of European integration
In 1992, all states in the European Community signed an agreement on the establishment of the European Union - the Maastricht Treaty. The Maastricht Agreement established three EU supports (Pillars): 1. Economic and currency union (ECU), 2. General foreign policy and security policies (OVPB), 3. General Policy in the field of internal affairs and justice. In 1994 in Austria, Finland, Norway and Sweden, referendums are held on joining EU. Most Norwegians again vothes counter. Austria, Finland (with thelandskie Islands) and Sweden become members of the EU from January 1, 1995. The European Association of Free Trade remains only Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. In 1997. The Amsterdam Agreement was signed by the members of the European Community (entered into force in 1999). The main changes in the Amsterdam Treaty concerned: General Foreign Policy and OSPB Security Policy, the creation of "Space of Freedom, Security and Law Enforcement", coordination in the field of justice, combating terrorism and organized crime.
Fourth stage of European integration
On October 9, 2002, the European Commission recommended 10 candidate states for EU accession in 2004: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Cyprus, Malta. The population of these 10 countries amounted to about 75 million; Their joint GDP for PPS (Note: Parity of the purchasing power) - approximately 840 billion US dollars, approximately equal GDP of Spain. This is the EU expansion can be called one of the most ambitious EU projects at the present time. The need for such a step was dictated by the desire to bring the line under the separation of Europe, which took place from the moment of the end of World War II, and firmly bind to the West of the country of Eastern Europe to prevent their rollback back to the communist methods of the Board. Cyprus was included in this list, since Greece insisted on this, which otherwise threatened to impose a veto to the entire plan as a whole.
Upon completion of the negotiations between the "old" and future "new" members of the EU, a positive final decision was announced on December 13, 2002. The European Parliament approved the decision on April 9, 2003.16 April 2003 in Athens 15 "old" and 10 "new" members of the EU was signed an agreement on accession. (). In 2003, in nine states (with the exception of Cyprus), referendums were held, and then the signed agreement was ratified by parliaments on May 1, 2004 Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Cyprus, Malta became members of the European Union. After joining The EU is ten new countries, the level of economic development of which is noticeably below the Middle Eastern, the European Union leaders were in the Regulation when the main burden of budget spending on the social sphere, agricultural subsidies, etc. It falls on them. At the same time, these countries do not want to increase the share of deductions to the public-union budget in excess of the EU level in 1% of GDP.
The second problem is that after the expansion of the European Union, the principle of making the most important decisions of consensus was less effective. On referendums in France and in the Netherlands in 2005, the Unified EU Constitution project was rejected, and the entire European Union still lives on a variety of fundamental contracts. On January 2007, the next expansion of the European Union was held - the entry into it in Bulgaria and Romania. The European Union previously prevented these countries that Romania and Bulgaria still have to do a lot in the field of combating corruption and reforming legislation. In these matters, Romania, according to European officials, lagged behind, while maintaining the remnants of socialism in the structure of the economy and without responding to EU standards.
EU
On December 17, 2005, the official status of a candidate for joining EU was provided by Macedonia. On February 21, 2005, the European Union signed an action plan with Ukraine. It was probably the result of the fact that the power in Ukraine came to power, the foreign policy strategy of which is aimed at joining the European Union. At the same time, in the opinion of the EU leadership, the full membership of Ukraine in the European Union is not worth talking about, since the new power must be done very much to prove that there is a full-fledged democracy in Ukraine, which meets international standards, and conduct political, economic and Social reforms.
Candidates for the participants of the Union and "Flapping"
Not all countries of Europe intend to participate in the European integration process. Twice on national referendums (1972 and 1994) relegated a proposal to join the EU population of Norway. He is part of the EU Iceland. In the frozen state, the application of Switzerland is a frozen state, the entry of which was stopped by a referendum. This country, however, has joined the Schengen Agreement from January 1, 2007. Made of Europe - Andorra, Vatican, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino are not members of the EU. He is part of the EU with autonomous status as part of Denmark Greenland (published after the referendum 1985) And Faroe Islands, limited and not fully participate in the EU Finnish autonomy of the Aland Islands and the overseas Territory of Great Britain - Gibraltar, other dependent Territories of Great Britain - Maine, Guernsey and Jersey are not included in the EU.
In Denmark, the people voted on a referendum about entering the European Union (on the signing of the Maastricht Treaty) only after the promises of the government, do not move to a single currency of the euro, so Danish crowns are still in circulation.
The starting period of negotiations on joining Croatia was determined, the official status of the EU Candidate of Macedonia was provided, which practically guarantees the entry of these countries to the EU. Also signed a number of documents relating to Turkey and Ukraine, but the specific prospects for joining the EU of these states are not yet clear.
On its intention to join the EU, the new leadership of Georgia has repeatedly stated, but no specific documents that would ensure at least the beginning of the negotiation process on this issue are not yet signed and, most likely, will not be signed until it is settled Conflict with unrecognized states of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Analogless problem with the promotion to European integration exists and Moldova - the leadership of the unrecognized Transnistrian Moldavian Republic does not support Moldavian's desire to join the European Union. Currently, the prospects for the entry of Moldova in the EU are very foggy.
It should be noted that the EU has experience in adopting in its composition of Cyprus, which also does not have full control over the territory officially recognized. However, the entry of Cyprus in the EU occurred after the referendum carried out simultaneously in both parts of the island, and while the population of the unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus has mostly voted for the reintegration of the island into a single state, the association process was blocked by the Greek side, as a result of the entered The EU alone. The prospects for joining the European Union of such states of the Balkan Peninsula as Albania and Bosnia, due to their low level of economic development and an unstable political situation. Especially this can be said about Serbia, whose province of Kosovo is currently under the International NATO and UN Protector. As a result of a referendum from the Union with Serbia Montenegro, openly declared his desire for European integration and the question of the timing and procedure for the entry into the EU into the EU is now the subject of negotiations.
From other states, fully or partially located in Europe, no negotiations were negotiating and did not make any attempts to start the process of European integration: Armenia, the Republic of Belarus, Kazakhstan. According to 1993, Azerbaijan stated his interest in relations with the EU and began planning links with It is in different areas. In 1996, the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan G. Aliev signed the "Agreement on Partnership and Cooperation" and established official relations. Russia has repeatedly announced the reluctance to fully join the European Union, offering instead to implement the concept of "four common spaces", accompanied by "road maps" and facilitating the transboundary movement of citizens, economic integration and cooperation in a number of other regions. The only exception was made at the end of November 2005 by the President of Russia V. V. Putin Statement that he would "be happy if Russia had received an invitation to join the EU." However, this statement was accompanied by a reservation that he himself would not speak with a request for adoption in the EU.
The important point is that Russia and Belarus, who signed an agreement on the establishment of the Union and could, in principle, to begin any actions on independent entry into the EU, without terminating this contract. The countries outside the European continent have repeatedly declared their European integration intentions African states of Morocco and Cape Verde (former islands of green capes) - the latter with political support for its former metropolis - Portugal, in March 2005 began official attempts to apply for accession.
Rumors are regularly realized about the possible start of movement to the complete accession to the EU Tunisia, Algeria and Israel, but so far that the prospect should be considered the ghost. So far, these countries, as well as Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the Palestinian National Administration and the above-mentioned Morocco, as a compromise measures are invited to participate in the "Neighboring Partners" program, implied by receiving in some distant future status of associated EU members.
The extension of the European Union is the process of distributing the European Union (EU) through the entry into it of new member states. The process began with the "inland six" (6 countries that were at the origins of the foundation of the EU), which organized the "European Association of Coal and Steel" (EU Predecessor) in 1951. Since then, 27 states have received membership in the EU, including in 2007 Bulgaria and Romania entered it. At the moment, the EU is considering applications for joining several states. Sometimes the EU expansion is also called European integration. However, this term is used and when it comes to strengthening cooperation between EU member states, since national governments make it possible to gradually centralize power within European institutions. To join the European Union, the applicant state must meet the political and economic conditions, well known as Copenhagen criteria (compiled after the Copenhagen Meeting in June 1993.).
These conditions: the stability and democraticity of the government existing in the country, its respect for the rule of law, as well as the availability of relevant freedoms and institutions. According to the Maastricht Agreement, every current member state, as well as the European Parliament, should agree on any expansion. Due to the conditions that were adopted in the last EU agreement, the NICsky Treaty (in 2001) - the EU is protected from further expansion outside 27 members, as it is believed that the decision-making processes in the EU would not have done with a large number of members. The Lisbon contract would transform these processes and would allow the limit to 27 member countries, although the possibility of ratifying such a contract is doubted.
Members Founders of the EU
The European Association of Coal and Steel was proposed by Robert Shuman in his statement of May 9, 1950 and caused the unification of the coal and steel industries of France and West Germany. The project was joined by "Benilux Countries" - Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, which have already achieved some integration among themselves. Italy joined these countries, and they all signed the Paris Treaty on July 23, 1952. These six countries called "internal six" (as opposed to "external seven", which have formed the European Free Trade Association and with suspicion reacted to integration), went even further. In 1967, they signed an agreement in Rome, which placed the foundation to two communities, together known as the "European Communities" after the merger of their leadership.
The community lost part of the territories in the era of decolonization; Algeria, before that there was an integral part of France, and hence the community, received independence on July 5, 1962 and out of its composition. Up until the 1970s there were no extensions; The United Kingdom, before giving the refusal to join the community, after the Suez crisis changed its policy and submitted an application for membership in the community. However, French President Charles de Gaulle imposed a veto to the UK membership, fearing his "American influence".
The first expansion of the European Union
As soon as de Gaulle left the post held by him, the opportunity to join the community reopened. Together with Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland and Norway filed applications and received approval, but the Norwegian government lost a national referendum on community membership and, therefore, did not entitle the community on January 1, 1973 on a par with other countries. Gibraltar - British overseas territory - was attached to the Community with the United Kingdom.
In 1970 there was a restoration in Greece, Spain and Portugal democracy. Greece (in 1981), and both of the Iberian countries (in 1986) received admission to the community. In 1985, Greenland, having received autonomy from Denmark, immediately took advantage of his right to get out of the European Community. Morocco and Turkey filed applications in 1987, Morocco refused, because they did not consider the European state. The statement of Turkey was taken to consideration, but in 2000, Turkey received the status of a candidate, and only in 2004 official negotiations on Turkey's accession to the community began.
European Union after the Cold War
In 1989-1990, the Cold War ended, on October 3, 1990 Eastern and Western Germany were reunited. Consequently, East Germany has become part of the community as part of one Germany. In 1993, the European Community became the European Union on the basis of the Maastricht Treaty of 1993. Some of the states of the European Free Trade Association, which bordered with the Old Eastern Block before the end of the Cold War, submitted an application for joining the community.
In 1995, Sweden, Finland and Austria were adopted in the EU. This was the 4th EU expansion. The Norwegian government failed at that time the second national referendum on membership. The end of the Cold War and "Westernization" of Eastern Europe put the EU before the need to agree standards for future new members to assess their compliance. According to Copenhagen criteria, it was decided that the country should be democracy, to have a free market and to be consonted to accept all the EU law, which has already been agreed earlier.
Expansion of Eastern EU Block
8 of these countries (Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia) and the Mediterranean island states of Malta and Cyprus entered the union on May 1, 2004. It was the greatest expansion of human and territorial indicators, albeit the smallest in terms of GDP (gross domestic product). Smaller development of these countries led some member countries to concern, as a result of which some restrictions were adopted when admitting work and travel regarding citizens of new member countries. Migration, which in any case would have a place, gave the beginning of many political clichés (for example, the Polish Plumber), despite the confirmed benefits of migrants for the economic systems of these countries. According to the official website of the European Commission, the signature of Bulgaria and Romania in the introductory contract marked the end of the fifth expansion of the EU.
EU entry criteria
To date, the process of entry is accompanied by a number of formal steps, starting with a foreword contract and ending with ratification of the final entry contract. Above these steps is monitored by the European Commission (chief management on expansion), but current negotiations are held between Member States of the Union and a candidate country. In theory, any European country can join the European Union. The EU Council consults with the Commission and the European Parliament and makes a decision on the beginning of negotiations on entry. The Council rejects or approves the application only unanimously. To obtain the approval of the application, the country must meet the following criteria: must be a "European state"; the principles of freedom, democracy must comply with the rights of human rights and fundamental freedoms, the rule of law.
To obtain membership, the following is required: Compliance with Copenhagen criteria recognized by the Council in 1993:
stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights, respect and protection of minorities; the existence of a functional market economy, as well as the ability to cope with competitive pressure and market prices within the Union; The ability to accept membership commitments including the commitment to the political, economic and monetary targets of the Union.
In December 1995, the Madrid European Councils revised the membership criteria to include the conditions for the integration of the Member State through the appropriate regulation of its administrative structures: as it is important that the legislation of the European Union will be reflected in national legislation, it is important that the revised national legislation is effective through the relevant administrative and Judicial structures.
EU accession process
Before the country applied for entry, it usually must sign an agreement on associate membership to help prepare a country to the status of the candidate and, possibly, a member. Many countries do not even satisfy the criteria necessary to start negotiations earlier than they begin to apply, so they need long years to prepare for the process. Associate Membership Agreement helps prepare for this first step.
In the case of Western Balkans, a special process, stabilization and associative process exist in order not to conflict with circumstances. When the country officially requests membership, the Council requests the commission to express opinions regarding the country's readiness to start negotiations. The Council may accept or reject the opinion of the Commission.
The Council only once rejected the opinion of the Commission - in the case of Greece, when the Commission discouraged the Council from the introductory negotiations. If the Council decides to open negotiations, the verification process begins. This process during which the EU and the candidate country investigates their laws and laws of the EU, determining the existing differences. After that, the Council recommends starting negotiations on the "chapters" of the law, when decides that there is enough contact points for constructive negotiations. Negotiations are usually concluded that the Candidate State is trying to convince the EU that its laws and administrative management are sufficiently developed to fulfill the European law, which can be carried out as discussed by expedient Member States.
On December 17, 2005, the official status of a candidate for joining EU was provided by Macedonia. Deferred the start of negotiations on joining Croatia. A number of documents belonging to Turkey, Moldova and Ukraine also signed, but the specific prospects for joining the EU of these states are not yet clear. According to the EU Commissioner on the expansion of Oli Rennes, Iceland, Croatia and Serbia can join the EU in 2010-2011 on April 28, 2008, Albania filed an official application for joining EU. In Norway, twice conducted referendums about joining the EU, in 1972 and 1994. At the first referendum, the main fears were contacted with the restriction of independence, on the second - with agriculture. In December 2011, an agreement was signed with Croatia about joining the EU. In July 2013, Croatia became a member of the European Union. In 2009, Iceland filed an application for accession to the EU. June 13, 2013 was made an official application for the revocation of an application for accession to the European Union.
Major events in the history of deepening EU integration
1951 - Paris Treaty and the establishment of the European Association of Coal and Steel (EUS) 1957 - Roman Treaty and the creation of European economic communities (used, as a rule, in the singular) (UES) and EURATOMA1965 - a merger agreement, as a result of which a single council was created and a single commission for three European communities EOOS, UES and Evratoma1973 - the first expansion of the UES (Denmark, Ireland, United Kingdom joined) 1979 - the first national elections to the European Parliament1981 - the second expansion of the UES (Greece joined) 1985 - Signing the Schengen Agreement1986 - Signing the Schengen Agreement. The first substantial change in the EU constituent treaties.
1992 - Maastricht Treaty and the creation on the basis of the European Union communities1999 - the introduction of a single European currency - the euro (in cash from 2002) 2004 - the signing of the EU Constitution (in force) 2007 - Signing a reform agreement in Lisbon2007 - the leaders of France, Italy and Spain announced the creation of a new organization - the Mediterranean Union2007 - the second wave of the fifth expansion (joining Bulgaria and Romania). The 50th anniversary of the creation of the UES.2013 is celebrated - the sixth expansion (Croatia joined)
Currently, the three most common attributes accessories to the European Union (actually membership in the EU, the Schengen zone and the euro zone) are not accompanying, but intersecting categories: the United Kingdom and Ireland signed a Schengen Agreement on limited membership. Great Britain also did not find it necessary to join the Euroves and Sweden zone during the referendums also decided to preserve national currency. Norivegia, Iceland and Switzerland are not members of the EU, but are included in the Schengen zone. Chernomaria and partially recognized state of Kosovo Albanians are neither EU members are not nor participants in the Schengen Agreement, but the euro is an official payment facility in these countries.
Economy of the European Union
The European Union's economy, according to the IMF, produces GDP, based on PPPs in the amount of over € 12,256.48 trillion ($ 16,523.78 trillion in 2009). EU economy is a single market and in the WTO is presented as a unified organization. This is more than 21% of the global production volume. This puts the economy of the Union to the first place in the world at the nominal value of GDP and the second - according to the volume of GDP on PPP. In addition, the Union is the largest exporter and the largest importer of goods and services, as well as the most important trading partner of several large countries, such as, for example, China and India. The head office of the 161st from the five hundred of the largest on the revenue of world companies (by rating Fortune Global 500 in 2010) is located in the EU. Unemployment in April 2010 amounted to 9.7%, while the level of investment was 18.4% of GDP, inflation - 1.5%, state budget deficit - -0 , 2%. The level of per capita per capita varies from the state to the state and is in the range of from 7 to 78 thousand $. The WTO EU economy is presented as a unified organization.
After the global economic crisis of 2008-2009, the EU economy has shown a moderate GDP growth in 2010 and 2011, but increased debts of countries in 2011, which has become one of the main problems of the block. Despite the collaboration of the economy in Greece, Ireland. and Portugal, as well as consolidation of measures in many other EU member states, significant risks for economic growth of countries are also preserved at the moment, including the high credit dependence of the population, population aging. In 2011, the Eurozone leaders have increased the financing of the European Financial Stability Fund (EFSF) Up to $ 600 billion From this fund, the EU member states are funded, the most affected by the crisis. In addition, 25 of the 27 EU member states (except Great Britain and the Czech Republic) declared their intention to reduce government spending and adopt a hard savings program. September 2012, the European Central Bank has developed a stimulation program for Tran, which legally proved the introduction of emergency economy regime in the country.
European Union currency
The official currency of the European Union is the euro used in all documents and acts. In the stability and growth package, tax criteria are set out for maintaining stability and economic convergence. The euro is also the most common currency in the EU countries, which is already used in 17 member states known as eurozone.
All other Member States, with the exception of Denmark and the United Kingdom, who have special refuses, have committed to transition to euros after they fulfill the requirements required for the transition. Sweden, although he gave a refusal, but declared a possible accession to the European currency mechanism that is a preliminary step to entry. The rest of the states intend to join the euro through their accession agreements. In this way, the euro is a single currency for more than 320 million Europeans. In December 2006, the cash circulation was 610 billion euros, which made this currency with the owner of the highest total value of cash circulating around the world, ahead of the US dollar on this indicator.
European Union budget
The functioning of the EU in 2007 provided a budget of € 116 billion, and € 862 billion for the period 2007-2013, which is about 1% of the EU GDP. For comparison, the expenditures of one British for 2004 were estimated at about € 759 billion and France, about € 801 billion in 1960, the budget of the then EEC was only 0.03% of GDP.
Below is a table showing, respectively, GDP (PPP) and GDP (PPS) per capita in the European Union, and for each of the 28 member states sorted by GDP (PPP) per capita. This can be used for an approximate comparison of living standards between Member States, Luxembourg has the highest and lowest in Bulgaria. Eurostat, based in Luxembourg, is the official statistical bureau of European communities issuing annual GDP data in Member States, as well as the EU as a whole, which are regularly updated, in order to maintain the foundations of European budget and economic policies.
Economics of the European Union Member States
Economic efficiency varies from the state to the state. Pact on stability and growth regulates financial and budget policies with the European Union. It applies to all Member States, with specific rules that apply to the members of the Eurozone, providing that the budget deficit of each state should not exceed 3% of GDP and public debt should not exceed 60% of GDP. However, many major participants count their future budget with a deficit significantly exceeding 3%, and the countries of the eurozone as a whole have a debt exceeding 60 % . The EU in the global gross product (MVP) is stably about one fifth part. GDP growth rates are strong in new member states, currently fell due to sluggish growth in France, Italy and Portugal.
Thirteen new member states from Central and Eastern Europe have a higher average growth percentage than their Western European partners. In particular, the Baltic countries have achieved the rapid growth of GDP, in Latvia it is up to 11%, which at the level of the world leader of China, whose average is 9% in the last 25 years. The reasons for such a mass growth are to hold a stable monetary policy, export-oriented policies, trade, low fixed tax rates and the use of relatively cheap labor. Over the past year (2008), in Romania was the greatest increase in GDP among all EU states.
The current GDP growth card in the EU is most contrasting by regions where strong economies suffer from stagnation, while in new member states there is a steady economic growth.
In general, the influence of the EU27 on an increase in gross global product is reduced due to the emergence of economic powers, such as China, India and Brazil. In the medium and long term, the EU will search for ways to increase GDP growth rates in Central Europe, such as France, Germany and Italy and growth stabilization in new countries in Central and Eastern Europe to ensure sustainable economic prosperity.
EU Energy Policy
The European Union has large reserves of coal, oil and natural gas. According to these 2010, the internal gross power consumption of 28 participating countries amounted to 1.759 billion tons of oil equivalent. About 47.7% of the energy consumed were produced in the participating countries, while 52.3% are imported, while in the calculations nuclear energy is considered primary, despite the fact that only 3% of uranium used is mined in the European Union. The degree of dependence of the union on the import of oil and petroleum products is 84.6%, natural gas - 64.3%. According to EIA predictions (English. USA Energy Information Administration), its own gas production in European countries will decrease by 0.9% per year, which by 2035 will be 60 billion m3. The demand for gas will grow by 0.5% per year, the annual increase in gas imports to EU countries in the long run will be 1.6%. To reduce the dependence on the pipeline supplies of natural gas, the special role of the diversification tool is given to the liquefied natural gas.
Since the creation of the European Union has the legislative authority in the field of energy policy; It rises with its roots to the European coal and steel union. The introduction of mandatory and comprehensive energy policies was approved at a meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft of the new policy was published in January 2007. The minor tasks of a single energy policy: a change in the structure of energy consumption in favor of renewable sources, an increase in energy efficiency, reduction of emissions Greenhouse gases, the creation of a single energy market and promoting the development of competition on it.
In the countries of the European Union there are six oil producers, mainly in the North Sea oil fields. The United Kingdom is today the largest producer, however, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Romania and the Netherlands also produce oil. If we consider as a single whole, which is not accepted in the oil markets, the European Union is the 7th largest oil producer in the world, producing 3.424.000 (2001) barrels per day. However, it is also the 2nd largest oil consumer that consumes much more than it can produce at 14.590.000 (2001) barrels per day.
All EU countries have pledged to comply with the Kyoto Protocol, and the European Union is one of its most active supporters. The European Commission has published suggestions on the first comprehensive EU Energy Policy of January 10, 2007
European Union Trading Policy
The European Union is the largest exporter in the world () and the second largest importer. Internal trading between Member States contributes to the elimination of barriers, such as tariffs and border control. In the eurozone, trading also helps, the presence of a single currency among the majority of members. The Association Association of the European Union makes something similar for a wider range of countries, partly as a so-called soft approach ("gingerbread instead of a stick") to influence politics in these countries.
The European Union presents the interests of all its members within the framework of the World Trade Organization, and is valid on behalf of Member States in solving any disputes.
EU agriculture
The agricultural sector is supported by subsidies from the European Union within the framework of a single agricultural policy (ECP). This is currently 40% of the total EU expenses, which guarantees the minimum prices for farmers in the EU. This is criticized as a manifestation of protectionism, preventing trade, and damage to developing countries, one of the most tary opponents is the United Kingdom, the second largest economy of the block, which has repeatedly refused to give an annual British discount if there are no significant reforms in the ESP. France, the third largest economy of the block, is the most Yarm Supporter of the ECP .EDY Agricultural Policy - the oldest of the programs of the European Economic Community, its cornerstone. Policy sets the goal of an increase in agricultural productivity, ensuring the stability of food products, ensuring a worthy standard of living of the agricultural population, stabilization Markets, as well as ensuring reasonable prices for products. For recently, it was carried out through subsidies and interference in the market. In the 70s and 1980s, about two third-thirds of the European Community budget was allocated for the needs of the agricultural policy, for 2007-2013 the share of this article costs decreased to 34%
Tourism of the European Union
The European Union is a major tourist center attracting visitors from outside the EU, as well as citizens traveling within him. Domestic tourism is more convenient for citizens of some EU member states that are members of the Schengen Agreement and Eurozone.
All European Union citizens are entitled to a trip to any member country, without the need to obtain a visa. If we consider individual countries, France is the world leader in the attractiveness of foreign tourists, followed by Spain, Italy and the United Kingdom, occupying 2th, 5th and 6th places, respectively. If we consider the EU as a single whole, then the number of foreign tourists is less, as most traveling inland tourists from other member countries.
European Union
The countries of the European Union are the birthplace of many largest transnational companies in the world, as well as their headquarters home. Among them also have companies that occupy the first place in the world in their industry, for example Allianz, which is the world's largest financial service provider; Airbus, which produces about half of world jet airliners; AIR FRANCE-KLM, which is the world's largest airline in terms of the total volume of operating income; Amorim, the leader in the processing of traffic jams; ArcelorMittal, the world's largest steel company, the group "Danone", which occupies the first place in the dairy market; Anheuser-Busch Inbev, the largest producer of beer; L "group L" OREAL, a leading manufacturer of cosmetics; LVMH, the largest consignment conglomerate for the production of luxury goods; Nokia Corporation, which is the world's largest manufacturer of mobile phones; Royal Dutch Shell, one of the world's largest energy corporations, and Stora Enso, which is the largest in The world is a cellulose-paper manufacturer in terms of production potential. The EU also features a number of the largest financial sector companies, in particular HSBC - and Grupo Santander, the largest companies in terms of market capitalization.
To date, one of the most widely used methods for measuring income inequality is the Gini coefficient. This is a measure of income inequality on a scale from 0 to 1. On this scale 0 is the ideal equality for all having the same income and 1 represents an absolute inequality with one person, all income. According to the UN, the Gini coefficient varies by country from 0.247 in Denmark to 0.743 in Namibia. Most post-industrial countries have a Gini coefficient in the range from 0.25 to 0.40.
A comparison of the richest regions of the EU may be a difficult task. This is explained by the fact that the Nuts-1 and Nuts-2 regions are inhomogeneous, some of them are very large, such as Nuts-1 Hesse (21100 km²), or Nuts-1 Il de France (12011 km²), in Time as other Nuts regions are much smaller, such as Nuts-1 Hamburg (755 km²), or Nuts-1 Large London (1580 km ²). The extreme example is Finland, which is divided by historical reasons, on the mainland from 5.3 million inhabitants and the Aland Islands, with the population of 26,700, which is approximately equal to the population of a small Finnish city.
One of the problems with these data is that in some areas, including in large London, in large quantities there are pendulum migration entering the region, thereby artificially increasing the numbers. This entails an increase in GDP, without changing the number of people living in the area, increasing the GDP per capita. Similar problems can cause a large number of tourists visiting this area. These data are used to identify regions that are supported by organizations such as the European Regional Development Foundation. It was decided to distinguish between the range of territorial units for the purposes of statistics (Nuts) of regions, an arbitrary manner (t. e. Not based on objective criteria and not uniform for all of Europe), which was accepted at the pan-European level.
Top 10 Nuts-1 and Nuts-2 regions with the highest GDP per capita are among the first fifteen blocks of the block: and no region of 12 new member countries that have entered in May 2004 and January 2007. Nuts provisions establish minimal The population of 3 million, and the maximum size of 7 million for the average Nuts-1 region, and at least 800,000 and a maximum of 3 million for the Nuts-2 region. This definition, however, is not recognized by Eurostat. For example, the Il de France region, with a population of 11.6 million people is considered by the Nuts-2 region, while Bremen with a population is only 664,000 people, is considered by the Nuts-1 region. Economically weak Nuts-2 regions.
Among the fifteen regions with the lowest rating in 2004 were Bulgaria, Poland and Romania, and the lowest indicators were registered in Nord-Este in Romania (25% of the average), then Northowachapaden, Yuzhen Central and North Central in Bulgaria (all 25 -28%). Among the 68 regions with a level below 75% of the average, fifteen were in Poland, seven in Romania and the Czech Republic, six in Bulgaria, Greece and Hungary, five in Italy, four in France (all overseas departments) and Portugal, three in Slovakia , one in Spain and the rest in the countries of Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
EU Organizational Structure
Temple structure, as a way to clearly present the existing specifics of the delimitation of the competencies of the EU and Member States, appeared in the Maastricht agreement, establishing the European Union. The temple structure "supported" by three "supports" (Pillars): The first support "European Communities" combines the EU predecessors: the European Community (former European Economic Community) and the European Community for Atomic Energy (Euratom). The third organization is the European Association of Coal and Steel (EUUS) - ceased to exist in 2002 in accordance with the established Paris Treaty. The whole support is called "General Foreign Policy and Safety Policy" (OPB). Treac - "Police and Judicial Cooperation In criminal matters. "
With the help of "supports" in the treaties, policies relating to the competence of the EU are delimited. In addition, supports give a visual idea of \u200b\u200bthe role of the governments of the EU member states and institutions in the decision-making process. As part of the first support, the role of EU institutions defining. The solutions here are accepted by the "Community Method". Community maintains issues related to, in particular, the common market, the Customs Union, a single currency (while maintaining their own currency by some of the members), total agricultural policy and general fishing policies, some issues of migration and refugees, as well as rapprochement policies (COHESION POLICY ). In the second and third supports, the role of EU institutions is minimal and decisions are made by EU member states.
This decision-making method is called intergovernmental. As a result of the Nice Treaty (2001), some issues of migration and refugees, as well as the issues of ensuring gender equality in the workplace were transferred from the second to the first support. Consequently, on these issues, the role of EU institutions in relation to EU member states increased. In today's membership in the European Union, the European Community and Eugertie, all States entering into the Union become and members of the community. According to the Lisbon Treaty 2007, this complex system will be abolished. A unified status of the European Union will be established as a subject of international law.
EU European Institutions
The following is a description of the main bodies, or EU institutions. It should be borne in mind that the traditional division for states on legislative, executive and judicial bodies for the EU is not characteristic. If the EU court can be considered a judicial body, then the legislative functions are also owned by the EU Council, the European Commission and the European Parliament, and the Executive Commission and the Council.
The highest political authority of the EU, consisting of heads of states and governments of member countries and their deputy foreign ministers. A member of the European Council is also chairman of the European Commission. The creation of the European Council was based on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe French President Charles de Gaulle about the conduct of informal summits of the leaders of the European Union states, which was intended to prevent the role of national states within the framework of integration formation. Informal summits were held since 1961, in 1974 at the Summit in Paris, this practice was formalized at the proposal of Valerie Zhiscar D'ESten, who occupied the post of President of France at the time.
The Council defines the main strategic directions for the development of the EU. The development of the general line of political integration is the main mission of the European Council. Along with the Council of Ministers, the European Council is endowed with a political function consisting in changing the fundamental treaties of European integration. Its meetings take place at least twice a year - either in Brussels, or in the presiding state chaired by the representative of the Member State, which is heading at this time the Council of the European Union. Meetings last two days. Council decisions are required for those supporting them. Within the framework of the European Council, the so-called "ceremonial" manual is carried out when the presence of the highest level politicians gives a decision at the same time and significance and high legitimacy. From the moment of entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty, that is, from December 2009, the European Council officially entered the structure of EU institutions. The provisions of the Agreement established a new position of the Chairman of the European Council, which takes part in all meetings of the heads of state and government of the EU member states. Economic Council should be distinguished from the EU Council and the Council of Europe.
The Council of the European Union (the official name is the Council is usually informally referred to as the Council of Ministers) - along with the European Parliament, one of the two legislative bodies of the CJUSE and one of the seven of its institutions. The Council includes 28 ministers of governments of member countries in the composition depending on the issue of the circle of issues. At the same time, despite the various compositions, the Council is considered a single organ. In addition to legislative powers, the Council also has some executive functions in the field of shared foreign policy and security policies.
The Council includes foreign ministers of the European Union member states. However, the practice of convening the Council in the composition of other, industry ministers: the economy and finance, justice and internal affairs, agriculture, etc., was developed, and so on. Council decisions are equally valid regardless of the specific composition. The presidency in the Council of Ministers is carried out by the EU member states in the manner unanimously defined by the Council (usually rotation occurs on the basis of a large - a small state, the founder is a new term, etc.). Rotation takes place every six months. In the first periods of the existence of the European Community, most decisions of the Council demanded a unanimous decision. Gradually, an increasing application is acquired by a method of making solutions by a qualified majority of votes. At the same time, each state owns a certain number of votes, depending on its population and economic potential.
Under the auspices of the Council, there are numerous working groups on specific issues. Their task is to prepare the decisions of the Council and control the European Commission in the event that she delegated certain powers of the Council. Incidentally from the Paris Treaty, there is a tendency of selective delegation of authority from national states (directly or through the Council of Ministers) to the European Commission. The signing of new "package" agreements added new competencies of the European Union, which entail delegation of large performing powers of the European Commission. However, the European Commission is not free in policies, in certain areas, national governments have tools for controlling its activities. Another trend is the strengthening of the role of the European Parliament. It should be noted that despite the evolution from a purely advisory body done by the European Parliament to the Institute of the Right Joint Decision and even approval, the powers of the European Parliament are still very limited. Therefore, the balance of power in the EU institute system is still in favor of the Council of Ministers. The delegation of the authority from the European Council is extremely selective and does not threaten the significance of the Council of Ministers.
The European Commission is the highest executive authority of the European Union. Consists of 27 members, one from each member state. In the performance of their powers, they are independent, act only in the interests of the EU, not entitled to deal with any other activities. Member States are not entitled to influence members of the European Commission. The method is formed every 5 years as follows. The EU Council at the level of heads of state and / or governments offers the candidacy of the chairman of the European Commission, which is approved by the European Parliament. Further, the EU Council together with the candidate for the chairmen of the Commission form the estimated composition of the European Commission, taking into account the wishes of Member States. The composition of the "Cabinet" should be approved by the European Parliament and finally approved by the EU Council. Each member of the Commission is responsible for a certain EU policy scope and heads the corresponding unit (the so-called General Directorate).
The Commission plays a major role in ensuring the daily activities of the EU aimed at fulfilling the fundamental contracts. It advocates legislative initiatives, and after approval controls their implementation. In case of violation of the EU legislation, the Commission has the right to resort to sanctions, including to contact the European Court. The Commission has significant autonomous rights in various fields of policies, including agrarian, commercial, competitive, transport, regional, etc. The Commission has an executive office, and also manages budget and various funds and European Union programs (such as TACIS program) The international working languages \u200b\u200bof the Commission are English, French and German. The headquarters of the European Commission is located in Brussels.
EU European Parliament
The European Parliament is a meeting of 732 deputies (as amended by the Nice Treaty), directly elected by citizens of the EU member states for five years. The chairman of the European Parliament is elected for two and a half years. The members of the European Parliament are united by a national basis, but in accordance with the political orientation. The main role of the European Parliament is the approval of the EU budget. In addition, almost any decision of the EU Council requires either the approval of the parliament, or at least the request for its opinions. Parliament controls the work of the Commission and has the right of its dissolution (which, however, he never enjoyed). Parliament is required and when adopting new members to the Union, as well as at the conclusion of agreements on associate membership and trade agreements with third countries.
The last elections to the European Parliament were held in 2009. The European Parliament holds plenary sessions in Strasbourg and Brussels. The European Parliament was established in 1957. Originally members were appointed by the parliaments of the EU Member States. C 1979 is elected by the population. Parliament elections are held every 5 years. Deputies of the European Parliament are divided into party factions that represent international party associations. Chairman - Buzek Jerzy. The European Parliament is one of the five governing bodies of the European Union. It is directly represented by the population of the European Union. Since the foundation of Parliament in 1952, its powers were continuously expanded, especially as a result of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 and, for the last time, the contract in Nice in 2001. Nevertheless, the competence of the European Parliament is still than that of the national legislative bodies of most states.
The European Parliament meets in Strasbourg, other places - Brussels and Luxembourg. On July 20, 2004, the European Parliament was elected for the sixth period. At first, there were 732 parliamentarians in it, and after joining the European Union of Romania and Bulgaria on January 15, 2007, they were 785. The chairman of the second half-period - Hans Gert Pttering. The present in Parliament presents 7 fractions, as well as a number of non-partisan delegates. In his native states of parliamentarians are members of about 160 different parties, which united in the fraction in the pan-European political arena. Starting from the seventh election period 2009-2014. The European Parliament must again consist of 736 delegates (according to Art. 190 EG-Treaty); The Lisbon Agreement establishes the number of parliamentarians at the level of 750 people, including the Chairman. Principles of the organization and work of the body are contained in the Regulations of the European Parliament.
HISTORY OF THE EU European Parliament
From 10 to September 13, 1952, the first meeting was held within the framework of the European Union (the European Association of Coal and Steel) as part of 78 representatives who were chosen from among the national parliaments. This meeting had only advisory powers, but also had the right to dismiss the highest executive bodies of the EOUS. In 1957, as a result of the signing of the Roman Treaty, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community were founded. The parliamentary assembly, which at that time consisted of 142 representatives, applied to all these three communities. Despite the fact that the meeting did not receive any new powers, however, it became called the European Parliament - the name that was recognized as independent states. When in 1971, the European Union found his budget, the European Parliament began to participate in its planning - in all its aspects, in addition to planning expenses for general agricultural policies, which, at that time, were about 90% of expenses. This obvious meaninglessness of parliament, even led to the fact that in the 70s, there was a joke in the course: "I went to my old grandfather to sit in the European Parliament" ("Hast Du Einen Opa, Schick Ihn Nach Europa").
Since the 1980s, the situation began to gradually change. The first direct elections of parliament in 1976 were not yet associated with the expansion of its powers, but already in 1986 after the signing of a single pan-European act, the parliament began to participate in the process of legislation and could now formally make proposals for changes in bills, although the last word still remained for the European Council. This condition was abolished as a result of the next step to expand the competencies of the European Parliament - the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, which equalized the European Parliament and the European Council. Although the parliament still could not put forward bills against the will of the European Council, it became a great achievement, since now no important decision could be done without the participation of Parliament. In addition, the Parliament has received the right to form an investigative committee, which significantly expanded its control functions.
As a result of the reform of Amsterdam 1997 and Nice 2001, the parliament began to play a large role in the political sphere of Europe. In some important areas, such as the pan-European agricultural policy, or the joint work of the police and the judiciary, the European Parliament is still not fully authority. Nevertheless, together in the European Council, he occupies a solid position in the legislation. The European Parliament has three most important tasks: legislation, budgeting and control of the European Commission . The European Parliament divides legislative functions with the EU Council, which also accepts laws (directives, orders, decisions). Since the signing of the Treaty in Nice, in most political spheres, the so-called principle of joint decisions (Article 251 of the EU-Agreement) is valid, according to which the European Parliament and the Council of Europe have equal authority, and each bill submitted by the Commission must be considered in 2x Readings. Disagreements should be allowed during the 3rd reading.
In general, this system resembles the separation of the legislative power in Germany between the Bundestag and the Bundesht. Nevertheless, the European Parliament, unlike the Bundestag, does not have the right to initiative, in other words, he cannot make its own bills. This is the right, only the European Commission has the right to the pan-European political arena. The European Constitution, and the Lisbon Agreement do not provide for expansion of initiative authority for parliament, although the Lisbon Treaty still admits the situation in exceptional cases when a group of EU member states contributes to bills.
In addition to the system of mutual lawmaking, there are also two more forms of legal regulation (agrarian policy and antimonopolistic competition), where the parliament has less voting rights. This circumstance after the contract in Nice applies only to one political sphere, and after the Lisbon Treaty must disappear at all.
The European Parliament and the EU Council together form a budget commission that forms the EU budget (for example, in 2006, it amounted to about € 113 billion).
Significant restrictions on budget policy imposes so-called "mandatory costs" (that is, the costs associated with joint agrarian policies), which make up almost 40% of the cumulative European budget. Parliament's powers in the direction of "mandatory expenses" are strongly limited. The Lisbon Treaty should eliminate the difference between "binding" and "optional" expenses and submit the European Parliament the same budgeting rights as the EU Council
Parliament also monitors the activities of the European Commission. Plenary Parliament must approve the composition of the Commission. Parliament in the right to accept either reject the commission only in full, and not individual members. The Chairman of the Commission does not appoint parliament (as opposed to the rules operating most of the national parliaments of the European Union member countries), it can only take either reject the candidacy proposed by the Council of Europe. In addition, Parliament can be through a 2/3-3 majority, to put forward the problem of the commission, than to cause its resignation.
This law of the European Parliament used, for example, in 2004, when the Commission of Free Cities spoke out against the challenged candidate Rocco Butiglion for the post of commissioner on Justice Affairs. Then the Social Democratic, Liberal Fractions, as well as the Green Fraction, expressed a threat to dissolve, the Commission, after which, instead of Boutglion, Franco Frattini was appointed for the post of commissioner of justice. This right is particularly affecting those policies, where the executive functions of these institutions are great, and where the legislative rights of parliament are significantly limited.
Court of European Union
The European Court (the official name - the Court of European Communities) holds its meetings in Luxembourg and is the judicial authority of the EU of the Higher Instantia. It is regulates disagreements between Member States; between Member States and the European Union itself; between EU institutions; Between the EU and physical or legal entities, including employees of its bodies (for this function, a civil service tribunal has recently been created). The court gives conclusion on international agreements; It also makes preliminary (predominal) rulings at the request of national courts on the interpretation of the constituent treaties and regulatory acts of the EU. EU Court solutions are mandatory for execution in the EU. As a general rule, the Jurisdiction of the EU court applies to the sphere of the competence of the EU.
The Court of Auditors (The Court of Auditors) was created in 1975 for the audit of the EU budget and its institutions. Structure. The Chamber consists of representatives of Member States (one from each member state). They are appointed by the Council unanimous decision for a six-year term and fully independent of their duties. Functions: 1. checks reports on EU revenues and expenditure and all its institutions and bodies with access to EU Funds; 2. Provides finance management quality; 3. After completing each fiscal year, makes a report on its work, and also represents the European Parliament and the Council of Conclusion or Comment on individual issues; 5. Helps the European Parliament to control the execution of the EU budget. Headquarters - Luxembourg.
European Central Bank
The European Central Bank was formed in 1998 from banks of 11 EU countries that are part of the Eurozone (Germany, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy, Austria, Portugal, Finland, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg). Greece, which introduced the euro from January 1, 2001, became the twelfth country of the Europanc Central Bank (Eng. EuropeanCentralbank) - the Central Bank of the European Union and the Euro Zone. Educated on June 1, 1998. Headquarters is located in the German city of Frankfurt am Main. His staff includes representatives of all EU member states. The Bank is completely independent of the other EU bodies.
The main functions of the bank: the development and implementation of the monetary policy of the Euro zone; The content and management of official exchange reserves of the Euro zone countries; euro banknotes issue; establishing major interest rates.; Maintaining price stability in the eurozone, that is, providing the level of inflation not higher than 2%. European Central Bank is the "heir" of the European Monetary Institute (EMI), who played a leading role in preparing for the entry of the euro in 1999. The European Central Banking System consists From the ECB and National Central Banks: National Bank of Belgium (Banque Nationale de Belgique), Managing Guy Quaden; Bundesbank, Managing Axel Weber (Axel A. Weber); Greece Bank, Managing Nicholas Garganas (Nicholas C. Garganas); Bank of Spain, Managing Miguel Fernández Ordóñez; Bank of France (Banque de France), Managing Christian Nouayer; Monetary Institute of Luxembourg.
All key issues relating to the activities of the European Central Bank, such as an accounting rate, accounting bills and others are resolved by the Directorate and the Board of Governors of the Bank. The Directorate includes six people, including the Chairman of the ECB and the Deputy Chairman of the ECB. Candidates are offered by the Board of Governors, are approved by the European Parliament and heads of states in the eurozone.
The Board of Governors consists of members of the Directorate of the ECB and the Governing National Central Banks. Traditionally, four of the six places are occupied by representatives of four major central banks: France, Germany, Italy and Spain. The right of votes have only members of the Board of Governors who are present personally or participating in the teleconference. Member of the Board of Governors may appoint a replacement if for a long time it does not have the opportunity to attend meetings.
For voting, the presence of 2/3 members of the Council is required, however, an emergency meeting of the ECB may be collected, for which the threshold of those present is not established. Decisions are accepted by a simple majority in the event of equality of votes, the voice of the chairman has a greater weight. Decisions on the capital of ECB, the distribution of profits, etc., are also solved by the voting, the weight of the votes is proportional to the shares of national banks in the authorized capital of the ECB. In accordance with Art. The 8 Treaty on the establishment of the European Community was founded by the European System of Central Banks - a proper financial regulation authority, which unites the European Central Bank (ECB) and national central banks of all 27 countries of the European Union. The ESSB Office is carried out by the ECB Office.
Created according to the Treaty, on the basis of capital provided by Member States. The EIB is endowed with the functions of a commercial bank, operates in international financial markets, provides loans to state structures of member countries.
EU Economic and Social Committee and other units
Economic and Social Committee (Economic and Social Committee) - EU Advisory Body. Educated in accordance with the Roman Treaty. Structure. Consists of 344 members called advisers.
Functions. Consults the Council and Commission on EU socio-economic policy issues. Presents various spheres of economics and social groups (employers, hired labor and free professions employed in industry, agriculture, service sector, as well as representatives of public organizations).
Committee members are appointed by the Council unanimous decision for a period of 4 years. The Committee chooses from among its members of the Chair for a period of 2 years. After receiving new states in the EU, the number of the Committee will not exceed 350 people.
Venue of meetings. The Committee meets 1 time per month in Brussels.
The Committee of the Regions is a consultative body providing a representative office of regional and local administrations in the EU. The Committee was established in accordance with the Maastricht Agreement and is valid since March 1994. Consists of 344 members representing regional and local authorities, but fully independent in fulfilling their duties. The number of members from each country is the same as in the Economic and Social Committee. The candidates are approved by the Council unanimous decision on the proposals of Member States for a period of 4 years. The Committee chooses from among its members of the Chair and other officials for a period of 2 years.
Functions. He advises the Council and the Commission and gives conclusions on all issues affecting the interests of the regions. Mixed sessions. Plenary sessions pass in Brussels 5 times a year. Also, the EU institutions are the institute of the European Ombudsman, which is engaged in complaints of citizens regarding the poor management of any institute or the EU authority. The decisions of this body are not mandatory, but have a significant social and political influence. As well as 15 specialized agencies and bodies, European monitoring Center to combat racism and xenophobia, Europol, EUB.
The right of the European Union
A feature of the European Union, which distinguishes it from other international organizations, is the presence of own law, which directly regulates the relations of not only Member States, but also of their citizens and legal entities. The EU right consists of the so-called primary, secondary and tertiary (decision of the European Communities). Primary law - EU constituent treaties; agreements contributing to changes (auditing contracts); Treaties on the entry of new Member States. Secondary law - acts published by the EU bodies. The decisions of the EU and other judicial union judicial bodies are widely used as case law.
The EU right has a direct action in the territory of the EU countries and a priority in relation to the national legislation of states.
The EU law is divided into institutional law (the norms regulating the procedure for the creation and functioning of Institutions and EU institutions) and the material law (the norms governing the process of implementing the EU and ECO community objectives). The material law of the EU, as well as the right of individual countries, can be divided into the industry: EU customs law, EU environmental law, EU transport law, EU tax right, etc. With regard to EU structure ("Three supports") EU law is also divided into European law Communities, Schengen law and other mining achievement of the EU's right can be considered the Institute of Four Freight: Freedom of the movement of persons, freedom of movement of capital, freedom of movement of goods and freedom of providing services in these countries.
Languages \u200b\u200bof the European Union
23 languages \u200b\u200bare officially used in European institutions: English, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Greek, Danish, Irish, Spanish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, German, Netherlands, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Finnish, French, Czech , Swedish, Estonian. It is a working level, as a rule, used English and French.
The official languages \u200b\u200bof the European Union are languages \u200b\u200bthat are official in the activities of the European Union (EU). All decisions taken by the official EU authorities are transferred to all official languages, and the EU citizens have the right to contact the EU bodies and receive an answer to their requests on any of the official languages.
At the highest level events, measures are being taken to implement the translation of the participants to all official languages \u200b\u200b(if necessary). Simultaneous translation into all official languages, in particular, is always carried out at the sessions of the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Despite the declared equality of all languages \u200b\u200bof the Union, with the expansion of the EU borders, there is increasingly "European bilingualism", when in fact in the work of instances (with the exception of official events) Basically English, French and, to a lesser extent, German (three working languages \u200b\u200bof the Commission) - at the same time any other languages \u200b\u200bare used depending on the situation. In connection with the expansion of the EU and the accession of countries where French is less common, the positions of English and German have strengthened. In any case, all final regulatory documents are transferred to the remaining official languages.
In 2005, about 800 million euros were spent on payment of the work of translators. Back in 2004, this amount amounted to 540 million euros. Education stimulates the spread of multilingualism among residents of participating countries. This is done not only for the sake of ensuring mutual understanding, but also for the development of tolerant and respectful attitude towards a linguistic and cultural diversity in the EU. Among the dissemination measures, the annual European day of languages, affordable language courses, promoting the study of more than one foreign language and learning languages \u200b\u200bin adulthood.
The Russian language is native for more than 1.3 million people in the Baltic countries, as well as for a small part of the German population. The older generation of the population of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania basically understands Russian and speaks on it, as in the USSR he was obligatory for studying in schools and universities. Also, the Russian language understands many older people in Eastern Europe, where it is not native to the public.
The debt crisis of the European Union and measures to overcome it
The European debt crisis or the crisis of sovereign debt in a number of European countries - the debt crisis, which covered in 2010 first the peripheral countries of the European Union (Greece, Ireland), and then embraced almost the entire euro area. The source of the crisis is called the crisis of the State Bligation Market in Greece in the fall of 2009. For some countries, the eurozone has become complex or impossible refinancing of public debt without the help of intermediaries.
Since the end of 2009, due to the increase in the magnitude of the debt of the public and private sector around the world and the simultaneous reduction of credit ratings of a number of EU countries, investors began to be fear of the development of the debt crisis. In different countries, various reasons have led to the development of the debt crisis: somewhere the crisis was caused by the provision of emergency government assistance to the banking sector companies who were on the verge of bankruptcy due to the growth of market bubbles, or government attempts to stimulate the economy after the market bubbles burst . In Greece, the growth of the magnitude of the public debt was caused by a wasteful high level of wages of civil servants and significant pension payments 347 days. The development of the crisis was also promoted by the structure of the Eurozone (currency, not the budget and tax union), which also negatively affected the possibilities of leadership of European countries to respond to the development of the crisis: there are a single currency in the eurozone member countries, but there is no single tax and pension legislation.
It is noteworthy that due to the fact that in the property of European banks there is a significant proportion of state bonds of countries, doubts about the separation of individual countries lead to doubts about the requirements of their banking sector and on the contrary. In 2010, investors began to increase in 2010. On May 9, 2010, the Ministers of Finance of the leading countries of Europe reacted to the change in the investment situation by the creation of the European Fund of Financial Stability (Effs) with resources of 750 billion euros to ensure financial stability in Europe due to the implementation of a number of anti-crisis measures. In October 2011 and February 2012, the eurozone leaders agreed to prevent the economic collapse, including an agreement on debiting 53.5% of the debt obligations of Greece, owned by private creditors, an increase in the volume of funds of the European Fund of Financial Stability to about € 1 trillion, as well as an increase in the level of capitalization of European banks up to 9%.
Also in order to increase investor confidence by representatives of the EU leading countries, an agreement on budgetary and tax stability (En: European Fiscal Compact) was concluded, within which the government of each country has committed itself to submit to the Constitution of the amendments to the obligation of a balanced budget. In that time As the volume of government bonds has significantly increased in several eurozone countries, state debt growth has become perceived as the overall problem of all EU countries as a whole. Nevertheless, the European currency remains stable. Three countries, the most affected by the crisis (Greece, Ireland and Portugal), account for 6 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) of the eurozone. In June 2012, Spain's debt crisis was published among the economic problems of the eurozone. This led to a sharp increase in the return rates of state bonds of Spain and significantly limited the country's access to capital markets, which led to the need to provide financial assistance to the Spanish banks and a number of other measures.
On May 9, 2010, the Ministers of Finance of the leading countries of Europe reacted to the change in the investment situation by the creation of the European Fund of Financial Stability (Effs) with resources of 750 billion euros to ensure financial stability in Europe due to the implementation of a number of anti-crisis measures. In October 2011 and February 2012, the eurozone leaders agreed to prevent the economic collapse, including an agreement on debiting 53.5% of the debt obligations of Greece, owned by private creditors, an increase in the volume of funds of the European Fund of Financial Stability to about € 1 trillion, as well as an increase in the level of capitalization of European banks up to 9%. Also, in order to increase investors' confidence, representatives of the EU leading countries concluded an agreement on budgetary and tax stability (EUROPEAN FISCAL COMPACT), within which the government has committed itself to a declaration of amendments to the Constitution on the obligation of a balanced budget.
While the volume of government bonds increased significantly only in several eurozone countries, the growth of state debt began to be perceived as the overall problem of all EU countries as a whole. Nevertheless, the European currency remains stable. Three countries, the most affected by the crisis (Greece, Ireland and Portugal), account for 6 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) of the eurozone. In June 2012, Spain's debt crisis was published among the economic problems of the eurozone. This led to a sharp increase in the return rates of state bonds of Spain and significantly limited the country's access to capital markets, which led to the need to provide financial assistance to the Spanish banks and a number of other measures.
Sources to Article "European Union"
images.yandex.ua - Pictures Yandex
ru.wikipedia.org - Wikipedia's free encyclopedia
youTube - Videohosting
osvita.eu - European Union Information Agency
elaw.edu.ru - the official website of the European Union
referatwork.ru - the right of the European Union
eUOBSERVER.COM - news site specializing in the European Union
eurativ.com - EU Policy News
jazyki.ru - EU language portal
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