Although they call the long-term permafrost, but in fact it is not. This merzlot arose into a quaternary or glacial period of development of our Earth. In those areas where the climate was dry and frosty, and the thickness of the terrestrial ice cover was insignificant, and even did not form at all, the soil was freezing and the formation of regions of many years of permanent.

Frozen breeds have a temperature below 0 ° C; Part or all the water in them is in the crystalline state. In medium latitudes, only a small surface layer freezes in winter, so seasonal permanently dominates here. In the northern latitudes for a long, frosty winter, the Earth freezes very deeply, and it cares only from the surface of just 0.5-2 m deep into the depth. The thawing layer is called active. Below in its breeds, negative temperatures are maintained. These places are called the areas of many years of marzlot.

Frustry soils are spread on Earth mainly in the Polar areas. The largest areas of many years of marbles are Siberia and the northern part of North America.

The territory where the long-term permafrost is common, is called another area of \u200b\u200bunderground glaciation. But it should be noted that the frozen breeds are disseminated here not everywhere. In the valleys of large rivers, under large lakes, in areas of circulation of groundwater, the thickness of many years of milling is interrupted. On the outskirts of underground glaciation regions there is an island frozen in the form of individual spots.
In frozen rocks, the ice becomes a kind of breed-forming mineral. A variety of icy inclusions in the rocks of the earth's crust are called fossil ice. The reasons for their occurrence are different: freezing of water in the thickness of the permissal soil; Falling asleep of rock glaciers. Fossil ice exists in the form of live, wedges, thin stalks, as well as in the form of lenses. Sometimes the formed ice lens and the water incoming from below lifting the soil occurring above, and a tubercle appears, called hydrolylaccolite. In Yakutia, they reach 25-40 meters in height and 200-300 m in width.

Under the influence of transverse engineering and thawing soils and rocks on the slopes, as well as due to the strength of gravity, the active layer begins to slowly slide even from the gentle slopes at a speed of centimeter per year to several meters per hour. This process is called solifluction (from lat. Solum - Soil and Fluctio - expiration). It is widespread in Central and Eastern Siberia, in Canada, in highlands, in the tundra. At the same time on the slopes there are influx, low ridges. If there is wood vegetation on the slope, the forest bends. This phenomenon got the name "Drunk Forest".

Merzloral processes very complicate the construction and operation of buildings, roads, bridges, tunnels. You have to save frozen soils in natural state. To this end, structures are installed on supports, pave cooling pipes, immerse the piles into bored wells. But Merzlota becomes both a man's assistant when warehouses are arranged in it, huge natural refrigerators.

Introduction

Chapter 1. Eternal Merzlota. Study history

1.1. History of the term "Eternal Merzlota"

1.2. A short story of studying frozen rocks

2.1. Morphology of frozen rocks

2.2. South Border of Perennial Merzlot

Chapter 3. The impact of many years of permanent

3.1. Merzloid relief

3.2. Underground water in the zone of many years of milling

3.3. Features of the formation of soil under multi-neuroprious rocks.

3.4. The effect of permafrost on vegetation development

Conclusion.

Introduction

The intensive development of the northeastern part of Russia, where they had to be built under the conditions of seasonal breed freezing, it necessitates the study of many years of permissal. In Soviet times, tremendous efforts were made to study many years of permits, and the relevance of the problem was in the equipment of new deposits and the construction of settlements next to them.

This problem is relevant to this day. On the territory of distribution of many years or permafrost not only need to build settlements, but also there is a task of building and operating pipelines and wells. The main way of construction on the territory under study is pile foundations, in the construction of which it is possible to extinguish the permanent soils and subsequently the deformation of piles.

With long or incorrect operation of construction objects, multi-neur-membered breeds can change their strength properties as a result of transition from an outstanding state into the elevation state, i.e. Melting of frozen soils. Also, in the conditions of permafrost, railways have to build, today the total length of areas with permafrost on the railway network in our country is about 5,000 km.

Today, around the world there is a tendency to global warming; In Russia, scientists state a decrease in the area of \u200b\u200bpermafrost. The regions of permafrost are the upper part of the earth's crust, the temperature of which for a long time (from 2-3 years to millennia) does not rise above 0 ° C. In the zone of many years of marzlot, groundwater is in the form of ice, its depth sometimes exceeds 1000 meters.

Perennial Merzlota, a total area of \u200b\u200b35 million km², is distributed in the territory of the North of Europe, Western Siberia, Canada, Alaska and the Islands of the Arctic Ocean. On the territory of our country there are sixty percent of the world area covered by perpetual Merzlot. It is most widely distributed in Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia.

The topic "The impact of many years of permands on the nature and life of a person" I was interested in the fact that the long-term Merzlota is one of the phenomena remaining after the era of quaternary glaciation, and this epoch has enormous influence on the formation of the relief of Russia. I am interested in physics of exogenous processes related to the Merzlot.

In the work I used the following methods: literary, cartographic and static. The following tasks are delivered before me:

1. To know with the scientific literature, dedicated to the history of development, dynamics and evolution of permafrost.

2. Investigate the positive and negative sides of the impact of permafrost on natural components.

Chapter 1.

The concept of permafrost. Study history

1.1.History of the term "Eternal Merzlot".

The main task of general permits is the study of the permanent rocks and the clarification of the patterns of their distribution and development. Therefore, the overall permafrost, which has the subject of its study of the permanent rock, is mainly geological science, and studies the origin, composition, properties, structure, the addition and distribution of frozen rocks in connection with the geological, geophysical and biological processes occurring in them.

The founder of the permissible science as an independent science of M. I. Sigin (1873-1942) briefly defined it as a doctrine of permafrost and permanent soils, but he understood the word "eternal" as the "last century", and "Merzlota" - in an extended sense . This follows from the content of published in 1940 in collaboration with other Merzlotovads of the course "General Merzlotting" (Sumgin et al., 1940).

At the same time, such an extended understanding of the word "Merzlood" led to the use of this term in several senses, namely:

1. Merzile state of rocks,

2. There are frozen rock rocks,

3. Close or zone of dissemination of frozen rocks,

4. Processes of the development of frozen rocks.

Eternal (long-term) Merzlot- 1) the phenomenon of long cooling of rocks of the upper part of the earth's crust to zero temperature; 2) layer or area of \u200b\u200bthawing rocks; 3) rock rocks, saccinated moisture frozen in them. (Geographical Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1988.)

Although in the use of the word "Merzlota", it was always clear what we were talking about, the need for each case to negotiate and clarify the term caused a proposal to introduce new terms into the permissive science, unambiguously determining existing concepts. So, P. F. Shvetsov (Soviet scientist, a specialist in the features of the formation of groundwater in the conditions of many years, 1955) pointed out an undesirable to use the terms "Merzlot" and "Merzlotovat" and proposed instead of them, respectively, "cryolitozone" and "Geocryology". The term "cryolitozone" denotes the area, or the zone of development of the permafrost and corresponds to the usually used term "permeal fatty".

Geocryology, according to Schwetov, is the teaching on the patterns of development and distribution of drugs of permissal soils and rocks, on the concomitant processes and the characteristics of the composition, structure, addition and properties of the permafrost rocks. This definition does not differ essentially from the above definition of the subject of permissive science in Sigin.

1.2. A short sketch of the history of the study of permanent breeds.

In the literature, the first mention of observed in the summer of permanent rocks began to appear from the XVI century. At this time, the search for the Northern Sea Route from Europe in India and China, and traveling to the northern countries became more popular.

In ancient Russian essay, "Description of which it is impossible to pass the Chinese state from the Arkhangelsk city to the Chinese state and Otola to East India," compiled in 1598, it is clear that there were distinct and even scientific ideas about the causes of the existence of many years of ice of the Arctic. In the XVII century, in connection with the promotion of Russian people to the East and Northeast of Siberia, there were reports on the existence of many-neopmodesome rocks. In the late XVII and early XVIII centuries. In connection with the development of commercial capital and the overall rise of science in the era of Peter I North and East, Siberia are visited by both individual travelers and entire expeditions. This led to a gradual increase in information about the existence and distribution of multi-neurose-made rocks. So, historian and geographer of the first half of the XVIII century. V.N. Tatishchev in his works (1725, 1736) reports the presence of many-nesting rocks and that there are beavn and the preserved Mammoth battles.

In the middle of the XVIII century. M. V. Lomonosov in his "Word about the birth of metals from the shaking of the Earth, produced on September 6, 1757, for the first time a theoretical provision is expressed that the existence of many-neuroprous breeds is the result of two mutually opposite processes - summer heating and winter cooling - and thereby The beginning of the teaching on heat exchange between rocks and the surrounding space as a primary factor defining the thermal state of the upper layer of the atmosphere. These theoretical positions of Lomonosov received further development only at the end of the XIX century, in the second half of the XVIII century. And the first half of the XIX century. The accumulation of actual material on multi-neuroprious rocks continued.

In 1820-1824 F. P. Vrangel (Russian military and statesman, navigator and polar researcher) and F. F. Matyushkin (navigator, subsequently, Admiral, at the beginning of a career - at the end of the Tsarskoye Lyceum - participating in two polar expeditions together with Wrangel) investigated Eastern areas of Siberia, also pays a lot of attention to frozen rocks.

In 1828 F. E. Schgin (a merchant of the 3rd guild, the assistant commissioner of the Russian-American company in Yakutsk) began the penetration of the "Well" in Yakutsk and reached the depth of 116.4 m. Thus, the famous Shergin mine was created. She walked all the time in frozen rocks, did not open the aquifers and with the course of time played a significant research and development role in the study of frozen rocks. At the beginning of the 40s of the XIX century. Academician A. F. Middendorf measured the temperature of frozen rocks in a Schgun mine to a depth of 116 m, which made it possible for the first time to determine the temperature gradient in frozen rocks and judge the power of a frozen strata.

In 1850-70. The industrial development of Siberia was activated. The builders were directly met with frozen rocks, they had to study them and seek new construction methods. Agronomians began to arise questions for soil landing in the field of dissemination of frozen rocks.

In 1866, the Mining Engineer I. A. Lopatin investigated many years of considerable quaternary deposits in the lowering of the Yenisei and on the Brechov Islands (70⁰15 '-71⁰00' S.Sh.) and established a wide distribution in the area of \u200b\u200bunderground housing ice (the inclusion of ice in the form of wedge-shaped bodies in the rock) and the phenomena of the radiation and heat circuit. He first drew attention to the meaning of these phenomena for the construction in the north, thus laid the beginning of engineering permafrost.

L. A. Yakhevsky (Russian Geologist, Mining Engineer) made a great contribution to the development of permons. He pointed to the value for the development of multi-metered rocks Negative air temperatures, snow cover capacity, geological structure of the area, composition and heat capacity of rocks, their watering, occurring in them geochemical processes, as well as exposure of the slopes. Yachevsky published a map of the spread of many-nesting rocks and gave the southern border.

V. A. Obruchev (Russian and Soviet geologist, geographer, writer and popularizer of science), performing geological studies in the Olkmin-Vitim Mountain Country, established power fluctuations and lack of frozen rocks within the same climate region (1891).

In 1890 At the request of the management of the construction of the Siberian Railway with Russian Geographical Society, a commission was created in St. Petersburg to study the frozen soils under the chairmanship of the geology and geographer, the famous traveler I. V. Musketov. The members of the Commission were the famous climatologist A. V. Warikov, V. A. Obruchev, Geophysic M. A. Rykachev and Geologist K. I. Bogdanovich. The Commission published in 1895 the first "instructions for studying the soil permissal in Siberia."

The study of frozen rocks and related practical issues increased due to the construction and operation of the western part of the Amur Railway (1909-1914). At the same time, employees of the migration and meteorological bureau began to study the soils of plant cover, agriculture and water supply in the context of the spread of perennial rocks (works of scientists N.I. Prokhorov, P. I. Koloskova, M. I. Sumina, L. and Prasolov , B. B. Poloyov, B. N. Sukacheva, R. I. Abolina).

In connection with the need to develop industry and transport during the recovery of the national economy after the civil war in Leningrad and in Moscow in 1923-1928. Organizations began to arise, which in their main work came across issues of permafrost and were forced to study their study to develop rational construction methods. These were gyroides, the Central Committee in Leningrad and the Institute of Engineers of Agriculture, as well as the Agricultural Academy. K.A.Timiryazev in Moscow.

The development of economic activities in the field of dissemination of frozen rocks demanded the generalization of the data obtained. This task was made by M.I.Sumgin in its capital labor "Eternal Merzlot of Soil within the USSR", released in 1927 at the end of 1929 at the initiative of Sumina with the support of Academician V.I. Vernadsky, and the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was organized a permanent committee According to the Study of Eternal Merzlot (KIVM), chaired by V.A. Berchev. In addition to the direct study of permafrost, KIVM has become a center that organizes all the work in the field of permafrost. In 1939, the Institute of Mercular Science was organized on the basis of KIVM. V.A. Bercheva Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

In 1953 at the Geological Faculty of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov was organized the first department of permafrost, which began the release of Merzlotov's specialists.

After graduating from the Great Patriotic War, despite the difficulties of the reducing period, the permafrost continued to develop rapidly. Several directions were clearly outlined: 1) General, regional and historical fertility, including cryolitology; 2) physics and mechanics of frozen rocks; 3) thermodynamics and thermal imaging of the permanent rocks; 4) engineering permafrost; 5) agrobiological fertility; 6) thermal and water-thermal amelioration of permanent rocks; 7) Methods of permissal research; 8) studies of groundwater.

Merzlotics for the post-war period ripened as a science, there are large independent sections of knowledge. It develops into geocyology.

After the abolition of the Institute of Merzlotovation of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. OBRUCHEVA The organizing center of this science moved to Siberia, where in Yakutsk on the basis of the northeastern branch of the Institute of Mercular Science. Obrechev in 1961 was created by the Institute of Merzlotovat Relations of the Siberian Department. Obrucheva under the leadership of P. I. Melnikova.

In 1970, a scientific council on the criology of the Earth was created in Moscow, which included large scientists. In the 90s. In connection with the economic crisis, the number of employees in many scientific centers has decreased, many scientific research have been suspended. Nevertheless, the institute conducted research on regional, historical and engineering geocryology, for heat and mass transfer in frozen strata of the earth's crust, the nature of the strength and geological properties of frozen rocks were studied, various geophysical and geochemical methods of research of frozen mountain strata were developed. The expeditions of the Institute continued to collect information on frozen rocks and related phenomena in the north of Western Siberia, in Baikalia and Transbaikalia, as well as on the territory of Mongolia.

In 2006, the Museum of Studying Eternal Merzlotes was opened in Yakutsk, which performs scientific and educational and educational functions, has natural-scientific, scientific and technical and historical and cultural profiles.

In 2012, the X International Conference on Penaltile was held. For the first time in the half-century history of the existence of the Association for Climate Change, such a conference was held in Russia. Participation in the event was accepted by over 600 delegates from 22 countries. Following the conference, two resolutions were adopted. The first is a high assessment of the role of Yamal in the development of international cooperation on billing and expressed support for the Governor of Yanao Dmitry Kobylkin in his initiative to create a International Scientific Center for the Study of the Arctic and the consideration of the territory of the region as an international polygon for conducting arctic studies. In the second resolution, we are talking about the need for an interdisciplinary approach in the study of permafrost and exposure to its engineering. As the necessary highlighting the creation of complex maps, which will affect the number of permafrost at different points of the world, as well as the conditions that exist in these places.

The latest international conference on billing (and they are held every 4 years) took place at the end of June 2016 in Potsdam (Germany). Next, the XII International Conference will be held in 2020 in China. Before the researchers of many-neuroprious rocks will be able to meet at the Asian Conference on Bearing in Sapporo, Japan (June 2017) and at the European Conference on Mont Blanc, France (summer 2018).

Chapter 2. Distribution and morphology thickness of permafrost

Eternal Merzlota - Relics of Ice Eps. Moreover, in the era of the maximum propagation of coating mainland ice, in the middle Pleistocene, the permafrost area, although increased compared with the current state, but did not reach the size of the last thermal minimum of Pleistocene.

It has been preserved here thanks to a sharply continental climate with very harsh, long and low-snowing winter. The reliable proof of the relict origin of many years of marzlot is a good preservation in the amplific state of mammoths and woolly rhinos, who lived in the periglacial zone in Pleistocene. But in areas with extremely severe winter, Merzlota arises now: in the floodplains and deltas of the rivers of Northeast Siberia (Lena, Yana, Indigir, Kolyma, etc.).

2.1. The proliferation of frozen rocks in the area.

According to the nature of the distribution, the permafrost can be divided into 3 zones: 1) solid, 2) a permafrost with the islands of melt soils, 3) island - the islands of the Merzlotes among the melt rocks (Sigin, 1937), which is shown in Figure 1.

Fig. one.

Each of these areas is characterized by different capacities and temperatures of frozen thick. At the same time, inside the power zones and temperature, they change in the direction from the north to the south - power decrease, the temperatures are rising.

The zone of continuous permafrost is characterized by the greatest facilities of frozen thick - from 500 or more meters to 300 meters and their lowest temperatures - from -2 degrees up to -10 degrees and below.

The solid eternal permafrost in Russia is developed in the northern part of the Tundra, in the Polar Urals, in the tundra of Western Siberia, the northern part of the medium-grained plateau (north of the valley of the Lower Tunguska River), on the All Taimyr Peninsula, on the Islands of the Archipelago of the Northern Earth, in the Novosibirsk Islands, At the Jan-Indiigir and Kolyma Primorskaya Plain and the Delta of the Lena River, on the Leno-Vilyuy Alluvial Plain, on the Leno-Alandan plateau and in the extensive area of \u200b\u200bthe ridges of Verkhoyansky, Chersky, Kolyma, Anadyr, as well as Yukagir Plateau and other internal interstitial highlands, on Anadyr Plain.

In a zone, where the islands of melt breeds are found among permafrost among permafrosts, the thickness of the easers is sometimes reaching 250-300 m, but more often from 100-150 to 10-20 m, temperatures - from -2 to 0 degrees. This type of permafrost is available in the Materiaml and Malozhel Tundra, on the medium-grained plateau between the River Rivers and Podcaming Tunguska, in the southern part of the Lenan-Alandan plateau, in Transbaikalia.

The island eternal Merzlot is characterized by small capacities of the eternal stump - from several tens of meters to several meters - and temperatures close to 0 degrees.

The island of Merzlot is found at the Kola Peninsula, in the Canin-Pechora district, in the Taiga zone of Western Siberia, in the southern part of the medium-protein plateau, in the Far East, in the northern part of Sakhalin Island, along the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk and in Kamchatka.

In the mountain zone, the eternal rocks are found mainly on the periphery of the areas of glaciation and have most often island spread. There are data on the presence of permafrost in the rocks, the foundation of the bottom of the polar shelf seas of Laptev and East Siberian.

With the limits of geocryosis, the surface active layer, thawing in the summer and freezing winter, increases from the first dozen centimeters in the north to 5-7 m in the south, but is significantly varied due to climate, composition of rocks, exposure of slopes, etc. Geocryozone border as a whole and subzon Suspended by fluctuations due to global warming and climate cooling in post declaration time. In mountainous areas with an increase in the height of the mountains, the power of multi-nesting rocks increases.

In frozen rocks, various ice shapes are observed: everywhere - as cement in the form of frozen water in the pores and capillaries, quite widely - in the form of wedges in frost-free cracks, ice and ground, locally - in the form of lenses and blocks with a capacity of 20 - 30 m. Usually these are former lakes and river, less often sea and glacial boulders.

2.2.The southern and altitude borders of the spread of frozen fat.

The complex nature of the occurrence and spread of frozen strata and their greater dynamism led to differences in the definition of their southern border, depending on whether or another approach to this issue.

In the 80-90s. There were the following private definitions of the southern border of the distribution of multi-metered rocks.

1. The geographical south border of the distribution of multi-neurose-made rocks is a line, terminating from the south of the spread of frozen thick, with the exception of individual high-altitude areas of frozen rocks in subtropical and tropical zones.

2. The geophysical southern border of the spread of frozen rocks is the average perennial position of zero geoisotherm at the sole of the layer of seasonal temperature fluctuations.

3. The physical boundary of frozen and melting rocks is the boundary of contact between the frozen and thawes independent of the geographic location.

Today, the borders of the spread of permits in Russia are carried out in this way: the southern border passes from the North-West to the southeast of Kola P-Ol to the mouth of the river. Mezon and then almost along the northern polar circle to the Urals. In Western Siberia, the border has a subshir stretching: along the latitudinal segment of p. Ob, to the sources of r. Pelvis and further to r. Yenisei to the mouth of r. Podcatent Tunguska, where she sharply turns south. East of the Yenisei of Merzlot is distributed almost everywhere, excluding the south of P-ov Kamchatka, oh. Sakhalin and Primorye (Fig. 1).

When considering certain zones of multi-neuroprous rocks in the mountainous areas, instead of the term "southern border" use the term "high-rise border of multi-neuroprous rocks".

The high-rise border can also be determined at the extreme position of frozen stump, and according to the average position of zero geosotherms.

The impact of many years of marbles on nature

3.1. Merzloral Relief Forms

Elevate geocyosis processes are very diverse: frostic cracking, soils and frost formation, thermal protection, rock-frosty weighing, frosty sorting of soils, solifluction, thermo-meroosia, thermal abrasion, etc. The peculiarity of the majority of relief shapes is their complex genesis, since cryogenic processes interact as with each other and with other exogenous processes. The formation of climate development has a significant impact on the formation of the relief: when cooling is the ascending development of permafrost, the emergence of new forms that are superimposed on the relict, when warming - downward development, destruction of previous forms. The geological structure of the territory, the real composition of rocks, the focus of exogenous development is important - the ratio of deduction and accumulative processes and other factors. Among the permeals of relief, microforms and mesoforms are dominated by both plains and mountains.

Cracked polygonal form of relief are developed on plains composed of homogeneous fine-graded rocks. This is a network of polygon-shaped polygons, limited by cracks resulting from frosting cracking with low-power snow or on a naked surface. The dimensions of the blocks in the diameter can reach from several tens to hundreds of meters, the surface of them first is flat. The initial width of the crack 3 is 5 cm, the depth of 0.5 - 0.7 m, i.e. within the active layer. Cracks are filled with water, and during its freezing there are veins in the form of ice wedges. From year to year, they grow in width and depth, dissect the active layer, are embedded in the eternal stratum, causing the frozen and squeezing of the soil, making the rollers to 1 m along the edges of the polygons, and the surface of the soil becomes concave and wetlands. Such a polygonal block relief is peculiar to the tundra ("Polygonal Tundra"). The polygonal-cellular structure is emphasized by vegetation: lichens are growing on rolling rollers, in the center of blocks and in inter-blocks on site cracks - moss and fluffy, peat accumulates.

The blocks are developed in the microfores - stains-medallions with a diameter of up to 0.5 m. They are formed in the fall, when the flooded, squeezed between the freezing active layer and the perplexed soil, the surface soil is breaking under pressure and in the form of a "mud vulcant" is poured onto the surface. Such tundra with bare clay stains deprived of at the first time of vegetation are often called "spotted tundra."

"Structural microrelief" - stone rings and polygons - relief microframes on horizontal surfaces folded finely with the inclusion of the threshable material. These are stains or polygons with a diameter of 1-2 m from fine-grained with a crubbed framing. They arise with excessive moisture of the active layer lying on frozen ground, as a result of the processes of cellular cracking, swelling of the soil when freezing, freezing the rubble to the surface and sorting it on the surface from the increased center of the zac in the direction of the crack. On inclined plains with a steepness of 5 - 6 °, the stone polygons of isometric become obliged, stretching along the fall line, and gradually turn into stone stripes, which alternate with the strips of fine-grained soil, sliding under the influence of solifluction.

It should be noted that the combustion of stone chips from loose soil occurs not only in the zone of distribution of many years of permissal, but also in any other place with periodic freezing and thawing the soil. In particular, it is typical of the freezing of boulders from Morain of Moscow and especially Valdai glaciation, which is still ongoing with unrelenting intensity.

Taste is formed on the bottoms of the river valleys (in the rods and on the floodplains, sometimes on the first inspiration terraces) and in the seed places and the exit of non-free groundwater in conditions of harsh low-speed winters. These are flat-bonded ice bodies formed when water outpacing and the fast freezing of it on the surface under conditions of severe frosts (-30 ... -50 ° C). Depending on the place of the occurrence and nature of their water supply, river, lake and key land differ. For the duration of existence there are seasonal, flying and perennial land --Tores (in Yakutski). River land is formed when reducing the living cross section of the river due to its freezing and freezing; With all this, wormwings are formed, water from which is repeatedly poured onto the surface and freezes the layer of the layer. River land serve as an ice barrier for spring waters and contribute to changing the position of the river bed. There are cases when the land took a "captive" village. River land can stretch on tens of kilometers. Ozeland is also large in the area.

Key land arise in places of exhaust of abundant pressure intermorous or frozloous waters, especially along tectonic faults. They are inherent in mountain areas with fissure rocks, more often found on the slopes of the southern exposition, where less layer of permafrost and closer to the surface are suitable for the surface. The location of their constant. Walahhan-Taryn's largest key in the valley of the Mom River, the right influx of indigirs, stretches 26 km with a width of 6-8 km and the maximum ice thickness of 4 m. Such rigidly fixed taxes have a strong impact on the nature of the neighborhood: here a special microclimate with a low summer The temperature depressed vegetation, the borces are spread from the tree in summer. Found harm is huge: they destroy roads, communications, bridges and other facilities.

Buggers of the radiation are formed on very wet soils, especially when groundwater flow from the side, in the grounds of underground failure, when the underground water pressure is insufficient for the breakthrough of the surface layer of the soil. Water freezes in the form of a lens and swells soil (Fig. 2).

Accordingly, mineral and peat bugs are distinguished. On the duration of existence, they are divided into perennial and seasonal. Perennial bugs of the Ice core are hydrolacolites and are called Bulguannes (Yakutski) or Pingo (Eskimo). These are the hills up to 30-40 m high, 150 - 200 m in diameter, with a steep slopes of 20-40 °. To form such mesoforms, a permanent groundwater fence is required, so they are located above the taliks, often on the bottoms of the former lake Kotlovin. With an increase in the underground ice lens, the surface of the buff at the top is often divided by radial-concentric cracks, the kernel's ice is exposed, in the summer it takes the "Makushka" of the Bugger, as a result of which a crater funnel is formed, sometimes with water.

Along with the Bulguanins, there are mineral bugs, consisting of soil with ice layers. They are formed with slow water migration from below, impregnating the soil freezing and increasing the volume of the breed. Their dimensions are less, but they are wider than the Bulguannes.

Peat bugs are formed on swampy plains. The core is usually mineral with ice layers, and the top of the peat layer is above. Their height reaches 10 m, the diameter - 20-40 m. Buggers of the beams destroy the roads, construction sites, airfields, as snow is removed from them, which means that the drainage depth increases and frosty rocking rocks increases.

Thermal-plants of relief - stocks, funnels, hollows - are formed when the ice lenses and wedges are filled in places of floating loose rocks. Due to the uneven pulling in the rock of the ice on the surface there are drawders and failures, externally resembling karst forms. Among them are relict and modern forms. Thermocardius processes are manifested in the degradation zone of permafrost, and also caused by local reasons associated with human economic activity: cutting out forests, landscape. Forest fires are of great importance, as a result of which the soil is heated, the surface of the earth on fires becomes black, in the summer heats up and the soil flies deeper. The same effect is also made by small lakes that are formed on the site of thermal shutters. In the summer, water is well heated, and this stimulates a deeper progressive soil flushing. The increasing area of \u200b\u200bthe lake is associated with thermal abrasion, i.e. Towing and collapse of icefall rocks on the coasts of the lakes due to the sweeping effect of water.

The drying of the lakes leads to the formation in their place of Alasov - thermocarted kitrooms with steep slopes and flat bottom. Alasov Square - from hundreds of square meters to several square kilometers, depth - 15-30 m. They contain valuable meadows, have long been used by local residents for grazing. Thermal lakes are specifically dried and create meadow oasis to produce juicy feed and hay billets. Especially a lot of thermocarted Kotlovin with lakes in the Central Yakut plain, in the seaside Jan-Indigir and Kolyma lowland, in the north of Western Siberia.

Thermoerosive form of relief - hollows, wins, rods and even the arms are formed on the slopes of river valleys and Alasov in places of temporary watercourses. Water affects the flowable soil primarily thermally, it is quite easy to crash into it, and then mechanically carrying out the outflow and seawing rock. If thermal drawers and thermo-erosion-mounted rods are formed on the location of frost cracks on inter-blocks, the blocks - polygons turn into a bugger of a flower form with a diameter of up to 10 m and a height of more than 2-3 m - Bajorahi (in Yakutsk). They are often located in a chess order, forming whole colonies of buggers.

Cryogenous-denudation forms are developed in the mountains, on highlands, plateaus and plateau, composed of solid rocks and are areas of destruction and demolition. There intensely flows the scorious weathering. As a result, vague areas formed by vintage clusters of chubby-crubstone material - the so-called stone seas. They serve as a source of material for plane and linear churums - stone rivers. The remains of weathering of bizarre outlines on the spot of resistant rocks are called kigil-lyhas.

On the slopes of the mountains in the high-altitude goltz zone - above the borders of the forests and meadows - deanuding highland terraces are widespread - weed-clock (3-5 °) platforms in hundreds of meters wide, overlapped from the surface by a low-power cover of the chipboard. From the outside, they are limited to the ledges of a steepness of 25- 30 °, folded solid rocks. Their number may be different. They are formed due to more intense frosty weathering in slopes on the slopes, where the "snow slaughter" is formed in winter at the expense of the female transfer. In the spring, the soil here is very moistened and therefore is more subjected to frosty weathera. As a result of a decrease, it is expanding and merged with each other, forming Nagorn terraces. Solifluction is involved in removing weathering products from sites.

The cryosolifluidization relief in the form of excess languages \u200b\u200bis very widespread on the slopes in the long-term nominal zone. In the spread of an existing permissal relief on the plains, a certain zonality is observed. In the northern permeal-climatic subzone, a polygonal relief is predomined in seaside lowlands, bugs of teaching, places of thermocars. In the middle subzone, the process of solifluction, thermocars are widely developed. In the southern subzone, the cryogenic morphoskulpture is limited and is represented mainly by different forms of thermal traffic and thermo-erosion, often relic.

Along with zonality, there are provincial differences due to the degree of continentality of the climate. For example, in the European Tundra, a thermocarrant is typical, few bucks and fissure-polygonal forms, nondes are small and rarely formed.

In a sharply continental climate in the northeast of Siberia with severe long-lasting winter, numerous land, bugs, block-polygonal relief. The zonal-provincial patterns of the mountain, Highlands, the plateau, on which the cryogenic-deduction and soli-flowing forms of relief are dominated.

3.2.Mide water in the zone of many years of milling

Underground, water of many years of milling, according to N. I. Tolstikhin (Russian geologist and hydrogeologist), are divided into three categories: superdimensional, interteroslotric and frosted.

The superdimensional waters that occur over the zone of frozen rocks, in turn, are divided into water of the active layer and water of many years of superdimerous taliks. The superdimensional waters of the active layer are located on the thicker of many years of marzlot, which is a waterproof lies for them. A characteristic feature of these water is a seasonal change of liquid and solid phases. In the north, the duration of the existence of the liquid phase is determined by two and three months of the summer-autumn period; In the direction of the south, the existence of the liquid phase increases to six months and more. The nutrition of water of the active layer occurs due to precipitation and partially due to surface watercourses. In the chemical ratio, the superdimensional waters of the seasonal layer are characterized by small mineralization, a significant content of organic substances and the presence of humus acids. Their temperature is low and rarely exceeds 5 ° C.

Non-dimensional waters of perennial talists exist due to the thermal effect of surface waters. Located such taliks under lakes and river beds. According to the valleys of the Siberian rivers carrying heat, there are end-to-end taliks through which communication, sampler, interteronic and frosted waters are communicated. These waters are distinguished by the consistency of quality and quantity. Mineralization of their low, rigidity of 0.8-1.2 mg.ex They are widespread in the pools of Lena and Kolyma rivers. Debit of wells and galleries often reaches 47 l / s. We use water data on drinking and economic water supply.

To the interteronicotic waters, according to N. I. Tolstukhin, referred to as liquid waters circulating in the array of perplexed rocks and the solid phase are fossil ice and temporarily conserved with many years of frozlous aquifers that have once functioned. The main factor protecting the liquid intertercylortal water from freezing is their dynamism, and sometimes high mineralization. By the nature of the accommodating rocks, reservoir, karst and fissure-living intertercyloous waters are distinguished.

It is called all underground waters that occur below the layer of multi-year permissions below. These waters possess pressure, often a few hundred meters. According to the nature of the occurrence and conditions of circulation, the refrigerated waters are similar to the underground waters of the peculiar areas. The conditions of nutrition and the flow of frozlots are different. According to hydrogeological conditions among the frozlots, N. I. Tolstihin allocates the following types: Alluvial, pore-reservoir, crack-reservoir, fractured or core, and crack-karst.

Alluvial under dense, water is powered by the seeping of atmospheric waters along the taliks in alluvia, the subtock of groundwater from indigenous rocks and by condensation. Alluvial sediments have a temperature close to zero. Only in cases where the water of indigenous rocks with higher temperatures take part in the nutrition of alluvial waters, allyuvios are an abnormally high temperature. The chemical composition of Alluvia's frosted waters is characterized by a smaller content of organic substances.

Porvo-reservoir frosted waters occur in sedimentary rocks and possess pressure. Many places identified artesian pools of frozlots. Creation-reservoir frozloque water is characteristic of the rocks of ancient age (Paleozoa - Yura). They circulate on cracks in the layers of sandstones, limestone, conglomerates and other breeds overlapped with waterproofs. In particular, at many coal deposits, common in the zone of many years of milling (Bukacchachinsky, Bureinsky basins, etc.), the refrigerated waters of this type are confined to fractured sandstones, conglomerates, occasionally to the aleurolites and coal layers. The breed of clay composition is waterproof and separate groundwater to a number of aquifers. Water possess pressure from tens to hundreds of meters.

Created and fissure-karst frosted waters are associated with tectonic disorders. These waters are marked in many places of Transbaikalia, in the Aldan pools, on Lena and in other places. Water data mode is even more inconstant. Limestones on the spread of many years of milling are the most water-free rocks, the outputs of large sources are associated with them, where powerful land is formed.

Sources in the long-term permotable area. For areas of distribution of many years of milling, specific conditions for groundwater exits on the surface are characteristic. Sources are divided into descending and ascending. Downward sources are formed due to the superdiments, located above the local erosion basis. According to the mode, the sources of surfaces are divided into seasonal and functioning throughout the year. The flow rate of those and other sources is inconsistent.

Ascending sources are formed due to the exits of the frozlots. The geological conditions of the outputs of the frozloy water are very diverse. The source mode is complicated by the permafrost factors - the thawing and freezing of water movement paths, which causes the separation of ascending sources to the following types: periodically disappearing, migrating, interchangeable seasonal, non-permanent proceeds and constant. The mode of ascending sources, depending on the freezing and thawing of water movement, does not reflect the true state of the aquifer, which feeds these sources. High-sighted ascending sources are formed in places of outputs to the surface of crack-karst frozlots.

3.2.Features of soil formation in the context of the development of many years of milling

Features of the formation of soils in the field of distribution of multi-metered rocks was studied mainly by the soilists (Sumgin, 1931; Zapletsky, 1944; Spools, 1954; Nadezhdin, 1961; Elovskaya et al., 1966).

The specific condition of the soil-forming processes in the field of dissemination of permits is a multi-membered thickness, which are a waterproof, limiting the depth of the horizon of moisture absorption. Therefore, the soil-conveying process goes only in the layer of summer pulling.

The second feature is the relatively low soil temperatures in the growing season, overlapping the imprint on the process of soiling and weakening the intensity of biochemical reactions and the livelihood of microorganisms.

Typically, the layer of summer pulling ends with a layer of absorption (horizon B), and the multi-neur-membered thickness is the horizon C - the mother breed from which the soil was formed.

Therefore, in winter, in the soil cut, you can determine the layer of seasonal freezing. The horizon in usually differs in a higher iron content that gives it a yellowish brown or brown.

This applies mainly to podzolic soils, especially common in the southern and middle parts of the area of \u200b\u200bmany years of milling.

This feature can be used to establish the maximum long-term power of the summer pulling layer if the observations are carried out with incomplete pulling in colder years. Thus, the soil incision may give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe dynamics of the layer of summer pulling even in the distant past.

Podzolic soils develop mainly in the absence of underlying waterproof. In the presence of the latter, in the form of the thickness of many-neurose-made rocks, it often originates the rooting of the territories and formed by the marsh-gley strata, this is visible on the example of soils of Western Siberia.

In the southern areas of the distribution area, podzolic soils do not differ in their composition from soils beyond the area of \u200b\u200bmany years of milling due to similarities in these temperature regime zones in the vegetative period.

E. I. Tschsychyn, exploring the soil of the tundra, notes a relatively large content of carbon dioxide and alkaline soil reaction of the North. Therefore, the usual methods of soil agromelioration - the application of lime - for the northern regions are not recommended. The large content of CO₂ in the northern soils compared to the southern is also explained by their low temperature due to an increase in the solubility of carbon dioxide with a decrease in temperature.

The long-term permafrost is distributed on the territory of Central Siberia almost everywhere. It is the result of a long and deep salting surface. The formation of permits occurred in the glacial time when a harsh, slightly discovered continental climate was expressed even more sharp than at present. The formation of permits is associated with losses of a large amount of heat in the anticyclonal conditions of the cold period and a deep freezing of rocks. In the summer of the breed did not have time to fully utter. So for hundreds and thousands of years there was a gradual "cold accumulation". The temperature of frozen rocks decreased, their power increased. Hence, merzlota heritage of the glacial period, a kind of relic. But on the North-Siberian lowland, the Merzlot covered and holocene alluvial deposits, and on the dumps of the mining industry in the area of \u200b\u200bNorilsk Merzlota is formed literally in front of a person. This suggests that in the northern part of Central Siberia, modern climatic conditions favors the formation of a permissal.

A powerful factor in the preservation of many years of marzlot in Middle Siberia is a severely sharp continental climate. The preservation of the marzlot is favored by low average annual temperatures and inherent in this climate features of the cold period: low temperatures, small cloudiness, promoting night radiation, supercooling of the surface and deep freezing of soils, later the formation of snow cover and its low power.

Following the change in climatic conditions from the northeast, the south-west is also changing the nature of the permanent (its power, temperature, icestability). IN north parts of medium Siberia are common solid (Fusion) Perennial Merzlota. The southern border of its distribution passes from Igarka a few north of the lower Tunguska, the south of the middle flow of vilyu to the valley of Lena near the mouth of Olekma. The power of frozen rocks here averages 300-600 m. On the coast of the Hatang Gulf, it reaches 600-800 m, and in the river basin, according to Gray (1968), even 1500 m. The temperature of the frozen layer at a depth of 10 m is -10 ...- 12 ° C, and the turn on the ice is up to 40-50% of the volume of the breed. South Distributed Merzlot S. islands Talikov. First, small parts of the melt soil appear among the beam soil, but gradually the area increases, and the power of the permissal is reduced to 25-50 m. The temperature of the frozen rocks increases to -2 ...- 1 ° C. On the extreme southwest, in the Angara pool, a telly soil is already dominated by area. Here are found only islands of Marzlota. These are small parts of the permafrost in the relief slides or on the slopes of the northern exposure under the cover of peat and moss. Their power in the south is only 5-10 m.

In the direction of the north to the south, the upper limit of the permafrost, the depth of its summer pulling, or the power of the active layer is changed. It depends not only on the amount of heat flowing to the surface, and on the temperature of the frozen soil, but also on its ice protection, that is, on the volume of ice inclusions, on the heat capacity and thermal conductivity of the accommodating rocks. Therefore, the power of the active layer, increasing in general from the north to the south, depends on the mechanical composition of rocks, on the nature of vegetation. The depth of flipping is in the north in peat soils 20-30 cm, in clay  70-100 cm, and in the sands  120-160 cm; In the south, respectively, 50-80, 150-200 and 220-530 cm. Thus, in the southern part of the average Siberia, the power of the active layer is about 2 times more than in the north.

The long-term Merzlota serves as a powerful factor in the formation of natural territorial systems of Central Siberia. It affects the most diverse processes that determine the nature of nature and its specific features.

As a product of a sharply continental climate, the Merzlot itself very significantly affects the climate, reinforcing its severity and continentality. In winter, heat from the underground horizons in the surface layers of air is practically not received by heat, and in the summer a lot of heat is spent on melting of permanent, so the soil is heated slightly and gives little heat to the surface layers of air. The consequence of this is intensive floating surface in clear summer nights, leading to frosts on the basis, and an increase in daily amplitudes of temperature.

Merzlota affects other components of nature. It serves as a kind of waterproof, therefore affects the drain and relief: enhances the seasonality of the surface and underground flow, it makes it difficult for deep erosion and contributes to the side within the active layer, slows the karst processes and favors the development of cryogenic relief forms on the entire space of Middle Siberia. Merzlota determines the formation of a special type of soil  permanently taiga. It significantly affects the spatial differentiation of nature, on the structure and functioning of the PTK. The emergence of specific natural complexes, such as Alasov, is connected with the Merzlot.

Merzlota affects the economic activities of the population, complicating the development of the territory. With capital construction, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of pulling the permafrost and intimidation of soils under construction objects and with a violation of the vegetation cover in the construction work process. It forces additional work (for example, building houses on piles), which increases in price and slows down construction. Merzlota makes it difficult to water inhabited by settlements and industrial enterprises, requires thermal amelioration in the agricultural development of the territory.

Water

In Central Siberia, there are many-water rivers in Russia, there are a lot of lakes in separate areas, there are water in depths not only in liquid, but also in a solid state in the form of underground ice and ice cement in the molded rocks.

Rivers. The average Siberia has a well-developed river network. This is due to a considerable risk and bulkness of the territory, the fracture of rocks, a long period of continental development, a waterproof effect of many years of permount, deep and long-term seasonal freezing of soils. Merzlota not only prevents the fragmentation of moisture into the ground, but also reduces the evaporation due to the low temperature of river and groundwater. All this determines the features of the water balance of medium Siberia  increase in flow and above all its surface component and decrease in evaporation compared to similar latroms of Russian plains and Western Siberia. Stream coefficient In Central Siberia is 0,65 . This is higher than on average in the country and is 2 times higher than in Western Siberia. From here a big density of the river network and multipleness of the rivers Middle Siberia. The maximum stock (more than 20 l / s / km 2) is characteristic of the Puratorna Plateau.

The average density of the river network exceeds 0.2 km / km 2 surfaces. The density of the river network is different in Western, more raised and better moisturized, and eastern part. In the pool Yenisei It is 0.4-0.45 km / km 2, and in the pool Lena 0.12-0.15 km / km 2. On slopes and the flow rate, on the structure of the valleys of the Middle Siberian River occupy an intermediate position between mountain and flat. Deep embedded valleys often have a secho-like shape, expanding on areas folded by loose sandy-clay rocks, and acquiring a gorge-like character with steep slopes hanging over water ("cheeks"), in places of exit of traps or limestone.

In Middle Siberia, there is a majority of the Reinea and Lena river basins. In addition to them, such large rivers such as deer, Anabar, Hatanga, Taimyr, Tileyne flow into the sea. Many del flows of Yenisei and Lena have a significant length. Four of them (Lower Tunguska, Vilyui, Aldan and Podcaming Tunguska) are among the 20 largest rivers of Russia. Low lag behind them along the length of the hangar.

Characteristic The features of the hydrological mode of the rivers of the Middle Siberia, along with multi-way, are the exceptional unevenness of the drain, the brevity and power of the spring flood and low-water in the winter period, the duration of the decoration and the power of ice formations, the freezing of many small rivers to the bottom and the widespread development of forehead. All these features are associated with the peculiarities of the country's climatic conditions  with its sharply continental climate.

By water regime The rivers of medium siberia belong to east Siberian Type. The main sources of their nutrition are melting snow and at least rainwater. The proportion of soil nutrition is very small due to the widespread dissemination of the permissal and ranges from 5 to 10% of the annual flow. Only in the extreme south it increases to 15-20%. Power supplies are determined and uneven ineffectal flow distribution. From 70 to 90-95% of the annual flow falls on the warm period (four to six months). The main mass of water passes during a short and stormy spring flood. In the south, this is happening at the end of April, for the most part of the territory, in May, and in the Polar,  at the beginning of June. Snow melted for two or three weeks. Simple soils do not absorb melt waters that are quickly reset in the river.

Water rise In the rivers in the period of flooding, an average of 4-6 m. And on the main rivers, where many melting waters bring tributaries, the flood in the lower flow reaches the colossal sizes. In the lower reaches of the Lena, the rise of water exceeds 10 m, on Yenisei  15-18 m, in the lower reaches of the subflow tung and cats  20-25 m, and on the lower Tunguska, up to 25-30 m. With this, an unusually high level of understanding on medium-grained rivers .

In the summer and autumn period, the rains, melting of the marzlot and forehead maintain the level of water in the rivers, so it is not summer for medium Siberia, but winter interleaverWhen rivers get scarce food only due to groundwater. The water level in rivers is noticeably reduced already with the first frosts. The gradual freezing of soils increasingly reduces groundwater intake in the river. Malnodier and slowing down the flow of rivers lead to a strong reduction in river waters and the formation of powerful ice.

The freezing of medium-grained rivers occurs very peculiar. The ice is first formed not on the surface of the water, but on the bottom, on the supercooled pebbles, and then rises to the surface.

The iceboarding on the rivers most of the territory comes in October, and the southern rivers  at the beginning of November. Only a rapid hangar in places remains free from ice until December, and sometimes before January. Ice power on rivers reaches 1-3 m. Small rivers are freezing to the bottom. On many rivers, ice jumpers are formed on the rivers, as a result of which the river turns into a chain of lakes, timed to the river pendas. If water in such lakes is saturated with oxygen, then they are "fish cages", with a lack of oxygen, loading pools.

Icewater On the Siberian rivers  grand sight. The river carries huge masses of ice. At the narrowed areas of river valleys, huge ice congestion are formed. The ice raised from the focate brings the pebbles and blocks of 20-15 m 3 lips into it with a volume of 12-15 m 3, i.e. weighing more than 30 tons.

Extremely common phenomenon, especially in the northern part of the Central Siberia, are to sleep. Founding water flooded with ice-covered river beds, river floats and whole valleys, forming huge ice fields. From year to year, Testa is formed on the same places. They begin to arise to land in December-January, and the greatest sizes are achieved in March. At this time, the outflow power can be 3-4 m. Foundation of failures is associated with a narrowing of the living cross section of the river when freeing alluvial nansions and the increase in ice power on the surface of the river. Water flows, as in a icy pipe, and with an increase in pressure, it breaks either up  forms river frownOr down  supports soil waters that rise and pour over the cracks to the surface of the floodplain. So arises ground froth. Most often, the nondes are formed above the ice jumpers and where the river is divided into sleeves among the vast areas of pebbles. In the summer, they gradually melt and serve as an additional power supply of rivers. Large toes can be maintained all summer.

On large rivers with powerful alluvial sediments, a large area of \u200b\u200bliving cross-section and a sufficiently deep occurrence of nonsense is not evolving.

The largest river Medium Siberia is Lena. The length of it reaches 4,400 km. According to the pool area (2490 thousand km 2), it ranks third in Russia, and on water, the second, yielding only Yenisei. The average annual consumption of her near the mouth is about 17,000 m 3 / s, and the annual stock  536 km 3. Lena originates on the western slope of the Baikal ridge and in the upper course is a typical mountain river. Below the imposition of Vitim and Olekma Lena acquires the character of a large plain river. When you fall into the sea of \u200b\u200bLaptev, it forms the largest delta area in Russia more than 32 thousand km 2. The main tributaries of Lena within the middle Siberia are Alandan and Vilyui.

Lake. In the middle Siberia, the lakes are less than in Western Siberia, and they are very unevenly distributed. The North-Siberian and Central Label differs in large surprise, where small and shallow thermal lakes prevail. Large lakes in ice-tectonic descents are located on Plateau Puratorna: Hantai, Heta, Lama, etc. These lakes are deep, long and narrow  resemble the fjords of Norway. The largest in Central Siberia is Lake Taimyr, located at the southern foot of the Mountains of the Borranga. It occupies a tectonic brand treated with a glacier. The area of \u200b\u200bthe lake is 4560 km 2, the maximum depth is 26 m, and the average  is about 3 m.

The groundwater. About 75% of the territory of Central Siberia occupies an East Siberian Artesian pool. It consists of four second-order pools: Tungusky, Angaro-Lena, Khatanga (North-Siberian) and Yakutsky. Artesian waters are pressure pressed. They locate at different depths under thickness in the indigenous rocks of different ages. Among the refrigerated waters there are fresh, brass and brines. Usually with a depth of salinity of waters increases. The most mineralized water, often representing brine with salts to 500-600 g / l, are timed to the solenous sediments of Devon and the Lower Cambrian.

Perennial Merzlota makes it difficult to form the formation and circulation of groundwater, however, in its thicker there are aquifers and lenses within the taliks. Most often, these inter-seed water are confined to a bombard and suspected taliks. The above-sampled waters are represented by the groundwater of the active layer. These water are replenished by atmospheric precipitation and have a mineralization of less than 0.2-0.5 g / l of water. In the cold period, the above-sampled waters freeze. During the freezing of the aquifer, bugs and land are formed.

Soil, vegetation and animal world

The formation and accommodation through the territory of the Central Siberia, vegetation and animal world is a great influence of its specific severely continental climate and the associated almost widespread spread of the permissal. This causes a significant difference between the medium-term soils and biocomponents from West Siberian.

As in Western Siberia, the placement of the soil and plant cover and the animal world is subject to the law of zonality, but the zonality is traced less clearly. This is due to a significant risk of territory, the consequence of which is high-rise differentiation Natural conditions complicating the manifestation of zonality. In the northern part of the country, it can be traced from a height of 400-500 m, and in the south  from 900 m.

Soil In medium Siberia, they are developing mainly on eluvia of indigenous rocks, so they are usually stonyst and crugs. On huge spaces, soil formation occurs in the conditions of shallow occurrence of many years of permanent. In extreme north Here are common arcticotted soilthat replace the tundra and gleyev and tundra subbones. IN forest zone Specific are formed taiga-merrous soils. IN They are absolutely not traced in the structure of the soil profile, nor in the chemical composition of the traces of the podter formation process characteristic of the taiga. This is due to the fact that the long-term Merzlot creates the immense soil mode and prevents the deposancy of the chemical elements beyond the soil profile. For taiga-merrous soils, numerous traces of fluffing in the soil profile are characterized, especially in its lower part,  the result of the mooring of soils and their weak aeration. Under the influence of permanent phenomena, constant mixing of the soil mass occurs, therefore, for taiga-merrous soils, a weak differentiation of the profile is characterized, the absence of clear genetic horizons.

Taiga-merrous soils Medium Siberia are represented three subtypes. The most widespread taiga-merrous acid Soils forming on loose rocks. In carbonate rocks and trappiers develop taiga-Merzloid Neutral (Faleal) Soil. In the chemical weathering of these breeds, a significant amount of foundations flows into the soil, which ensures the neutralization of the acidic reaction of the soil solution. In the neutral medium, the mobility of humus substances is reduced, the content of humus reaches 6-7%, the biogenic accumulation of chemical elements occurs. These are the most rich soils of the medium-grained taiga. For the northern part of the taiga, where the power of the active layer is especially small, and the overalling of soil is extremely large, most characteristic taiga-Gleyevo-Merroussoil. In the western part of the middle Siberia, where there is greater dismemberment of the surface and chubbyness of the substrate, and therefore less cliffness of the frozen strata are common podbury.

On South, where the marshlot takes small areas, common dernovo-podzolic soils. On the Central Lowland Due to the lack of a washing regime, the soil of saline range is formed in a strong warming of the summer and tightening moisture to the surface: solods, Solonns and Solonchaki(mainly carbonate).

The northern part of the Central Siberia is busy tundra Vegetation From spotted arctic tundras to the shrub southern Yernikovo-Ivnyakov. South peculiar conditions for the development of vegetation create a contrast combination of low-temperature revengery soils and relative to the warm surface layer of air, a long period of winter peace and a relatively short warm period. The harsh conditions of nature adapted a rather limited number of plant species. Of woody breeds is the type of larch Daurgian  Breed, very undemanding to heat and soils, adapted to the conditions of shallow occurrence of permafrost and content-satisfied with the extremely small amount of precipitation. The domination of light-king larch forests The most characteristic feature of the vegetation cover of Central Siberia. In the southern part of the country, pine joins the larch. IN westernthe princeing part, where more precipitation and more powerful snow cover is distributed dark Taiga.

With high summer temperatures and significant dry air, due to the sharp continentality of the climate, is connected northern on the globe spread of forests in Central Siberia.300-500 km north than in Western Siberia, forests come here. On Taimyr, tree vegetation occurs near 72 ° 50 "S.Sh ..

To Central Yakutia located 60 ° С.Ш. Next to the marshy forests there are plots of real steppesand steppe salt marshes. They are the relic of the xerothermal period and are currently preserved due to the warmth not by latitudes of the summer, a small amount of precipitation and the presence of many years of permanent, preventing the leaching of soils and remove salts from them.

Difference Animal Mira Medium Siberia from West Siberian is due to the faunistic and environmental differences of two neighboring physico-geographical countries. Yenisei is an important zoogeographic line, through which many Eastern East-Bird species are transmitted. The fauna of medium Siberia is characterized by greater antiquity than the fauna of Western Siberia. Here, the complex of taiga animals is particularly widely represented. In Central Siberia, there are no series of European-Siberian species (Cute, mink, hare-rusak, hedgehog, etc.), but Eastern Eastosibirsk species appear: East Elk, Snow Baran, Kabagra, Northern Food, A number of landforms, Stone deaf, Black Crow, Duck-rush and others. There is a deep penetration of the central yakutia of animals and birds in the taiga, usually inhabitants in the steppes: long-tailed suslika, black sturdy, field lark, rocky dove, etc.

The animal population of Middle Siberia is characterized by some specific features caused by the features of its nature: a cold long-lasting winter, the spread of many years of permanent, the stonyness of the soils and the intersection of the relief. With the severity of winter conditions, the abundance among animals of furny animals with thick, fluffy and silky fur, which is especially appreciated: sandy, sable, ermine, squirrel, columns, etc. With the intersection of the relief and the stonyness of the soil is due to the increase in the number and species diversity of hoofs in the middle Siberia: Reindeer, Elk, Snow Baran, Cabagra. Merzlota limits the spread of amphibians, reptiles and worms. In cold waters, the number of fish is reduced. The sharp continentality of the climate contributes to greater movement of the tundra animals to the south in the winter and taiga to the north in the summer.

The animal peace of the taiga is distinguished by a rather monotonous species composition, but large fluctuations in the number within its limits. For the animal population, the tundra is characterized by significant similarities with animals of West East British tundras.

Natural zones

Despite the enormous length of the territory of Middle Siberia in Meridian, a set of natural zones within its limits is very small: Tundra, Forestandra and Taiga. Taiga is most fully represented, occupying about 70% of the area, and the tundra.

Increased climate continentality in medium Siberia promotes the displacement of the boundaries of natural zones to the north compared to Western Siberia. However, this is well traced only in the northern part of the country, where not only Lesotundra, but also the northern border of the forest zone comes in 70 ° S.Sh. As for the southern border of the forest zone, then, on the contrary, it turns out to be shifted to the south due to the high-rise position of the territory (above 450-500 m). Here, at the foot of the Eastern Sayan, on the latitudes, on which the steppes are located in Western Siberia, the taiga forests with the forest-steppe islands are common.

Tundrow zone It takes the north of Middle Siberia. Her southern border passes from Dudinka north of Lake Tileino and Heta Valley before the merger of her with the kitche (about 72 ° 30 "S.Sh.), then envelopes the northern border of Anabar Plateau (Kryazha Har-Tas), crosses the Anabar River, on Anabara River And Olenhek slightly deviates to the south, envelopes the Olenek Plateau from the North and Kryazh Chekanovsky from the south, leaving to Lena. The width of the zone ranges from 100 km in the eastern part to 600 km at Meridian Cape Chelyuskin.

The main features of the zone that distinguish it from the West Siberian tundra: a smaller wetland, the prevalence of shrub and lichen tundra on the tundra ridge and tundra-gley soils, the presence of mountain varies and arrays with mountain tundra characteristic of them and rocky stamps.

Vegetable and soil cover TundR is mosaicly distributed over the surface depending on the microrelief, the mechanical composition of the soil and the nature of moisturizing. In the northern part of the Taimyr, the Arctic spotted tundra is common with polygonal primitive arctic soils. More than 70% of the surface here is occupied by the stains of the bare soil. The vegetation is dedicated to frostic cracks separating these stains. Among the plants of the Arctic tundra prevailing DRIAD, or partridge grass. Lowering with clay soils are occupied by polygonal hypinous-herbal swamps with Russian and fluff on peat soils. In the Ground Mountains, the stony arctic tundras gradually go to the Arctic desert, represented by large-headed plaques with precipitated lichens. Here is the high-altitude explanation in the placement of soil-vegetation cover.

IN typical tundra subzonewho occupy northern part North-Siberian lowland, the shrub and lichen tundra are dominant on typical tundra, tundra illuvial humus soils and tundra subbora. These tundra are timed to raise the relief, crubstically and sampling soils. There are no signs of flopings in their soils. Dryada and Cassiopeia are dominated in the shrub tundra. On sandy soils in the eastern part of the zone, the tundra with the domination of bushy lickers of the farmer and corordiary and the smaller participation of zetraria are widespread. Moss tundra on the tundra guery soils occupy small areas and are more characteristic of the western part of the zone.

South part Zones are busy shrubnikov ivnyakovo-Yerniki tundra With the domination of the birch of the skinny (in contrast to Western Siberia, where the dwarf birches prevails). Birch is usually occupied by higher places, and the Evnyaki prevail in lowering, so they penetrate further to the north. The height and density of shrubs increases to the south, especially in the valleys, the basins, around the lakes, which depends on the increase in the power of the snow cover, above which shrubs usually do not rise.

The animal world of the medium-term tundra is represented by the lemmings of the Obian and hoofs, voles with lemming and economy. They attract the sands and polar sides. In the medium-grained tundra there are a lot of wild reindeer. From birds in the tundra are common white and tundra partridges, snow and lapland plantains.

Summer Tundra comes to life. Geese, ducks, gagars, gaga, seagulls, soups, and others arrive at the lakes, rivers and sea coasts. Returning from the taiga, rebuilding typical tundra animals (deer, sands). Forest species will penetrate the brown bear, Wolverine, etc. In the mountains of Byrranga there is a snow ram, which is not west of Yenisei.

Currently, the tundra natural resources are used mainly deer pastures. The development of minerals is still unprofitable due to the lack of labor and communication paths.

Fondroprian zone It is pulled by a narrow strip (up to 50-70 km) along the southern outskirts of the North-Siberian lowland. The border of the zone passes along the northern ledge of the medium-grained plateau.

In the vegetation cover, the Forestandr is dominated by shrubbing thickets from the birch of skinny, Olhovnik (alder alder), willow, a raspberry of a flutter and marsh on the tundra peat and permanent-tundra gley soils. Trees are scattered with separate specimens or small groups. In the western part of the trees, the trees often have an oppressed appearance, and the East Khatangi ancient becomes even more and curd, more than the height of the trees and normal than the development of the crown. This is due to the improvement of soil drainage, due to the propagation of sandy soils, as well as with an increase in summer temperatures and the predominance of wind-weather weather. In addition to shrubniki tundras and edging, there are moss, kerching fluffy tundras, especially in the western part, and lichen tundra characteristic of the eastern regions.

Forestandra are the most valuable winter pastures for deer. In winter, fishing hunting is underway here.

Taiga zone It is drawn away from north to south by more than 2000 km from the northern outskirts of the Mediumness Plateau to the southern limits of the country.

Specificthe features of the medium-grained taiga, sharply distinguish it from the Taiga of Western Siberia, are a sharply continental climate and almost widespread dissemination of permanent, minor wetlastivity, domination of monotonous larch taiga and permanent taiga soil. Emphasizing the specifics of the taiga zone of medium Siberia, her name is the taiga-permeal zone. Typical PTC of this zone are reservoir-long-tier dedudation and volcanic plains and a plateau with larch forests on the permanent taiga soils.

In the soil and vegetable cover of the medium-grained taiga substorial differences are leaking less distinct than long, caused by an increase in climate continentality and a decrease in moisture, as well as high-altitude, due to lowering summer temperatures.

Zonal Soils Taiga of Central Siberia are merzlotically taiga. Drop-carbonate permanent soils are common on carbonate rocks. In all space, the zone dominates the Svetlokhvoyky forests. True, in the north, it is rare-resistant larch forests on guery-mercularly taiga soils. The shrub tier and the impossible cover in them are formed by the views common with shrub tundra. In the central part of the taiga, the closure of the wood tier and the height of the trees increase. In the undergrowth, except for shrub IV, birch and alder, there are cherry, rowan, elderberry, juniper, honeysuckle. Herbal-moss is a typical taiga. Under forests develop acidic permanent taiga soils.

In the southern taiga increases the variety of coniferous forests. Along with larch and larch and pine forests, clean pine forests are common here. Inhibits and herbal cover are richer. In the soil cover, dend-podzolic soils predominate, although there are both permissive-taiga.

Along the foot of Eastern Sayan Strip from 70 to 250 km width stretches subtasted subzone with forest-steppe islands. The main area here is occupied by pine and birch herbal forests with numerous stains of meadow steppes, the area and the number of which increase as a result of human activity. On the most sublime and better moistrates, firing and larch-cedar forests are found on turf-podzolic soils. On carbonate soil rocks, turren-carbonate. Under birch groves and meadow steppes, gray forest soils are developed and leached chernozem.

From the northern border of the taiga zone to Southern Alias, the band stretches, where more precipitation drops than on the rest of the territory, above the power of the snow cover, less than the annual temperature amplitudes. This creates conditions for increasing the moisture content of soils and the power of the active layer, the island spread of the permanent. Along with the fear-taiga, podzolic and ferrous-podzolic soils are common here. This strip having a width of 300 to 450 km is timed to the dark forests. A spruce, cedar and fir grow here. There are arrays of birchings and stains of larch and pine forests.

Eastern increases the severity of winter, the amount of precipitation decreases and the freezing of soils increases, dark rocks and larch of Siberian fall out of the stand of the stand. Only in the southern part of the taiga in the highest sites are still encountered cedar and fir. In the eastern part of the zone, the larch Dauroskaya dominates. In Central Yakutia, among the larch forests on the permanent-taiga neutral (paley) soils, there are small spots of the sickening-naughty steppes on the terraces of Lena.

Thus, in the direction of the West, the changes in the soil and vegetable cover, associated with increasing the severity and dryness of climate, are quite clearly traced.

Significant height oscillations The medium-term taiga determine the high-altitude changes in the soil-vegetation cover, the most clearly traceable in the northern part of the zone, where the heights amplitudes are exceeded by places exceed 1000 m, and the upper limit of wood vegetation spread is at an altitude of 300-500 m and the forests are replaced by mountain tundra.

Animal world The taiga zone of Medium Siberia is typical for forests. From predators there are a brown bear and wolverine, sable and ermine, caressing and speakers, less often lynx and fox. From rodents a lot of proteins, a chipmuncture, hare-beyak and voles. Abundant and diverse earthrooks. From the hoofs are common, less frequently of the Kabagra, in the northern part  Northern deer, and in the south  Maral and Kosil. From the birds are numerous typical taiga, living here all year round and having commercial importance, deaf and a ripper. Many small birds  Dyatlov, Drozdov, Sleeps, Gootoev, Siberian Lentils, Siberian Mukholovka, etc.

Taking more than 2/3 of the territory of Central Siberia, the taiga area has both the main reserves of her natural resources  Mineral and hydropower, fur and fish. All forest and land resources are concentrated here.

In the space of the Taiga zone of Central Siberia, the intraconsoric differences associated with the character of a lithogenic basis are clearly traced. They determine the nature of the nature of each of the provinces that are addressed within the country.

Natural resources Tungussian Provinces (coal, wood, etc.) are still in the reserve of the national economy. The population is concentrated in small villages on the valleys of large rivers, occupied by hunting, fishing and reindeer herding for local needs.

In the province Puratornacopper-nickel ores and stone coal are produced. Here is the northernmost city of Russia - Norilsk.

For Centraliakutskayathe provinces are characteristic of the meadow steppes on meadow-chernozem merrous soils with a humus content of up to 12-15%. They do not occupy large areas (only 3-4%), but give the unique originality of the nature of this province. Their vegetation cover is formed by the carving hairstyle, tichard, tonon, meadow and xerophyte disintegration. Plots of steppes are located next to wetlands, mossy larch forests on low inpass terraces (first and second) and are timed to the slopes and vertices of low ridges (2-3 m). In decreases between the ridges and in the lower slides of the slopes there are stains of salt marshes and solonts with cooled and salteros.

The province's territory is one of the most populated in Central Siberia. The abundance of natural pastures and hayfosses ensures the development of animal husbandry-home branch of the indigenous population of the province of Yakuts. Soil-climatic conditions are favorable for the development of agriculture. Prospects for the use of hydropower resources Lena, Vilyuya and Aldan are great. But especially the reserves of mineral resources-coal, gas, salts and diamonds (near the northwestern outskirts of the province). The territory of the province is considered promising for oil.

Natural resources

The average Siberia is one of the most rich in natural resources of physico-geographical countries. It is especially allocated by mineral, hydropower and forest resources.

Mineral resources Medium Siberia are diverse. Here is more concentrated 70% explored reserves stone and brown coals Russia. True, most of them accounted for the share of pools placed in small-populated areas, the exploitation of which in natural conditions is very complex. Here is the largest in the world Lensky pool With predictive reserves of more than 2.6 trillion. T coals mainly chalky age. It stretches along the Lena Valley by almost 1.5 thousand km. Tungus basin of upperopeozoic coal with reserves of over 2 trillion. T covers an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 1 million km 2. Coal layers here often lie close to the surface. The Taimyr pool (200-250 billion tons) differs smaller in stock. In the South, the most developed part of the Central Siberia, the Canan Swimming pool is located (more than 100 billion tons; Eastern part of Canco-Achinsky) and the Irkutsk-Cheremkhovsky pool (more than 30 billion tons). Both of these basins contain the angle of Jurassic age, are intensively developed and currently have the greatest economic significance.

In 1962, the Markov deposit of the Cambrian region was opened in the upper reaches of Lena oil. A Yaraktinsky deposit is also being developed. On the peninsula, Nudevik oil was mined from the deposits of the Upper Paleozoic. Gaza deposits are open in Central Yakutia, in the eastern part of the North-Siberian lowland, on the riverfire Khatanga and Angara, Lena and Vilyuya (Tas-Tumus, Balakhninskoye, Shanskoye, etc.). The average Siberia remains one of the promising areas in the east of the country for oil and gas searches.

Rock salt The Cambrian and Devonian age is mined in the upper reaches of the hangars (Usolye Sibirskoye), in the pool of Vilyuya (Kemphendyay), in Norilsk district and in the lowerhouse Khatanga. The power of salt reservoirs reaches 400 m.

In Central Siberia, there are a number of ore and non-metallic minerals associated with Siberian trappiers and mesozoic magmatism. Deposits have great importance diamondwhich are associated with explosion tubes filled with ultrasound rocks  kimberlites and their breccias. Some of these deposits (the "World" tube, "successful", "Aikhol") are developed. The most promising diamondic areas are in the pool of Vilyuya and Olenhek.

Russia's largest fields graphitea  Kuressoi and Noginskoe  are located in the northwestern part of the medium-grained plateau. Here are designed copper nickel orescontaining platinum (Crowds, etc.). Near the mouth of the hangars are open deposit of lead-zinc ores (Goringe) and manganese(Pratozinskoye). Polymetallic, mercury and molybdenum ores Known in the Mountains of Byrranga. Gold is mined in the Yenisei crown. The gold relationship of the anabar massif was found. Found a number of aluminum ore deposits, of which bauxites of the Priagaric part of the Yenisei ridge are of the greatest importance.

Among ores Middle Siberia fields are especially numerous deposits iron Rud., explored and developed in Angaro-Pit, Angaro-Ilimsk and the Midnoungar pools. Known iron deposits in the Norilsk district and in the pool of the Podcast Tunguska.

Hydropower resources The medium-grained rivers make up more than 40% of all-Russian. Pearl hydropower is a fast and full-flowing hangar, which flows through Baikal. This creates very favorable conditions for hydropower construction. The hangar is already working at the full capacity of Irkutsk (600 thousand kW), fraternal (4.5 million kW), the Ust-Ilimskaya HPP (4.3 million kW), the Boguchanskaya (4.5 million kW) is being built and is designed Nizhneangarskaya. In addition to the Angarskaya HPP, Krasnoyarskaya (6 million kW), Vilyuyskaya (about 650 thousand kW) and Hantay HPP (440 thousand kW) are built in Central Siberia. It is planned to build a medium-axis HPP near the mouth of the hangars. The hydropower development of the Lena basin rivers is just beginning. On Lena, hydroelectric power plants with a total capacity of over 16 million kW can be built. The small winter spending of the medium-term rivers (with the exception of the hangars) adversely affect the efficiency of the HPP operation, but in spite of this the cost of electricity produced here is the lowest in the country.

Great transport the value of the rivers: The most important transport highway is Lena, shipping to Ust-Kuta. Shipping its tributaries (Vilyui, Aldan) and the largest inflows of the Yenisei. Used rivers for a leoplava. The use of rivers as a message paths is limited to their browness and the duration of the ice station.

Forest resources Medium Siberia are represented by large wood reserves  over 40% of republican reserves in ripe and overripes. The forestry square in Central Siberia occupies about 200 million hectares, and the stock of wood in the forests exceeds 20 billion m 3. The productivity of forests increases from 30-50 m 3 / hectares in Polar Raddares up to 250-300 m 3 / hectares and more in the pine forests of Priangarya. Pine and pine-laratory forests of the Basin of Angara, which focuses over 35 million hectares of pine forests, is particularly important.

The overwhelming part of the territory belongs to forest-free areas. According to the mode of use and intended purpose, these forests are included in the operating room. The forests of the most oblivious districts adjacent to the railway are mainly mastered. Over 80%, wood harvested here is pine. Forests of the inland areas  backup. They are used as weakly, as they differ in lower quality and difficult transport accessibility. Large taiga malfunctions. Protection from them  The most important task of the forestry of Middle Siberia.

Foney resources Medium Siberia  Object of fishing hunting, one of the indigenous occupations. The flip of these areas is famous for high quality and is especially high demand. In terms of the number of strokes, squirrels, sands, ermine, sable, ondatra and hare-whites are dominated by the number of strokes.

Feed resources represented by huge squares of deer pastures. According to the valleys of rivers, floodplain meadows are common, characterized by the most sustainable harvests. Especially valuable in feed are alasal and priest meadows, giving a nutrient hay rich in proteins. But the yield is very unstable. These meadows are distributed mainly in Central Yakutia. There are conjunct and wetlands among the forest ravine arrays. They are used as pastures and haymaking. Livestock  The main direction of agriculture is almost throughout.

Because of the high intersection of the relief, harsh climate and high deposit here much lessthan in Western Siberia landcomfortable for agriculture. Most of them are concentrated in the south in the forest-steppe islands and the South Taiga Prijynia, where the humidification coefficient is close to one. There are small pashne area (about 150 thousand hectares) in Central Yakutia, where the amount of active temperatures during the short summer allows you to grow early and secondary grades of grain crops and many vegetables, but in the first period of summer there is a shortage of humidity. About a third of arable land here is located in the valleys of rivers and almost as much on Alas. Within the middle Siberia, there is a largest Polar agricultural farm in our country, in greenhouses and on the open ground of which a variety of vegetables are grown.

Anthropogenic changes in nature

In the XVXVI centuries. In the middle Siberia, small nationalities and tribes lived in a huge territory lived. Only Yakuts who inhabited by the Leno-Vilyuic (Centraliakutskaya) Plain and the valleys of rivers adjacent to it were engaged in cattle breeding (horse breeding), hunting and fisheries, the rest  hunting and fishing. Some tribes had deer.

After joining the territory to Russia, the economic flow of the population did not change in essence, only the development of fur resources increased. Economic life in the XVII century. To one way or another, it was associated with the Ferrian  "soft rhylard". The development of the furond riches of Central Siberia continued in the XVIIIIXIX centuries, but in the preyatigny gradually began to develop agriculture. Already at the beginning of the XVIII century, 40% of the population lived in the preyaginy, and by the end of the XIX century.  80% of the population of Central Siberia. By the middle of the XVIII century. The Moscow (Siberian) tract towards the coast of the Pacific Ocean was laid here, and in 1893-1899. Railway  part of the Trans-Siberian Highway. This contributed to the further growth of the population and the development of agriculture to meet the needs of the entire local population. Through the rest of the territory continued to develop fur fishery.

From the middle of the XIX century. The foci of gold mining in the Yenisei Kryazh, and in recent years, centuries, when coal was required due to the operation of the railway, its mining began in the Cheremkhov basin. Subsigning and in separate places near the hangars began forest products. All this led to changes in nature in the southwestern, preyed, part of the Central Siberia. On the rest of the territory, the change was touched only by the animal world. Because of the unsalted hunt, the main object of the fishery  sobat in many places almost completely disappeared. The number of proteins has been significantly reduced.

The established direction of the economy in Central Siberia was maintained in post-revolutionary years. At the same time, focal farming moved into more northern areas, the livestock population increased, the volumes of logging in the Angara basin and in the upper reaches of Lena increased. In Soviet times, new foci of industrial development of Central Siberia arose on the basis of the use of its mineral resources in the areas of Norilsk and Peaceful. All this entailed an increase in the impact of a person in nature, but the local nature of the impact itself was preserved. Only unintended influence on vegetation covered significant territories. This is due to the spread of forest fires, most often arising through human fault.

Fires sometimes covered huge spaces. Thus, the catastrophic fire of 1915 spread from Sayan to the low-level Yenisei and from Ob to the driving of the subfolder Tunguska. During this fire, about half of the forests in the Yenisei basin were destroyed within the middle Siberia. Especially numerous and extensive fires are characteristic of dry years (1925, 1927, 1962, 1971, etc.). Analysis of the distribution of the squares of the old Gare showed that they detect direct connection with settlements and road tracks.

The targeted change in vegetation cover occurred in the process of expanding arable land. In the preyaginy, natural vegetation is replaced by crops of crops on significant squares. Here are two major array of arable land: around Krasnoyarsk  Kansk and Irkutsk  Cheremkhovo. In Central Yakutia, in the Basins of the Angara and Podcaman Tunguska, agriculture is still focal. Luxury lands are confined to low river terraces with the most fertile soils. In Central Yakutia there are Alasa, created by a person on the site of specially lowered thermal lakes in order to increase the high-yielding meadow geades. In the Basin, the hangars and near Olekmins on Lena significantly changed the age and species composition of the forests in connection with the logging ones carried out here.

The economic basis for the development of the economy of Central Siberia is currently an approximation of industry to sources of raw materials. But the development of natural resources in the conditions of a harsh Siberian climate requires high costs and careful attitude towards nature in the course of its resources. In recent decades of the XX century. More and more foci of local change in nature occurred during mining, during transport and energy construction.

A person actively invades nature and often changes the regime of many years of marzlot, which entails not only the change in the soil and vegetation cover, but often relief. These changes are often irreversible, although not covered by large areas. The main areas of human impact on nature are the Angara pool, Norilsk areas, West Yakutia and Central Plain.

To preserve unique and typical natural complexes, one of the largest Taimyr Reserve (1979) on an area of \u200b\u200b1.3 million hectares was created for the protection of animals and reactions. In 1985, the Ust-Lena Reserve (about 1.5 million hectares) was created in the lower reserves (about 1.5 million hectares), and in the Tungus province, Centralnosibirsk (Square is a little less than 1 million hectares). In 1988, a Pouotnian reserve was organized in the central and southwestern parts of Plateau Pouotnian, having an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 1.8 million hectares. On the Taimyr coast, there are several sections of the Great Arctic Reserve.

Over 25% of the surface of the terrestrial ball is occupied by a long-term or permafrost. It is a freezing soil, which is never completely thawing. Perennial Merzlota was formed in the Ice Age Period of Development of the Planet, in areas with dry and frosty climate.

Geography of eternal Merzlota

Perennial Merzlota is a typical phenomenon for amateur and polar areas located near the northern and southern poles. Also, the Merzlot is also found in other regions of the Earth, including in equatorial latitudes, but only high in the mountains whose vertices are covered with ice and snow caps.

Fig. 1. Snowy peaks of high mountains.

The only mainland on the planet, on the territory of which there is no permafrost is Australia. The thing is that it is removed as much as possible from the southern pole and cannot boast of the high mountain.

Huge arrays of many years of milling are located in such regions:

• northern Eurasian continent;
• northern Canada territories;
• Alaska;
• Greenland;
• Antarctica.

The thickness of the simply soil layer ranges from several tens of centimeters to a kilometer and more. Perennial Merzlota in Russia ranks 2/3 of the entire territory. The greatest fixed depth is 1370 m, and it is located in Yakutia, in the upper reaches of the Vilyuh river.

Fig. 2. The territory of the marzlot near the Vilyui River.

Merzlota is represented by two forms:

• Solid eternal Merzlota Located in Siberia, New Earth, on the Arctic Islands. For many years she never melted, and formed impressive arrays of sushi freezers.
• Partial Merzlota Located somewhat south. It is characterized by a small freezing layer and location in the form of individual areas.

Conditions of formation of Marzlota

In the northern regions, the soil remains freezing even in the summer. It hops only a small layer, no more than 10 cm. Water formed after the melting of winter snow, is not able to completely absorb solid frozen soil, so in the summer the upper layer is a semi-winged dirty messenger.

In the event that the melting of snow occurs on the slope, then the mud "wave" under the action of gravity slides down. Such mud landslides are most characteristic of the relief of the tundra.

With the advent of autumn, the natural landscape can change dramatically. Melting water accumulated in the cracks of rocks freezes. In this case, its volume increases, and the breed is destroyed. This leads to the shift of the soil or its swelling. So the pingo is formed.

Outwardly, this place resembles a dome-shaped hill with a height of up to 50 m, with a split or discrete vertex. Pingo is found in Siberia, Greenland, Canada. On their vertices, small depressions are often formed, in which small lakes are formed in summer.

Fig. 3. Pingo.

Merzlota and human activity

For the successful development of the northern regions, it is very important to own full information about many years of marbles. Similar knowledge is necessary for execution next tasks :

• construction of buildings and various structures;
• geological exploration;
• mining.

Uncontrolled melting may cause many problems associated with the peculiarity of human activity in the northern regions. When conducting work in the North, this should be avoided by all methods.

Deeply freezing soil, devoid of the slightest mobility of its layers, is very convenient when developing mineral mineral deposits in the open way. Since the walls of the career compounded by the Merzlot do not appear, they allow you to work more efficiently.

In recent years, the area that the long-term permafrost occurs, began to decline. The regions of the simplicity soil began to slowly retreat north. This is directly related to global warming on the planet and the constant increase in temperature. If the situation does not change, then after a few decades, the areas that were exempted from the permissal will become suitable for agricultural work.

Permanent Merzlotte is developed on the extensive spaces of the Northern and South Hemispheres of the Earth both on the plains and in the mountains occupying about 25% of the land area. In landscape, it is a glacier and tundra zones, which are included in the Arctic (Antarctic) and subarctic (sub-actric) climatic belts (see ch. 12). The border of the spread of permits on the plains of the northern hemisphere is descended below 50 ° C. sh., and in the southern hemisphere, respectively, rises to 50 ° sh. In Russia, Merzlota takes more than 65% of its entire territory (Fig. 9.1).

Cryolitozone, its origin and structure. The upper layer of the earth's crust, characterized by the predominance of negative soil temperatures and rocks and the presence or possibility of the existence of underground ice, is called a cryolitozone (from Greek. Kryos - cold, frost, ice, Lithos - stone and zone - belt). The formation of modern cryolitozones began at the end of Pliocene - the beginning of the early Pleistocene due to the planetary climate cooling and the development of glaciation and continued with breaks throughout the quarter. Particularly harsh climatic conditions existed in Late Pleistocene, about 18-20 thousand years ago during the last glaciation. Cryolitozone is divided into subbands: solid and intermittent or island propagation of multi-nesting breeds. Thickness, or power, the latter depends on the average annual temperature and a number of other conditions and spatially rather variable (see Fig. 9.1). On the territory of Russia, the power of many years of meteorous rocks in the first subzone reaches 800-900 m. It is the Taimyr, the coast of the Northern Seas, the Arctic Islands, the Altasy Areas of Altai, Sayan, and others. In the Incontinental Areas of Eastern Siberia, in particular in the Uppernia, the Merzlot Power almost reaches 1500 m . In the second subzone, covering the Kola Peninsula, the Southern Half of Western Siberia, the South Half of Western Siberia, and others, the Merzlota is developed by the islands, which decreases from the north to south. Accordingly, in the same direction, the MMP power is reduced from 100 m and more than 1 to 5-25 m. The rocks, cryolitozone groups, have a negative temperature among them are distinguished by frozen rocks containing ice and frosty, not containing it. The latter includes dry sands and pebbles, some igneous and metamorphic rocks. Ice in frozen breeds is present in a different form: in the form of individual crystals, fills the pores in dispersed sediments (ice-cement), forms different sizes of veins, lenses, layers and larger reservoir bodies and arrays. Ice wedges up to 8-10 m wide and in a depth of 50-60 m permeate the strata of sediments, breaking them into separate arrays. In frozen rocks, ice fills emptiness and cracks. The ice is formed or simultaneously with the formation of rock (syngenetic), or after its formation (epigenetic). At the same time, ice can be formed with repeated water or snow cracks in rocks (re-centenary ice) or when introducing soil water (injection ice). In the cryolitozone, the surface layer freezes in winter and thaws in the summer. It is called a seoplastic, or active, layer. Its capacity is usually the first meters and increases from the northern latitudes to the southern, where the thawing occurs at a depth of about 4-6 m. The active layer is of great practical importance for human activities, since the processes occurring in it cause surface deformations, leading to the destruction of buildings, and therefore should be taken into account during construction. In addition to glacier and tundra zones, temporary seasonal (winter), breed freezing is characteristic of a moderate belt zones.

Factors affecting the development of constant permanentness.

The following factors are influenced by the formation of a permissal relief: the climate, the real composition of rocks, hydrogeological conditions (depth of groundwater occurrence), vegetation cover, the newest tectonics and relief (M. I. Sumgin, B. N. Wist, β. I. Popov, with . P. Kachurin, V. A. Kudryavtsev, E. D. Ershov, η. Η. Romanovsky, K. A. Kondratieva, B. P. Lyubimov, Yu. V. Mudrov, etc.). All these factors are closely interrelated, and the influence of one of them is often weakened or enhanced depending on the change in any other factor. The climate defines the very existence of a permissal. The draining depth of rocks depends on the average annual temperature and its oscillations on the surface, the degree of moisture of rocks, the power of the snow cover. In general, the lower the average annual temperature, longer than and colder winter, less humidity and power of snow cover, the greater the depth of the breed freezing.

In the area of \u200b\u200bdevelopment of permits, the amount of heat entering a particular section depends on the relief, the surface exposure, the lithology of rocks, the newest tectonics. So, the slopes of the southern exposition get more heat compared to the northern, so they are less frown. The influence of the real composition of the breeds on the power of the permissal is manifested through the mechanical composition of deposits, their thermophysical properties, thermal conductivity, moisture degree. Ruffed rocks, on the one hand, warm up to a greater depth than rock, however, on the other hand, they are often more saturated with soil or surface water, so they can freeze to a greater depth than strong. Mlowered sediments (sands, pebbles) are frozen on a greater depth than fine-grained (loam, clay). The vegetation in general contributes to a smaller freezing of rocks and protects them from summer thawing. But the nature of vegetation depends not only from the climate, but also from the relief. The slope defined by tectonic deformations or exogenous processes affects the distribution of atmospheric precipitation, and, consequently, vegetation, from which, to some extent, the degree of breed friction depends. The influence of the newest tectonics and relief affects both large territories and local areas. In the mountains with an increase in height, the air temperature and rocks decrease, the power of MMP increases accordingly. In the arrow parts of individual lifts, especially with increased fracture and more coarse mechanical composition of rocks, the heat flow from the earth's decrees increases and the power of the permotion is reduced, sometimes 100-200 meters compared to the depadies. However, on some anticline, especially promising oil and gas, the flow of raising heat is shielded by the layers containing these minerals, and here, on the contrary, an increase in the power of the closed layer is observed. In the depadies where modern sedimentation is underway, the power of permotion is usually more than on raising, due to the fact that, as mentioned above, performing deposits of deposits are usually thin, more saturated with moisture than on raising, and therefore fuse deeper , become ice ward. In general, the capacity of permits increases from watersheds to the bottoms of the depression. However, under river valleys, compared with watersheds, the capacity of the permanent is usually reduced. This is due to the fact that river flows, being powerful and permanent coolants, impede the development of permanent data under them and cause it to flip, creating the zones of the so-called taliks. Taliks can be through, piercing all the thickness of the marzlot under river streams, or to form lenses and channels inside the frozen thickness of intra and intermoroslotny) or no us over it). Cold climate and permafrost determine the special type of weathelation - cryogenic. Periodic freezing and thawing of water in the rocks leads to physical destruction, the formation of cracks, crushing, breaking down to turning them into dust and clay differences. Dusty eluvius is developed in many breeds in the tundra zone.