Earth climate. Climate-forming factors on Earth. Mode and the number of atmospheric precipitation, mm. Influence of solar radiation

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CLIMATE,many years of weather in this area. Weather at any time characterize certain combinations of temperature, humidity, direction and wind speeds. In some types of climate, the weather varies significantly every day or by seasons, in others - remains unchanged. Climatic descriptions Based on the statistical analysis of medium and extreme meteorological characteristics. As the factor of the natural environment, the climate affects the geographical distribution of vegetation, soils and water resources And, consequently, land use and economy. The climate also has an impact on the living conditions and human health.

Climatology is a climate science that studies the causes of the formation of different types of climate, their geographical location and interconnection of climate and other natural phenomena. Climatology is closely related to meteorology - a section of physics studying short-term states of the atmosphere, i.e. weather.

Climate-forming factors

Earth position.

When applying the Earth around the Sun, the angle between the polar axis and the perpendicular to the orbit plane remains constant and is 23 ° 30ў. This movement explains the change in the angle of falling sunlight on the earth's surface at noon on a certain latitude during the year. The greater the angle of falling sunlight on the ground in this place, the more efficient the sun heats the surface. Only between the northern and southern tropics (from 23 ° 30ў S.Sh. up to 23 ° 30ў Yu.Sh.) The sun rays at a certain time fall to the ground vertically, and here the sun at noon always rises high above the horizon. Therefore, the tropics are usually warm at any time of the year. In higher latitudes, where the sun is below the horizon, the heating of the earth's surface is less. There are significant seasonal temperature changes (which does not happen in the tropics), and in winter the angle of falling the sun's rays is relatively small and the days are significantly shorter. At the equator, the day and night always have equal duration, whereas on the poles the day the entire summer half of the year continues, and in the winter the sun never goes over the horizon. The duration of the polar day is only partly compensates for the low standing of the sun over the horizon, and as a result, the summer is cool here. In the dark winters, polar areas are quickly losing heat and get out very much.

Distribution of sushi and the sea.

Water heats up and cools slower than sushi. Therefore, the air temperature over the oceans has smaller daily and seasonal changes than the continents. In the coastal areas where the winds blow from the sea, the summer is generally cooler, and winter is warmer than in the inner areas of the continents on the same latitude. The climate of such entered coasts is called sea. Internal areas of the mainland in moderate latitudes Characterized by significant differences in summer and winter temperatures. In such cases, they talk about the continental climate.

Waters are the main source of atmospheric moisture. When the winds blow from the warm oceans to land, there are a lot of precipitation. On the windward coasts, usually above relative humidity and cloudiness and more days with fogs than in the inner regions.

Circulation of the atmosphere.

The nature of the baric field and the rotation of the Earth determine the overall circulation of the atmosphere, due to which the heat and moisture are constantly redistributed on the earth's surface. Winds blowing from high pressure areas in low pressure area. High pressure is usually associated with cold, dense air, while low - with warm and less dense. The rotation of the Earth causes air flows to deviate to the right in the northern hemisphere and left - in the southern one. Such a deviation is called "Coriolis Effect".

Both in the northern and in the southern hemisphere in the surface layers of the atmosphere, there are three main wind zones. In the internal convergence zone of the Equator, the Northeast Passat comes closer to the southeast. Passat winds are borne in subtropical areas of high pressure, most developed over the oceans. Air flows, moving towards the poles and deviate under the influence of Coriolis force, form the prevailing Western transfer. In the field of polar fronts of moderate latitudes, west transfer is found with cold air high latitudes, forming a zone of low-pressure baric systems in the center (cyclones) moving from the West to the East. Although air flows in polar regions It is not so bright, sometimes a polar oriental transfer is distinguished. These winds blow mostly from the northeast in the northern hemisphere and from the southeast - in South. Cold air masses often penetrate moderate latitudes.

Winds in the areas of convergence of air flows form ascending air flows, which is cooled with a height. At the same time, it is possible to form clouds, often accompanied by the fallout of precipitation. Therefore, in the intrachetic zone of convergence and frontal zones in the belt of the prevailing Western transfer drops a lot of precipitation.

The winds that in higher layers of the atmosphere closure the circulation system in both hemispheres. Air, rising up in convergence zones, rushes in the high pressure area and lowers. At the same time, with an increase in pressure, it heats up, which leads to the formation of a dry climate, especially on land. Such descending air flows determine the climate of the Sahara located in the subtropical illustrative belt in North Africa.

Seasonal changes in warming up and cooling determine the seasonal movement of the main barical formations and wind systems. The wind zones in the summer are shifted towards the poles, which leads to changes to weather conditions on this latitude. Thus, for African savannes covered with herbal vegetation with rarely growing trees, a rainy summer is characterized (due to the effect of the intrachetic convergence zone) and dry winter, when the high pressure area with descending air flows is shifted to this territory.

For seasonal changes total circulation The atmosphere also affects the distribution of sushi and the sea. In the summer, when the Asian mainland warms up and over it is set to a lower pressure region than above the surrounding oceans, the coastal southern and southeastern areas experience the impact of wet air flows directed from the sea to land and bring abundant rains. In winter, the air flows from the cold surface of the mainland to the oceans, and the rains fall much less. Such winds that change the direction to the opposite depending on the season are called monscons.

Ocean flows

form under the influence of near-surface winds and differences in water density due to changes in its salinity and temperature. The direction of the currents of Coriolis, the shape of the marine pools and the outlines of the shores are affected. In general, the circulation of oceanic flows is similar to the distribution of air flows over the oceans and occurs clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise - in South.

Crossing heads to poles warm currentsThe air becomes warmer and wet and has an appropriate effect on the climate. Going to equator Oceanic flows carry cool water. Passing along the western western outlook, they lower the temperature and moisture capacity of air, and, accordingly, the climate under their effect becomes cooler and dry. Due to the condensation of moisture near the cold surface of the sea in such areas, fogs often occur.

Relief of the earth's surface.

Large form of relief has a significant impact on the climate, which varies depending on the height of the terrain and when the interaction of air flows with orographic obstacles. The air temperature with a height is usually reduced, which leads to the formation in the mountains and on the cooler climate plateau than on the adjacent lowlands. In addition, hill and mountains form obstacles that force the air to climb up and expand. As it is expanding it is cooled. Such cooling, called adiabatic, often leads to the condensation of moisture and the formation of clouds and precipitation. Most of the precipitation caused by the barrier effect of the mountains falls on their windward side, and the leeward side remains in the "rain shadow". The air, descending on the leeward slopes, is heated during compression, forming a warm dry wind, known as the "Hairdryer" name.

Climate and latitude

In climatic reviews of the Earth, it is advisable to consider latitudinal zones. The distribution of climatic belts in the northern and southern hemispheres is symmetrically. To the north and south of the equator are tropical, subtropical, moderate, subogenous and polar zone. Also symmetrical baric fields and zones of prevailing winds. Consequently, the greater part of the climate types of one hemisphere can be found on similar latitudes in a single hemisphere.

Main types of climate

Climate classification gives an ordered system to characterize climate types, their zoning and mapping. Climate types prevailing in extensive territories are called macroclimates. Macroflimatic region should have more or less homogeneous climatic conditions that distinguish it from other areas, although it is only a generalized characteristic (since there are no two places with an identical climate), more responding to realities than the allocation of climatic areas only on the basis of belonging to a certain latitudinal -Gogographic belt.

Climate of glacial Pokrovov

dominates Greenland and Antarctica, where average monthly temperatures are below 0 ° C. In the dark winter season, these regions do not receive these regions solar radiationAlthough there are twilight and polar shine. Even in the summer, the sun rays fall on the ground surface at a low angle, which reduces the effectiveness of the warm-up. Most of the incoming solar radiation is reflected in ice. Both in summer and in winter in the sublime areas of Antarctic Ice Cover dominate low temperatures. The climate of the inland districts of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since south mainland It is distinguished by large size and heights, and the Northern Arctic Ocean softens the climate, despite the widespread spike ice. In the summer during short warming drifting ice sometimes melts.

The sediments on the glacial seals fall out in the form of snow or small particles of the ice fog. The internal areas receive only 50-125 mm precipitation every year, but on the coast can fall out more than 500 mm. Sometimes cyclones bring cloudiness and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds, which transfer significant snow masses, blowing it from the rocks. Strong Stock Winds with snowstorms blowing from a cold glacial shield, pulling out snow on the coast.

Subolar climate

manifests itself in the tundra areas on the northern outskirts North America and Eurasia, as well as on Antarctic Persh and the islands adjacent to it. In Eastern Canada and Siberia, the southern border of this climatic belt takes place significantly south of the polar circle due to the significantly expressed effect of extensive sushi arrays. This leads to a protracted and extremely cold winters. Summer short and cool with average monthly temperatures, rarely exceeding + 10 ° C. To some extent long days Compensate the shortness of the summer, however, most of the territory of the resulting heat is not enough for complete thawing of soils. Constantly frozen soil, called long-term Marzlot, restrains the growth of plants and filtering mavel Water In the ground. Therefore, in summer, flat areas are wetlands. On the coast, winter temperatures are somewhat higher, and summer is somewhat lower than in the inner areas of the mainland. In summer, when the wet air is over cold water or sea iceThe arctic coasts often arise fogs.

The annual precipitation amount usually does not exceed 380 mm. Most of them falls in the form of rain or snow in the summer, when cyclones pass. On the coast, the bulk of precipitation can be brought by winter cyclones. But low temperatures and clear weather of the cold season, characteristic of most areas with subogenous climates, are unfavorable for significant snow blood.

Subarctic climate

also known as the "Taiga Climate" (according to the prevailing type of vegetation - coniferous forests). This climatic belt covers moderate latitudes. Northern Hemisphere – northern regions North America and Eurasia, located directly to the south of the subepolar climatic belt. There are sharp seasonal climatic differences due to the position of this climatic belt in fairly high latitudes in the inner parts of the mainland. Winter is protracted and extremely cold, and the north, the days shorter. Summer short and cooler with long days. In winter, the period with negative temperatures is very long, and in the summer, temperatures may exceed + 32 ° C. In Yakutsk, the average temperature of January -43 ° C, July - + 19 ° C, i.e. The annual amplitude of temperatures reaches 62 ° C. The softer climate is characteristic of seaside territories, such as South Alaska or Northern Scandinavia.

For most of the climatic belt under consideration, less than 500 mm of precipitation falls per year, and their number is maximally on the windward coasts and minimally in the inside of Siberia. Snow in winter falls very little, snowfalls are conjugate with rare cyclones. Summer is usually more humid, and rains go mainly when passing atmospheric fronts. On the coasts there are often fogs and solid clouds. In winter, ice fog hangs in a strong frost over the snow cover.

Wet continental climate with short summer

it is characteristic of the extensive strip of moderate latitudes of the northern hemisphere. In North America, it extends from Prairies in the south of Central Canada to the coast Atlantic OceanAnd in Eurasia covers the greater part of Eastern Europe and some areas of Central Siberia. The same type of climate is observed in Japanese O.Hokkido and in the south Far East. The main climatic features of these areas are determined by the predominant Western transfer and frequent passage of atmospheric fronts. IN severe winters The average air temperatures can be reduced to -18 ° C. Summer is short and cool, frosting period less than 150 days. The annual amplitude of temperatures is not as large as under the conditions of the subarctic climate. In Moscow, the average temperatures of January -99 ° C, July - + 18 ° C. In this climatic belt, a constant threat to agriculture Represent spring frost. In the seaside provinces of Canada, in New England and on. Winter Hokkaido warmer than in intra-projectal districts, as the eastern winds at times bring the warmer ocean air.

Annual precipitation ranges from less than 500 mm in the inner parts of the mainland to more than 1000 mm on the coasts. On most of the area, the sediment falls predominantly in summer, often with thunderstorm rains. Winter sediments, mainly in the form of snow, are associated with the passage of fronts in cyclones. Blizzards are often observed in the rear of the cold front.

Wet continental climate with long summer.

Air temperature and summer season duration increase south in areas of a wet continental climate. This type of climate is manifested in a moderate latitudinal belt of North America from the eastern part of the Great Plains to the Atlantic Coast, and southeast Europe - In the lower reaches of the Danube. Similar climatic conditions are also expressed in Northeast China and Central Japan. Western transfer also prevails here. average temperature The warmer month + 22 ° C (but temperatures may exceed + 38 ° C), warm summer nights. Winters are not so cold as in the areas of a wet continental climate with short summerbut the temperature sometimes falls below 0 ° C. The annual amplitude of temperatures is usually 28 ° C, as, for example, in Peoria (PC. Illinois, USA), where the average January -4 ° C, and July - + 24 ° C. On the coast, the annual amplitudes of temperatures are reduced.

Most often in conditions of a wet continental climate with a long summer drops from 500 to 1100 mm of precipitation per year. The greatest amount of precipitation brings summer thunder shower during the growing season. In winter, rain and snowfall are mostly conjugate with the passage of cyclones and related fronts.

Marine climate of moderate latitude

inherent in the Western coasts of the mainland, above all, North-Western Europe, the central part of the Pacific coast of North America, the soup of Chile, Southeast of Australia and New Zealand. On the course of air temperature, the prevailing Western winds, which follow from the oceans, have a softening effect. Winters are soft with the average temperatures of the coldest month above 0 ° C, but when the coarse reaches the streams of arctic air, there are frosts. Summer is generally pretty warm; When continental air invasion, the temperature may be a short time Increase to + 38 ° C. This type of climate with a small annual temperature amplitude is the most moderate among temperate climates. For example, in Paris, the average temperature of January + 3 ° C, July - + 18 ° C.

In regions of moderate sea \u200b\u200bclimate The average annual precipitation ranges from 500 to 2500 mm. The most moistened to the coastal mountains are most moistened. In many areas, the sediments fall pretty evenly during the year, the exception is the north-western Pacific coast of the United States with a very moist winter. Cyclones moving from the oceans bring a lot of precipitation to western mainland outskirts. In winter, as a rule, keeps cloudy weather With weak rains and rare short-term snowfall. On the coasts are common fogs, especially in summer and autumn.

Wet subtropical climates

it is characteristic of the eastern coasts of the continents to the north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution - Southeast of the United States, some southeastern regions of Europe, North India and Myanmar, East China and South Japan, Northeast Argentina, Uruguay and South Brazil, Natal Province coast in South Africa and east Coast Australia. Summer V. wet subtropics Long and roast, with the same temperatures as in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month is exceeded + 27 ° C, and the maximum - + 38 ° C. Women are soft, with average monthly temperatures above 0 ° C, but random frosts have a degenerate effect on plantations of vegetables and citrus.

In wet subtropics, the average annual amounts of precipitation range from 750 to 2000 mm, the distribution of precipitation for the seasons is quite uniform. In winter, rain and rare snowfall are brought mainly by cyclones. Summer of precipitation falls mainly in the form of thunderstorms, associated with powerful incidents of warm and wet oceanic air, characteristic of monsoon circulation east Asia. Hurricanes (or typhoons) are manifested at the end of summer and in the fall, especially in the northern hemisphere.

Subtropical climate with dry summer

typical for Western coasts of continents north and south of the tropics. IN Southern Europe And North Africa, such climatic conditions are characteristic of coasting Mediterranean, which served as a reason to call this climate also Mediterranean. The same climate in Southern California, the central regions of Chile, in the Far Southern Africa and in a number of areas in the south of Australia. In all these areas, hot summer and mild winters. As in wet subtropics, frost occasionally occasionally. In the inner areas in the summer, temperatures are significantly higher than on the coasts, and often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. In the summer on the coasts under which the ocean flows are passing, there are often fogs. For example, in San Francisco Summer is cool, foggy, and the warmer month is September.

Maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing Western air flows are shifted towards the equator. The effect of anticyclones and descending air flows under the oceans determine the dryness of the summer season. Average annual number precipitation in conditions subtropical climate It ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches maximum values \u200b\u200bon the coasts and slopes of the mountains. In the summer, precipitation is usually lacking for normal growth of trees, and therefore there is a specific type of evergreen shrub vegetation, known as McWis, Chaparral, Mali, Mackey and Finbosh.

Semi-diarid climate of moderate latitudes

(synonym - steppe climate) is characteristic mainly for intramicious areas remote from oceans - moisture sources - and usually located in the rain shadow of high mountains. The main areas with a semi-samide climate are interhoneal basins and the great plains of North America and the steppe of Central Eurasia. Hot summer and cold winter are due to intramaterial position in moderate latitudes. At least one winter month has an average temperature below 0 ° C, and the average temperature of the warmest summer month exceeds + 21 ° C. Temperature regime and the duration of the smokery period varies significantly depending on the latitude.

The term "semi-garden" is used to characterize this climate, because it is less dry than the actual arid climate. The average annual precipitation is usually less than 500 mm, but more than 250 mm. Since for the development of steppe vegetation in conditions of higher temperatures, more precipitation is needed, the latitudinal and geographical and high-rise area is determined. climate change. For a semi-diarid climate, there are no general patterns of precipitation distribution during the year. For example, in areas bordering subtropics with dry summer, there is a maximum of precipitation in winter, while in areas adjacent to the domains of a wet continental climate, rains fall mainly in the summer. Cyclones of moderate latitudes bring the greatest part of winter precipitation, which often fall out in the form of snow and can be accompanied by strong winds. Summer thunderstorms are often with a hail. The amount of precipitation varies greatly from year to year.

Arid climate of moderate latitude

inherent mainly to the Central Asian deserts, and in the West of the United States - only small areas in the intermoreflakes. Temperatures are the same as in areas with a semi-samide climate, however precipitation is not enough for the existence of closed natural vegetation cover and the average annual sums usually do not exceed 250 mm. As in semicaride climatic conditions, the amount of precipitation determining arid depends on the thermal regime.

Low latitude semilarine climate

mostly typical for the outskirts of tropical deserts (for example, Sahara and the desert of Central Australia), where the downstream air flows in the subtropical zones of high pressure exclude precipitation. From the semi-sam climate of moderate latitudes, the climate in question is very hot in summer and warm winter. The average monthly temperatures above 0 ° C, although in winter it is sometimes freezing, especially in areas most remote from the equator and located at large altitudes. The amount of precipitation required for the existence of closed natural herbal vegetation is higher here than in moderate latitudes. In the erectional band, rains go mostly in summer, while on the external (northern and southern) outskirts of the desert maximum precipitation falls for the winter. Precipitation for the most part fall out in the form of thunderstorms, and winter rains are brought by cyclones.

Arid climate of low latitudes.

This is a hot dry climate of tropical deserts extending along the northern and southern tropics and the most of the year under the influence of subtropical anticyclones. Salvation from the exhausting summer heat can be found only on coasts werehed by cold ocean flows, or in the mountains. On the plains, the average summer temperatures are noticeably higher than + 32 ° C, the winter is usually higher + 10 ° C.

For the most part of this climatic area, the average annual precipitation amount does not exceed 125 mm. It happens that at many meteorological stations for several years in a row no precipitation is not recorded at all. Sometimes the average annual precipitation can reach 380 mm, but this is still sufficient only for the development of rarefied desert vegetation. The occasion is precipitated in the form of short strong thunderstorms, but the water flows quickly, forming storm floors. The most arid areas are located along the western shores of South America and Africa, where cold ocean flows prevent the formation of clouds and precipitation. On these coasts, fogs are often made, resulting from the condensation of moisture in the air above the coolest surface of the ocean.

A variable-wet tropical climate.

Areas with this climate are located in tropical sub-luminous belts, a few degrees north and south of the equator. This climate is also called monsoon tropical, as prevails in those parts of South Asia, which are under the influence of monsoons. Other areas with this climate - Tropics of Central and South America, Africa and Northern Australia. Medium summer temperatures are usually OK. + 27 ° C, and winter - approx. + 21 ° C. hot monthAs a rule, precedes the summer season of rains.

The average annual precipitation amounts range from 750 to 2000 mm. During the summer rainy season, the determining effect on the climate has an intrachess convergence zone. There are often thunderstorms, sometimes a continuous cloudiness with protracted rains remains for a long time. Winter is dry, as subtropical anticyclones dominate this season. In some areas, rains do not fall out for two or three winter months. In South Asia, the wet season coincides with the summer monsoon, which brings moisture from the Indian Ocean, and the Asian continental dry air masses are distributed here.

Wet tropical climate

or the climate of wet rainforests is distributed in the Equatorial latitudes in Amazon's pools in South America and Congo in Africa, on Malacca, on the Islands of Southeast Asia. In wet tropics, the average temperature of any month is at least + 17 ° C, usually the average monthly temperature approx. + 26 ° C. As in variable-wet tropics, due to the high midday of the sun over the horizon and the same duration of the day throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Wet air, cloudiness and thick vegetable Pokrov Prevent night-air cooling and maintain maximum daily temperatures below + 37 ° C, lower than in higher latitudes.

The average annual precipitation in wet tropics ranges from 1500 to 2500 mm, the distribution of season is usually quite uniform. The precipitates are mainly associated with the intrachetic convergence zone, which is located a bit north of the equator. Seasonal shifts of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two precipitation maxima during the year, separated by more dry periods. Daily thousands of thunderstorms rolled over wet tropics. In the intervals between them the sun shines in full force.

Climates highlighted.

In highland areas, a significant variety of climatic conditions is due to the latitudinal and geographical position, orographic barriers and various exposure of the slopes in relation to the Sun and the moisturized air flow. Even at the equator in the mountains there are snowflets-flights. Bottom line eternal snow Sleeping to the poles, reaching the sea level in the polar areas. Likewise, other boundaries of high-rise thermal belts are reduced as it approaches high latitudes. Highlighted slopes of ridges get more precipitation. On the mountain slopes open to the intrusions of cold air, it is possible to decrease the temperature. In general, the climate of the highland is characterized by lower temperatures, higher cloudy, more precipitation and more complex wind mode than for the plains climate on the appropriate latitudes. The nature of seasonal changes in temperatures and precipitation in highlands is usually the same as on the adjacent plains.

Meso and microclimate

The territories inferior to the size of macroclimatic areas also have climatic features that deserve special examination and classification. Mesoclimates (from Greech. Meso - medium) - these are climates of territories in a size of several square kilometers, for example, wide river valleys, Intergurny Vpadin, Kotlovin large lakes or cities. On the distribution area and the nature of the differences, the mesoclimates are intermediate between macroclimates and microclimates. The latter characterize climatic conditions on small sections of the earth's surface. Microclumatic observations are carried out, for example, on the streets of cities or on test sites laid within a homogeneous plant community.

Extreme climatic indicators

Such climatic characteristics, as temperature and precipitation, vary in a wide range between extreme (minimal and maximum) values. Although they are rarely observed, for understanding the nature of the climate, extreme indicators are as important as the average. The warmest is the climate of the tropics, and the climate of wet rainforests is hot and humid, and arid low latitudes - hot and dry. The maximum air temperatures are marked in tropical deserts. The highest temperature in the world - + 57.8 ° C - was recorded in El Azizia (Libya) on September 13, 1922, and the lowest - -89.2 ° C at the Soviet station "Vostok" in Antarctica on July 21, 1983.

In different parts of the world, extreme values \u200b\u200bof precipitation were recorded. For example, for 12 months from August 1860 to July 1861, 26,461 mm fell in Cherapundy (India). The average annual precipitation at this point, one of the most rainy on the planet, approx. 12 000 mm. On the number of snow dropped there is less data. At Paradais Ranger station in national Park Mount Reinir (PC. Washington, USA) during the winter of 1971-1972 28,500 mm snow were registered. On many meteorological stations in the tropics with long rows of observations, no times have never been marked. There are many such places in Sugar and on the west coast of South America.

With extreme wind speeds, measuring instruments (anemometers, anemographs, etc.) were often faced. The highest wind speeds in the surface layer of air are likely to develop in the tornado (tornado), where, according to estimates, they can be much exceeded 800 km / h. In hurricanes or typhoons, the wind sometimes reaches speed of more than 320 km / h. Hurricanes are very typical for the Caribbean region and the western part of the Pacific.

Effect of climate on biota

From climate, temperature and lighting modes depend on the moisture supply required for the development of plants and the geographical distribution limiting them. Most plants cannot grow at temperatures below + 5 ° C, and many species die under negative temperatures. With increasing temperatures, the needs of plants in moisture increase. The light is necessary for photosynthesis, as well as for the flowering and development of seeds. Shading soil with crowns of trees in a dense forest suppresses growth more low plants. An important factor is the wind, substantially changing temperature and humidity mode.

The vegetation of each region is an indicator of its climate, since the distribution of community of plants is largely due to the climate. The vegetation of the tundra in the conditions of the subepolar climate is formed only by such low-core forms as lichen, mosses, herbs and low shrubs. Short vegetation period and widespread perennial Murzlota Comprehensive trees grow everywhere, except for river valleys and southern exposition slopes, where the soil is thawing on a greater depth. Coniferous forests From ate, fir, pines and larches, also called taiga, grow under the conditions of subarctic climate.

Wet areas of moderate and low latitudes are especially favorable for forest growing. The thick forests are timed to the areas of the moderate sea climate and wet tropics. The areas of a wet continental and wet subtropical climate is also mostly messenger. In the presence of a dry season, for example, in areas of subtropical climate with a dry summer or a variable-wet tropical climate, the plants are adapted accordingly, forming either a low-speed or rareered wood tier. Thus, in Savannes, cellars with single trees growing at large distances from the other are dominated in Savannes in the conditions of an alternative-wet tropical climate.

In semi-saming climates of temperate and low latitudes, where everywhere (except for river valleys) is too dry for the growth of trees, the herbal steppe vegetation dominates. The cereals here are low, it is also possible to admire half-workers and semi-shops, such as wormwood in North America. In moderate latitudes, the cereal steppes in more humid conditions at the boundaries of their range are replaced by highly harvested prairies. In arid conditions, the plants grow far one one from the other, often have a thick bark or fleshy stems and leaves capable of saving moisture. The most arid areas of tropical desert are completely devoid of vegetation and are nude stony or sandy surfaces.

The climatic high-rise explanancy in the mountains causes the corresponding vertical differentiation of vegetation - from the herbaceous communities of foothill plains to the forests and alpine meadows.

Many animals are able to adapt to a wide range of climatic conditions. For example, mammals in a cold climate or winter have a warmer fur. However, the availability of food and water is also important for them, which varies depending on the climate and season. For many animal species are characteristic seasonal migration From one climatic area to another. For example, in winter, when herbs and shrubs in the conditions of an alternating-wet tropical climate of Africa dry dry, mass migrations of herbivores and predators in more wet areas occur.

IN natural zones The globe of soil, vegetation and climate are closely interrelated. Heat and moisture determine the nature and pace of chemical, physical and biological processes, as a result of which they change rocks On the slopes of different steepness and exposure and creates a huge variety of soils. Where the soil is shoving a marcot for most of the year, as in the tundra or high in the mountains, the soil formation processes are slowed down. In arid conditions, soluble salts are usually contained on the surface of the soil or in near-surface horizons. In humid climates, excessive moisture seeps down, making the soluble mineral compounds and clay particles to considerable depths. Some of the most fertile soils are products of recent accumulation - wind, fluvial or volcanic. Such young soils have not yet been severely leaching and therefore retained nutrient reserves.

The spread of crops and soil cultivation methods are closely related to climatic conditions. Bananas and rubber trees require abundance of heat and moisture. Fiscal palm trees grow well only in oases in arid low-seated areas. For most of the cultures in arid conditions, irrigation is needed for moderate and low latitudes. The usual type of land use in the areas of the semi-diarrhea climate, where Zlakovniks are common, is pasture animal husbandry. Cotton and rice have a longer vegetation period than spring wheat or potatoes, and all these cultures suffer from frosts. In the mountains, agricultural production is differentiated in high-rise belts in the same way as natural vegetation. Deep valleys in wet tropics Latin America They are in a hot belt (Tierra Caliente) and there are rain cultures there. In some large altitudes in a temperate belt (Tierra Templada) typical culture is coffee. The above is the cold belt. (Tierra FRIA), where grain crops and potatoes are grown. In an even colder belt (Tierra Helada), located just below the snow line, cattle grazing is possible on the Alpine meadows, and a set of farm crops is extremely limited.

The climate has an impact on the health and living conditions of people in the same way as on their economic activities. The human body loses heat due to radiation, thermal conductivity, convection and evaporation of moisture from the body surface. If these losses are too large in cold weather or too small in hot weather, a person is discomfort and may get sick. Low relative humidity and high wind speed reinforce the cooling effect. Weather changes lead to stress, worsen appetite, violate biorhythms and reduce the resistance of the human body disease. The climate also affects the habitat conditions of pathogenic microorganisms, causing diseases, and therefore seasonal and regional outbursts occur. Pneumonia and flu epidemic in moderate latitudes are often in winter. Malaria is distributed in the tropics and subtropics where there are conditions for the reproduction of malaria mosquitoes. Diseases caused by improper nutrition are indirectly associated with the climate, as in food productsproduced in a particular region as a result of the influence of the climate on the growth of plants and the composition of the soil may not be enough for some nutrients.

Climate change

Rock breeds, fossil plant residues, relief and glacial sediments contain information on significant fluctuations in average temperatures and precipitation over geological time. Climate change can also be studied on the basis of the analysis of annual rings of wood, alluvial deposits, bottom precipitation of oceans and lakes and organic sediments of peatlands. Within the last few million years, the climate has happened in general, and now, judging by the continuous reduction of polar glacial coverings, we, apparently, are at the end of the ice age.

Climatic changes for the historic period can sometimes be reconstructed based on information about hunger, floods, abandoned settlements and migrations of peoples. Continuous series of air temperature measurements are available only for meteorological stationslocated mainly in the northern hemisphere. They cover only a little more than one century. These data indicate that over the past 100 years, the average temperature on the globe rose by almost 0.5 ° C. This change occurred not smoothly, but hopped - sharp warming Rechanged relatively stable stages.

Specialists of different areas of knowledge proposed numerous hypotheses to explain the causes of climate change. Some believe that climatic cycles are determined by periodic fluctuations in solar activity with an OK interval. 11 years. On annual I. seasonal temperatures Changes in the form of the Earth's orbit, which led to a change in the distance between the Sun and the Earth. Currently, the land is closest to the Sun in January, but approximately 10,500 years ago, it was held in July. According to another hypothesis, depending on the angle of inclination of the earth's axis, the amount of solar radiation arrived on the Earth was changed, which influenced the overall circulation of the atmosphere. It is not excluded that the polar axis of the Earth occupied another position. If the geographical poles were on the latitude of the modern equator, then the climatic belts are shifted, respectively.

So-called geographical theories explain the long-term fluctuations in climate movement earth crust and a change in the position of the mainland and oceans. In the light of the global plate tectonics over the geological time, the mainland moved. As a result, their position was changed in relation to the oceans, as well as in latitude. In the process of the property, mining systems were formed with a cooler and, possibly more humid climate.

Pollution of the atmosphere also contributes to climate change. The large masses of dust and gases entering the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions, episodically become an obstacle on the path of solar radiation and led to the cooling of the earth's surface. Increasing the concentration of some gases in the atmosphere aggravates the overall trend towards warming.

Greenhouse effect.

Like a glass roof of the greenhouse, many gases pass the greater part of the thermal and light energy of the Sun to the surface of the Earth, but impede the rapid heat-emitted heat into the surrounding space. The main "greenhouse" effects gases are water vapor and carbon dioxide, as well as methane, fluorocarbons and nitrogen oxides. Without greenhouse effect The temperature of the earth's surface would decide so strongly that the entire planet would be covered with ice. However, excessive increase in the greenhouse effect can also become catastrophic.

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, the number of greenhouse gases (mainly carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere has increased due to the economic activity of man and especially the burning of fossil fuels. Many scientists are currently believing that the growth of average global temperatures after 1850 has occurred mainly as a result of an increase in the content in the atmosphere. carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases of anthropogenic origin. If a modern tendencies The use of fossil fuels will be preserved in 21 c., The average global temperature can increase by 2.5-8 ° C by 2075. Provided for the use of fossil fuels with faster than currently, the pace is such an increase in temperature may occur by 2030.

The predicted temperature increase can lead to melting polar ice and most mountain glaciers, as a result of which the sea level will rise by 30-120 cm. All this may also affect the change in weather conditions on Earth with such possible consequences as long-term droughts in the leading agricultural regions of the world.

However, global warming as a consequence of the greenhouse effect can be slowed down if cutting carbon dioxide emissions when burning fossil fuels. Such a reduction would require restrictions on its use all over the world, more efficient energy consumption and expansion of alternative energy sources (for example, water, sun, wind, hydrogen, etc.).

Literature:

Pogosyan H.P. Total atmosphere circulation. L., 1952.
Tobengen I. Geography climates, t. 1-2. M., 1972-1973
Vyvitsky G.N. Climate zonality. M., 1980.
Yasamanov N.A. Ancient climates of land. L., 1985.
Climate fluctuations for the last millennium. L., 1988.
Chromov S.P., Petrosanz M.A. Meteorology and climatology. M., 1994.



And factors affecting the climate. The main factors are the factors that determine the climate at any point of the globe. These include: solar radiation, and.

In the mountains, climatic conditions are changed with a change in height: it decreases with its increase, the pressure drops, humidity decreases, increases to a certain height, and then decreases, it is difficult to change in speed and direction, other climate indicators are changed. All this allows you to highlight specific high-rise mountains.

The effect of sushi and surface surfaces affects that they practically do not distort the direct impact of the two first climate-forming factors, obtaining the amount of heat corresponding to the latitude and not distorting the direction and speed of the air masses.

In addition to the main factors that have a significant impact on the climate in certain (often extensive) areas. In particular, the distribution of sushi and the sea and the remoteness of the territory from the seas and the oceans. Susha and the sea are heated and cooled in different ways. Sea air masses differ significantly from continental, but when moving deep into mainland, they change their properties. Therefore, on the same latitude there are significant differences in the temperature mode and the distribution of precipitation. So, on the parallel 60 ° S.Sh. The average temperature of January in

The climate is the long-term weather regime characteristic of this area by virtue of its geographical location.

The climate is a statistical ensemble of states through which system passes: hydrosphere → Lithosphere → atmosphere over several decades. Under the climate, it is customary to understand the averaged weather value for a long period of time (about a few decades) that is, the climate is medium weather. Thus, the weather is an instant state of some characteristics (temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure). The rejection of the weather from the climate norm cannot be considered as climate change, for example, a very cold winter does not talk about climate cooling. To identify climate change, we need significant trend characteristics of the atmosphere for a long period of time of about a decade. The main global geophysical cyclic processes that form climatic conditions on Earth are the heat turnover, moisture turnover and total atmosphere circulation.

In addition to the general concept of "climate", the following concepts exist:

• the climate of the free atmosphere - is studied by aeroclimatology.
• Microclimate
• Macroclimate - climate of the territory of the planetary scale.
• Climate of the surface air layer
• local climate
• Climate soil
• phytoclimat - climate of plants
• city climate

The climate is studied by science climatology. Climate change in the past is studying Paleoclimatology.

In addition to land, the concept of "climate" can relate to other celestial bodies (planets, their satellites and asteroids) having an atmosphere.

Climatic belts and types of climate

Climatic belts and climate types vary significantly in latitude, ranging from equatorial zone And ending with polar, but climatic belts are not the only factor, also important influence has the proximity of the sea, the atmosphere circulation system and height above sea level.

In Russia and on the territory of the former USSR, the classification of climate types was used, established in 1956 by the famous Soviet climatologist B. P. Alisov. This classification takes into account the features of the circulation of the atmosphere. According to this classification, four main climatic belts on each hemisphere of the Earth are distinguished: Equatorial, tropical, moderate and polar (in the northern hemisphere - the Arctic, in the southern hemisphere - Antarctic). Between the main zones there are transitional belts - a subequatorial belt, subtropical, subepolar (subaarctic and subanctic). In these climatic belts, in accordance with the prevailing circulation of air masses, four types of climate can be distinguished: the mainland, oceanic, western climate and climate of the eastern shores.

Equatorial belt

Equatorial climate - climate, where the wind is weak, fluctuations in the temperatures are small (24-28 ° C at sea level), and the precipitates are very abundant (from 1.5 thousand to 5 thousand mm per year) and fall uniformly throughout the year.

Subscance belt

• The tropical monsoon climate - here in the summer instead of the eastern trade in the transfer between the tropics and the equator there is a western air transfer (summer monsoon), which brings most of the precipitation. On average, they fall almost as much as in equatorial climates. At the slopes of the mountains addressed to the summer monsoon, precipitation falls out, the greatest for the relevant districts, the most warm month is usually immediately before the onset of the summer monsoon. It is characteristic of some areas of the tropics (Equatorial Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Northern Australia). In East Africa and in the south-west of Asia, the highest average annual temperatures on Earth (30-32 ° C) are observed.
• Musson climate on tropical plateau

Tropical belt

• Tropical dry climates
• Tropical wet climates

Subtropical belt

• Mediterranean climate
• Subtropical continental climate
• Subtropical monsoon climate
• High subtropical climate Nagrai
• Subtropical climate of the oceans

Temperate zone

• Moderate marine climate
• Moderate continental climate
• Moderate continental climate
• Moderate sharp continental climate
• Moderate monsonic climate

Subolar belt

• Subarctic climate
• Socanctic climate

Polar belt: polar climate

• Arctic climate
• Antarctic climate

The climate classification proposed by the Russian scientist V. Köppen (1846-1940) is widely distributed in the world. It is based on the temperature mode and the degree of moisture. According to this classification, eight climatic belts with eleven climate types are highlighted. Each type has accurate parameters of temperature values, the number of winter and summer sediments.

Also in climatology, the following concepts associated with climate characteristics are used:

• Continental climate - "Climate, which is formed under the influence of the atmosphere of large sushi arrays; Distributed in the internal areas of the continents. It is characterized by large daily and annual amplitude Air temperature. "
• Marine climate - "Climate, which is formed under the influence of the atmosphere of oceanic spaces. The most sharply expressed over the oceans, but it applies to the areas of the mainland, exposed to frequent influences of the sea air mass. "
• Mountain climates - "Climatic conditions in mountain areas" The main cause of the differences in the climate of the mountains from the climate of the plains is an increase in height above sea level. In addition, important features are created by the nature of the terrain (degree of dismemberment, relative height and direction of mountain ranges, the exposition of slopes, the width and orientation of the valleys), glaciers and fibilia fields have its influence. There are actually a mountain climate at altitudes less than 3000-4000 m and high-mountain climate at large altitudes.
• Arid climate - "Climate desert and semi-desert". There are large daily and annual amplitudes of air temperature; Almost complete absence or not significant number precipitation (100-150 mm per year). The resulting moisture evaporates very quickly. "
• Gumid climate - climate with excess moisture, in which sunny heat Enters in quantities insufficient to evaporate all moisture coming in the form of precipitation.
• Nival climate - "Climate, where hard sediments fall more than it can wrap and evaporate." As a result, glaciers are formed and snowfriends are saved.
• Solar climate (radiation climate) - theoretically calculated theoretically flow and distribution on the globe of solar radiation (excluding local climate-forming factors.
• The monsoon climate is a climate, in which the cause of the change of time of the year is to change the direction of the monsoon. As a rule, with a flipper climate there is a rich sediment summer and very dry winter. Only in the eastern part of the Mediterranean, where the summer direction of monsoon is from sushi, and the winter - from the sea, the main amount of precipitation falls in winter.
• Passat climate

Brief description of climates of Russia:

• Arctic: t January -24 ... -30, t summer + 2 ... + 5. Precipitation - 200-300 mm.
• Subarctic: (up to 60 degrees S.Sh.). T summer + 4 ... + 12. Precipitation 200-400 mm.
• Moderately continental: t January -4 ... -20, t July + 12 ... + 24. Precipitation 500-800 mm.
• Continental climate: t January -15 ... -25, July + 15 ... + 26. Sedips 200-600 mm.
• Keeping continental: t January -25 ... -45, t July + 16 ... + 20. Precipitation - more than 500 mm.
• Musson: T January -15 ... -30, t July + 10 ... + 20. Precipitation 600-800. MM.

Study methods

To identify the characteristics of the climate, both typical and rarely observed, many years of ranks are needed. meteorological observations. In moderate latitudes, 25-50-year-old rows are used; In the tropics their duration may be less.

Climatic characteristics are statistical conclusions from perennial rows of weather observations, primarily over the following main meteorological elements: atmospheric pressure, speed and direction of wind, temperature and humidity, cloudiness and atmospheric precipitation. The duration of solar radiation, visibility range, the temperature of the upper layers of soil and water bodies, the evaporation of water from the earth's surface to the atmosphere, the height and state of the snow cover, various atmospheric phenomena and terrestrial hydroelectors (dew, ice, fog, thunderstorms, blizzards, etc.). In the 20th century, the number of climatic indicators included the characteristics of the elements of the heat balance of the earth's surface, such as the total solar radiation, the radiation balance, the heat exchange value between the earth's surface and the atmosphere, the cost of heat to evaporation.

Perennial averages of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sums, repeatability and other are called climatic standards; Appropriate values \u200b\u200bfor individual days, months, years and other are considered to be deviated from these norms. Complex indicators are also used to characterize the climate, that is, the functions of several elements: various coefficients, factors, indices (for example, continentality, aridness, moisturizing), etc.

Special climate indicators are used in applied climatology industries (for example, the amount of temperature of the growing season in agroclimatology, efficient temperatures in bioclimatology and technical climatology, degree-days in the calculations of heating systems, etc.).

For estimates of future climate change, the models of the general circulation of the atmosphere are used.

Climate-forming factors

The climate of the planet depends on the whole complex of external and internal factors. Most external factors Influence on the total amount of solar radiation obtained by the planet, as well as its distribution for seasons, hemispheres and content.

External factors

Parameters of the earth orbit and axis

• The distance between the earth and the Sun - determines the amount of solar energy obtained by the earth.
• The slope of the axis of the rotation of the Earth to the orbit plane - determines the seasonal changes.
• Earth's orbit eccentricity - affects the heat distribution between the northern and southern hemisphere, as well as for seasonal changes.

Milankovich's cycles - during its history of the planet, the Earth regularly changes the eccentricity of its orbit, as well as the direction and angle of inclination of its axis. These changes are made called "Milankovich's cycles." The 4 cycles of Milankovich distinguish:

• Precession - turning the earth's axis under the influence of the attraction of the moon, as well as (to a lesser extent) of the Sun. As Newton found out in his "principles", the plurality of land in the poles leads to the fact that attraction external tel turns the earth's axis, which describes the cone with a period (according to modern data) of about 25,776 years, as a result of which the seasonal amplitude of the intensity of the solar flow in the North and South Hemispheres of the Earth is changing;
• Nutrition - long-term (so-called age) fluctuations in the angle of inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit with a period of about 41,000 years;
• Long-sizes of Earth Earth Eccentricity with a period of about 93,000 years.
• Moving the perihelion of the Earth orbits and the rising orbit assembly with a period of 10 and 26 thousand years, respectively.

Since the effects described are periodic with a non-defect period, there are regularly sufficiently long epochs when they have a cumulative effect, reinforcing each other. Milankovich cycles are usually used to explain the climatic optimum of Golocene;

• Solar activity with 11-year-old, centuries and millennial cycles;
• The difference in the angle of falling sunlight on different latitudes, which affects the degree of surface heating and therefore, air;
• The speed of rotation of the Earth is practically not changed, is a permanent factor. Thanks to the rotation of the Earth, there are trade winds and monsoons, and cyclones are formed.
• The fall of asteroids;
• Flips and foals caused by the action of the moon.

Internal factors

• The configuration and mutual arrangement of oceans and continents - the appearance of the continent in polar latitudes can lead to coating glaciation, and the withdrawal of a significant amount of water from the daily cycle, also the formation of club supercontinents has always been accompanied by total climate aurication, often on the background of glaciation, and the location of the continents has a great influence on system of ocean flows;
• Volcanic eruptions are able to cause short-term climate change, up to volcanic winter;
• Albedo earthly atmosphere and the surface affects the amount of reflected sun rays;
• Air masses (depending on the properties of the air masses, the seasonality of precipitation and the status of the troposphere is determined);
• The influence of the oceans and seas (if the area is removed from the seas and oceans, then the continentality of the climate is increasing. The presence of the oceans is mitigating the climate of the area, the exception is the presence of cold flows);
• The nature of the underlying surface (relief, landscape features, the presence and condition of ice cover);
• Human activity (fuel combustion, emissions of various gases, agricultural activities, forest destruction, urbanization);
• Planet thermal flows.

Circulation of the atmosphere

Total atmospheric circulation is a set of large-scale air flows over the earth's surface. In the troposphere, they include trade winds, monsoons, as well as the transfer of air masses associated with cyclones and anticyclones. The atmosphere circulation exists due to the uneven distribution of atmospheric pressure caused by the fact that on different latitudes of the Earth, its surface is heated in different ways and the earth surface has various physical properties, especially due to its separation on land and sea. As a result of the sharing of heat between the earth's surface and the atmosphere due to uneven heat distribution, there is a constant circulation of the atmosphere. The atmospheric circulation energy is constantly consumed for friction, but is continuously replenished due to solar radiation. In the most heated places, the heated air has a smaller density and rises up, thus the zone of reduced atmospheric pressure is formed. Similarly, a zone of high pressure in colder places is formed. Air movement occurs from a high-atmospheric pressure zone into a low atmospheric pressure zone. Since the closer to the equator and further from the pole is the area, the better it is warming up, in the lower layers of the atmosphere, there is a predominant movement of air from the poles to the equator. However, the Earth also revolves around its axis, so Coriolis strength acts on the moving air and rejects this movement to the West. In the upper layers of the troposphere, the inverse movement of air masses is formed: from the equator to poles. His Coriolisov strength constantly rejects to the east, and the farther, the more. And in areas about 30 degrees of the North and South latitude, the movement becomes directed from the west to the east parallel to the equator. As a result, there was nowhere to go to these latitude of the air at such a height, and it sinks down to the ground. The highest pressure area is formed here. Thus, trade winds are formed - constant winds, which are formed towards the equator and west, and since the wasting force acts constantly, while approaching the equator, the trade winds blow almost parallel to him. The air flows of the upper layers directed from the equator to the tropics are called antpassites. Passat and antipassatats as it were for forming an air wheel, according to which the continuous air cycle is maintained between the equator and the tropics. During the year, this zone is shifted from the equator to a heated summer hemisphere. As a result, in some places, especially in the Indian Ocean basin, where the main direction of air transfer in winter - from west to east, in the summer it is replaced by the opposite. Such air transfers are called tropical monscons. Cyclonic activity binds a tropical circulation zone with circulation in moderate latitudes and between them is exchanged for warm and cold air. As a result of the intermediary exchange of air, heat transfer from low latitudes to high and cold out of high latitudes to low, which leads to the preservation of thermal equilibrium on Earth.

In fact, the atmosphere circulation continuously changes, both due to seasonal changes in the heat distribution on the earth's surface and in the atmosphere and due to the formation and displacement in the atmosphere of cyclones and anticyclones. Cyclones and anticyclones move in general towards the east, while cyclones are deflected towards the poles, and the anticyclones - aside from the poles.

Thus formed:

increased pressure zones:

• on both sides of the equator on the latitudes about 35 degrees;
• in the area of \u200b\u200bthe poles on latitudes above 65 degrees.

low pressure zones:

• equatorial depression - along the equator;
• subolar depression - in subolar latitudes.

This distribution of pressure corresponds to Western transfer in moderate latitudes and oriental transfer in tropical and high latitudes. In the southern hemisphere, the zonality of circulation of the atmosphere is better expressed than in the northern, since there are mainly oceans. The wind in the trade winds changes weakly and these changes little change the nature of circulation. But sometimes (on average, about 80 times a year) In some areas of the intrachetic convergence zone ("an intermediate zone of an exemplary width of several hundred km between the trade winds of the Northern and South Hemispheres"), the strongest vortices are developing - tropical cyclones (tropical hurricanes), which sharply, Even catastrophically, change the established circulation mode and weather on their path in the tropics, and sometimes even beyond them. In the vneipic latitudes, cyclones are less intense than tropical. The development and passage of cyclones and anticyclones is a phenomenon everyday. The meridional components of the circulation of the atmosphere associated with cyclonic activity in the vneipic latitudes quickly and often change. However, it happens that for several days and sometimes even weekly, extensive and high cyclones and anticyclones almost do not change their position. Then the oppositely directed long-term meridional air transfers occur, sometimes in the entire thickness of the troposphere, which apply over large areas and even over all hemispheres. Therefore, in uniform latitudes, two main types of circulation over the hemisphere or the large sector are distinguished: zonal, with the predominance of zonal, most often western transfer, and meridional, with adjacent air transfer towards low and high latitudes. The meridional type of circulation carries out a much greater range of heat transfer than zonal.

The atmosphere circulation also provides moisture distribution both between climatic belts and inside them. Abundance of precipitation B. equatorial belt It is ensured not only with its own high evaporation, but also by the transfer of moisture (due to the general circulation of the atmosphere) from tropical and subequatorial belts. IN sub-screen zone The atmosphere circulation ensures the change of seasons. When the monsoon blows from the sea, there are plentiful rains. When the monsoon blows on the side of dry sushi, the drought season comes. Tropical belt is land than equatorial and subequatorial, since the total circulation of the atmosphere transfers moisture to the equator. In addition, winds prevail from east to west, so thanks to moisture, steamed from the surface of the seas and oceans, in eastern parts The mainland falls quite a lot of rains. Further on the west rain is not enough, the climate becomes arid. So the whole belts of the deserts, such as sugar or deserts of Australia, are formed.

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The country is located in medium and high latitudes, which is why there is a clear division for the seasons. Atlantic air affects the European part. The weather is softer than in the east. The least of the sun receive polar, maximum value It is achieved in the Western Precocalism.

The territory of the country lies at once in four major climatic belts. Each of them has its own temperature and precipitation rate. From the east to the West there is a transition of a monsoon climate to continental. The central part is characterized by a distinct distinction of the seasons. In the south, the mark of the thermometer in the winter is rarely lowered below 0˚C.

Climatic belts and regions of Russia

Map of climatic belts and regions of Russia / Source: Smart-poliv.ru

The defining role in the division on the belt is played by air masses. It is climatic areas within their limits. Among themselves they differ in temperature, heat and moisture. Below Dana a brief description of Russian climatic belts, as well as listed areas they include.

Arctic belt

It belongs to the Northern Coast Arctic Ocean. Winter prevails strong frost, The middle January temperature exceeds -30˚C. In the western part, a little warmer thanks air from the Atlantic. In winter, the polar night comes.

The sun shines in summer, but due to a small angle of falling sunlight and reflective snow properties, the heat is not delayed at the surface. Many solar energy goes on the melting of snow and ice, so temperature mode summer period approaches zero. Arctic belt It is characterized by a small amount of precipitation, the bulk of which falls in the form of snow. The following climatic areas are distinguished:

• Intraartic;
• Siberian;
• Pacific;
• Atlantic.

The Siberian region is considered the Siberian region, the Atlantic is soft, but windy.

Subarctic belt

It includes the territories of Russian and West Siberian plains, located mainly and forestedry. The values \u200b\u200bof winter temperatures increase from west to east. Summer indicators on average is + 10˚C, and southern borders higher. Even in the warm season there is a threat of frosts. The precipitation is a bit, the main share falls on rains and wet snow. Due to this, there is a convergence in the soil. This climatic belt is distinguished by the following areas:

• Siberian;
• Pacific;
• Atlantic.

In the Siberian region, the lowest temperatures in the country are recorded. The climate of the other two soften the cyclones.

Temperate zone

It includes most of Russia. Snowy winter, sunlight is reflected from the surface, which is why the air is heavily getting out. In the summer, the amount of light and heat increases. In a moderate belt, there is a significant contrast between the cold winter and warm summer. Allocate four main types of climate:

1) moderately continentalaway to the western part of the country. Winters are not particularly cold thanks to the Atlantic air, they often happen thaw. The average summer temperature is + 24˚C. The effect of cyclones causes a significant amount of precipitation in the summer.

2) continental climateaffects the territory of Western Siberia. Throughout the year, both arctic and tropical air penetrates into this zone. Winter cold and dry, summer roast. The effect of cyclones weakens, so precipitation is a bit.

3) sharply continental climate dominates in Central Siberia. Throughout the territory of very cold minor winters. Winter temperatures can reach -40˚C. Summer air warms up to + 25˚C. The precipitation is not enough, they fall out in the form of rain.

4) climate type monsoon prevails in the eastern part of the belt. In winter, continental air is dominated here, and in the summer - marine. Winter is small and cold. January indicators are -30˚C. Summer is warm, but wet, often run shower. The middle July temperature exceeds + 20˚C.

The following climatic areas are located within a moderate belt:

• Atlantic-Arctic;
• Atlantic and Continental European (Forest);
• Continental West Siberian North and Central;
• Continental East Siberian;
• Monsoon Far Eastern;
• Pacific;
• Atlantic and continental European (steppe);
• Continental West Siberian South;
• Continental Eastern European;
• Mining area of \u200b\u200bthe Big Caucasus;
• Altai and Sayan mountain region.

Subtropical climate

They include a small area Black Sea coast. Caucasus Mountains do not miss the air flow from the East, so in winter in Russian subtropics heat. Summer roast and protracted. Snow and rain fall out round year, no arid periods. In the subtropics of the Russian Federation, only one area is allocated - the Black Sea.

Climatic zones of Russia

Map of climatic zones of Russia / Source: Meridian-Workwear.com

The climatic zone is called the territory on which the same climatic conditions prevail. The division arose due to uneven warming up the sun surface. There are four climatic zones in Russia:

• the first includes the southern regions of the country;
• the second includes the regions of the West, the North-West, as well as the Primorsky Territory;
• the third includes Siberia and the Far East;
• the fourth includes the extreme north and yakutia.

Along with them, there is a special zone, which includes Chukotka and territory behind the polar circle.

Climate of the regions of Russia

Krasnodar region

The minimum January temperature is 0˚C, the soil does not freeze. Fallen snow quickly comes off. Most of the precipitation falls in the spring, they become the cause of numerous floods. Summer temperatures on average are 30˚C, in the second half the drought begins. Autumn warm and protracted.

central Russia

Winter begins from late November and lasts until mid-March. Depending on the region, the January temperature ranges from -12˚C to -25˚C. There is a lot of snow, which melts only with the onset of thaws. Extremely low temperatures come in January. February is remembered by winds, often hurricane. Strong snowfalls in the last few years fall at the beginning of March.

Nature comes to life in April, but positive temperatures are installed only next month. In certain regions, the threat of frozins occurs in early June. Summer is warm, and lasts 3 months. Cyclones bring thunderstorms and livne. Night frosts happen in September. This month has a lot of precipitation. In October, there is a sharp cooling, the foliage takes place from the trees, they are raining, wet snow can fall.

Karelia

The climate is influenced by 3 neighboring seas, the weather for the year is quite a variable. The minimum January temperature is -8˚C. Many snow falls. February weather changed: cooling change thaws. Spring comes in April, the air is warm up to + 10 ° C. Summer is a short, truly warm days are only in June and July. September is dry and sunny, but on some sites there are already frosts. Finally cold weather is installed in October.

Siberia

One of the largest and most cold regions of Russia. Winter is a little snow, but very cold. In remote areas, the thermometer bar shows more -40˚C. Snowfalls and winds happen infrequently. The snow melts in April, and in the region with warmth comes only in June. Summer marks make up + 20 ° C, there is little precipitation. In September, the calendar autumn begins, the air quickly cools. By October, rains are replaced by snow.

Yakutia

The average monthly January temperature is -35˚C, in the Verkhoyansky district, the air cools up to -60˚C. Cold time lasts at least seven months. The precipitation is not enough, the light day lasts 5 hours. A polar night begins for the polar circle. Spring is short, comes in May, summer lasts 2 months. During the White Nights, the sun does not enter for 20 hours. Already in August begins rapid cooling. By October, the river is covered with ice, and the snow ceases to melt.

Far East

The climate is distinguished by a variety, it ranges from continental to monsoon. The approximate winter temperature is -24˚C, a lot of snow falls. At spring, there are little precipitation. Summer roast, with high humidity, August is considered a period of protracted rains. The fogs are dominated on Kurilah, white nights begin in Magadan. The beginning of autumn is warm, but rainy. Thermometer marks in mid-October are shown -14˚C. In a month, winter frosts occur.

Most of the country lies in a moderate belt, separate territories have their own climatic features. The deficit of heat is felt almost in all belts. The climate has a serious impact on human activity, and it must be taken into account when conducting agriculture, construction, transportation of transport.

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Subtitles

if you remove the whole lies from the story, it does not mean that only the truth will remain as a result. There may be nothing left Stanislav Jerzy Lets. Our recent movie 10 covered cities scored a million views and as promised to make a continuation if you watched our previous roller put your finger up if not See the link at the top today we will talk about the climate about which historians as usual do not agree. Well, work has such an operation on written sources to the 18th century you need with great care since there is nothing easier than fake paper much more difficult to fake for example buildings and we will not rely on the testimony of which to fake is almost impossible and we must consider these facts not separately and in the aggregate about the climate of the 18th century and before you can say a lot to those buildings and structures that were built at the time all the facts that we accumulated testifying that most palaces and mansions that were built up to nineteenth centurys were built under another warmer climate In addition, we also found other evidence of a sharp climate change. Be sure to look at the roller to the end. big square the windows of the windows between the windows are equal or even less than the width of the windows themselves and the windows themselves are very high amazing a huge building, but how we assure this summer palace. It was built allegedly to come here solely in the summer version of the funny given that summer in St. Petersburg is pretty cool and short look at the facade of the palace, then a very large area of \u200b\u200bwindows is perfectly visible. They are characteristic of southern hot areas. If you doubt, make such windows in your home and then look at the heating bills and questions will immediately disappear later at the beginning of the 19th century to the palace. Where is the famous lyceum in which Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin has studied, not only the architectural style but also the fact that it is already built under new climatic conditions. The windows area is noticeably smaller in many buildings. Initially, heating system was not initially expected and embedded later in the finished building of it. subt Yellow Researchers Artem Wayden Covically shows that initially no furnaces in the temples were not provided for Well, the designers apparently forgetful were the temples themselves designed throughout the country almost in a typical project. And stoves to envisage forgot Apparently not before beauty was then the builders of the extended chimns can be seen soot and soot themselves. Of course, they had long been cleared, but there were no doubt about the other example, the cavalier of SKA and the silver dining furnace simply put in the angle of wall decoration this corner of the furnace ignores it was done before she appeared there if you look at top It is clear that it is easy to fit to the wall. Since she is hampered by a figured gilded aryry, the finish of the top of the wall and look at the size of the furnace and the size of the premises, the height of the ceilings in the Ekaterininsky Palace you believe that such a furnace could somehow protruding such a room we are so used to listening to opinion prestiges that often seeing obviously we do not believe our eyes over a different expert who were called themselves and let's try to abstract from the explanation of different historians excursions of local historians that is all that it is extremely easy to make distortion and just try to see someone's fantasy and what is really careful Look at this photo This building of the Kazan Kremlin building as usually covered over the windows on the horizon there are no trees but now do not pay attention to the building in the lower right corner. Apparently, this building has not yet been reconstructed for new climatic conditions. Building on the left as we see already with chimney pipe Mi and before that building, apparently, just did not react if you find such photos. Share in the comments The task of thermal tamburov should not allow the cold air inside the main premises with the tamboursionate the same story that they are made from chimneys later than the buildings themselves on these frames are clearly seen. that they do not fit into the architectural ensemble of buildings of the Tambura made from another material apparently much then hardly frosting here, not to the delights somewhere, the tambura was made as elegantly and slept under the style of the building and somewhere they did not bother and made a crappy at all on these frames It can be seen that there is no tambura on the old photos of the temple and now he is and a man in the street will never understand what something else was once rebuilt here. Here is another such example, it's not on the old photo of the Tambura. And now it is why it is suddenly you needed these thermal Tamburas for beauty or maybe the fashion was then on the tambura do not hurry to draw conclusions first by see other facts further interesting lack of waterproofing for those who do not know what waterproofing is this protection of the underground part of the house from moisture if you don't make waterproofing this foundation will quickly come into disrepair from drops of temperatures as water during freezing has an extension brick that freezes then pulls out heated by the sun, again freezes this happens with the foundation if it does not make waterproofing not the building quickly collapsing this situation is observed everywhere the builders of the past fools were not exactly that we could build such a building of the structure of which we told you in one of our videos. Look the link above and in the description To the video, but why did not know the designers, they did not know that water during freezing expands and this majestic building collapses in a few years weakly believe it can be worn, but you can forget to make waterproofing in several buildings, but not everywhere change the angle of inclination the roofs on these frames can be seen that the roof was previously another form why it was necessary to change the shape of the roof on more acute if it was not for the snow with it, and that designers and builders did not know that we had snow and that the roof would need to immediately do sharp or again I forgotten and maybe everything is simpler when the building was built at all, and when the snow appeared and there was a threat to the collapse of the roof or the roof had already collapsed then and there was a need to change the angle of inclination further just about the snow lack of snow on engravings and paintings before the nineteenth century Analyzed the paintings and engravings did not find a link on them a link to the study will be in the description. Try it yourself to find on the network at least one engraving performed until the nineteenth century where the snow is depicted at the beginning of the artist's date taken carefully and note that there is such a concept as in history. chronological shifts about it we told and in the video of antiquity to the Middle Ages Be sure to check the link in the description To replace the events of the past enough to make a new document Novodel and issue for antiquity, that is, to make an invade if there are familiar lawyers, then ask them how it is done Palma on Astrakhan engravings today in Astrakhan there are no palm In addition to the botanical garden and private greenhouses, but before the seventeenth century, Palma grew there everywhere not believe me but take it yourself and thugrate the engraving Astrakhan 17th century and any search engine will give you these engravings Well, we will believe your eyes or from the smear of scientists with my husbands who put on regalia here's palm trees already in Peterhof look abandoned but what we see about them from where in the northern capital of palm trees and here's another photo of the palm tree seemingly on an abandoned building on an arboretum or a greenhouse it is clearly not similar from where palm trees can have been there before also does not seem like in any case of the EU nice pictures or give another such baby explanation and if in a set with all previously shown facts then the presence of a field is quite easily explained by the mammoth in the 19th century on our channel was a roller moments be sure to check the link in the description by the word Mammoth tropical animals in winter they can not survive since they simply nothing will eat in our video we prove that the mammoths lived in the 19th century and how they could live if there was a climate such as in this climate in winter they would simply have not found foods for themselves but if we assume that the climate was another then the existence of mammoths in The 19th century does not seem so crazy statement and is very converged with all the previously listed facts well, just for a second, allow the idea that if historians really lied and you rely on their approval and we are independent researchers whose no one finances really tell you the truth year without summer network weighing information about the so-called year without summer year Without summer, the nickname of 1816 in which there was an unusually cold weather in Western Europe and North America, today it remains the coldest year to first document the US meteorological observations I also called the rating of Handle and Frozen there that translates as 1800 to death the frozen it is another puzzle in Mosaica and global cooling also has information that in the middle lane of Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries pineapple and other tropical fruits were grown but on this we did not find documentary evidence if anyone have to throw in the video comments so we are like investigators on gurgles We collect information and make a shared picture of the events and it turns out a little shocking and indicates a catastrophic event that happened in the recent past about which we have already told in one of our rollers. Link as always at the top if you want to continue this series. Be sure to finger up. Write a comment and share it role com With friends in social networks and of course do not forget to subscribe to us and put notifications so as not to miss new Kramol rollers and we have everything before the soon

Study methods

To draw conclusions about the characteristics of the climate, many years of observation of weather are needed. In moderate latitudes, 25-50-year trends are used in tropical - less long. Climatic characteristics are derived from observations over the meteorological elements, the most important of them are atmospheric pressure, speed and direction of wind, temperature and humidity, cloudiness and precipitation. In addition, the duration of solar radiation, the duration of the smokery period, the visibility range, the temperature of the upper layers of the soil and water in reservoirs, evaporation of water from the earth's surface, height and state of snow cover, all sorts of atmospheric phenomena, total solar radiation, radiation balance and much more.

Applied climatology sectors are used by the climate characteristic necessary for their purposes:

• in agroclimatology - the amount of temperature of the growing season;
• in bioclimatology and technical climatology - effective temperatures;

Comprehensive indicators, determined by several basic meteorological elements, are also used, namely all sorts of coefficients (continentality, aridness, moisturizing), factors, indices.

Perennial averages of meteorological elements and their complex indicators (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sums, periods of repeatability are considered climatic standards. Invisions with them in specific periods are considered deviations from these norms.

For estimates of future climate change, models of the general circulation of the atmosphere are used [ ] .

Climate-forming factors

The climate of the planet depends on the whole complex of astronomical and geographical factors affecting the total amount of solar radiation obtained by the planet, as well as its distribution for seasons, hemispheres and continents. With the beginning of the industrial revolution, human activity becomes a climate-forming factor.

Astronomical factors

The astronomical factors include the luminosity of the sun, the position and movement of the planet Earth relative to the sun, the angle of inclination of the earth rotation axis to the plane of its orbit, the speed of rotation of the Earth, the density of matter in the surrounding outer space. The rotation of the globe around its axis determines the daily changes to the weather, the movement of the earth around the sun and the tilt of the axis of rotation to the orbit plane cause seasonal and latitudinal differences in weather conditions. Earth's orbit eccentricity - affects heat distribution between the northern and southern hemispheres, as well as the amount of seasonal changes. The speed of rotation of the Earth is practically not changed, is a permanent factor. Thanks to the rotation of the Earth, there are trade winds and monsoons, and cyclones are formed. [ ]

Geographical factors

Geographical factors include

Influence of solar radiation

The most important element of the climate affecting the remaining characteristics, primarily the temperature, is the radiant energy of the Sun. Huge energy released in the process of nuclear synthesis in the sun is emitted to space. The power of the solar radiation obtained by the planet depends on its size and distance from the Sun. The total flow of solar radiation passing per unit of time through a single platform oriented perpendicular to the stream, at a distance of one astronomical unit from the sun outside the earth's atmosphere, is called solar constant. In the upper part of the earth's atmosphere, each square meter, perpendicular to the solar rays, obtains 1 365 W ± 3.4% solar energy. Energy varies during the year due to the elipity of the earth orbit, the greatest power is absorbed in the earth in January. Despite the fact that about 31% of the resulting radiation is reflected in the space, the remainder is sufficient to maintain atmospheric and ocean flows, and to ensure the energy of almost all biological processes on Earth.

The energy obtained by the earth's surface depends on the angle of falling the sun's rays, it is the greatest, if this corner is straight, but most of the earth's surface is not perpendicular to the sunshine. The ray slope depends on the latitude of the terrain, the time of year and day, the greatest it is at noon on June 22, the north of the trunk of cancer and December 22 south of the Tropic of Capricorn, in the tropics, the maximum (90 °) is achieved 2 times a year.

Another major factor determining the latitudinal climatic regime is the duration of the daylight. For polar circles, that is, north of 66.5 ° C. sh. and south of 66.5 ° sh. The duration of the daylight varies from zero (winter) to 24 hours in summer, at the equator all year round 12-hour day. Since seasonal changes in the angle of inclination and duration of the day are more noticeable in higher latitudes, the amplitude of temperature fluctuations during the year is reduced from the poles to low latitudes.

Admission and distribution over the surface of the globe of solar radiation without taking into account climate-forming factors of a particular area is called a solar climate.

The proportion of solar energy absorbed by the earth's surface varies noticeably depending on the cloudiness, the type of surface and the height of the terrain, constituting an average of 46% of the atmosphere entered into the upper layers. Constantly present cloudy, as, for example, in the equator, contributes to the reflection of the most incoming energy. The water surface absorbs the sun's rays (except for very inclined) better than other surfaces, reflecting only 4-10%. The proportion of absorbed energy is higher than the average in the deserts located high above sea level, due to the lesser thickness of the atmosphere, scattering the sun's rays.

Circulation of the atmosphere

In the most heated places, the heated air has a smaller density and rises up, thus the zone of reduced atmospheric pressure is formed. Similarly, a zone of high pressure in colder places is formed. Air movement occurs from a high-atmospheric pressure zone into a low atmospheric pressure zone. Since the closer to the equator and further from the pole is the area, the better it is warming up, in the lower layers of the atmosphere, there is a predominant movement of air from the poles to the equator.

However, the Earth also revolves around its axis, so Coriolis strength acts on the moving air and rejects this movement to the West. In the upper layers of the troposphere, the inverse movement of air masses is formed: from the equator to poles. His Coriolisov strength constantly rejects to the east, and the farther, the more. And in areas about 30 degrees of the North and South latitude, the movement becomes directed from the west to the east parallel to the equator. As a result, there was nowhere to go to these latitude of the air at such a height, and it sinks down to the ground. The highest pressure area is formed here. Thus, trade winds are formed - constant winds, which are formed towards the equator and west, and since the wasting force acts constantly, while approaching the equator, the trade winds blow almost parallel to him. The air flows of the upper layers directed from the equator to the tropics are called antpassites. Passat and antipassatats as it were for forming an air wheel, according to which the continuous air cycle is maintained between the equator and the tropics. Between the trade winds of the North and South Hemispheres is the internal convergence zone.

During the year, this zone is shifted from the equator to a heated summer hemisphere. As a result, in some places, especially in the Indian Ocean basin, where the main direction of air transfer in winter - from west to east, in the summer it is replaced by the opposite. Such air transfers are called tropical monscons. Cyclonic activity binds a tropical circulation zone with circulation in moderate latitudes and between them is exchanged for warm and cold air. As a result of the intermediary exchange of air, heat transfer from low latitudes to high and cold out of high latitudes to low, which leads to the preservation of thermal equilibrium on Earth.

In fact, the atmosphere circulation continuously changes, both due to seasonal changes in the heat distribution on the earth's surface and in the atmosphere and due to the formation and displacement in the atmosphere of cyclones and anticyclones. Cyclones and anticyclones move in general towards the east, while cyclones are deflected towards the poles, and the anticyclones - aside from the poles.

Types of climate

The classification of land climates can be carried out as directly by climatic characteristics (classification of V. Keppen), as well as based on the features of the general circulation of the atmosphere (classification of B. P. Alisov), or by the nature of geographic landscapes (classification of L. S. Berg). The climatic conditions of the area determines primarily t. N. Solar climate is the influx of solar radiation on the upper limit of the atmosphere, depending on the latitude and differing in different moments and seasons. Nevertheless, the boundaries of climatic belts not only do not coincide with parallels, but do not always go earthAt the same time, there are insulated areas of the zone with the same climate type. Also important influence has the proximity of the sea, the atmosphere circulation system and height above sea level.

The climate classification proposed by the Russian scientist V. Köppen (1846-1940) is widely distributed in the world. It is based on the temperature mode and the degree of moisture. The classification was repeatedly improved, and in the editorial office of T. Trevort (eng.)russian Six classes are allocated with sixteen climate types. Many types of climates for climate classification Köppen are known as the names associated with this type of vegetation. Each type has accurate parameters of temperature values, the number of winter and summer precipitation, it facilitates the attribution of a particular place to a specific type of climate, so Köppen's classification was widespread.

On both sides of the reduced pressure band along the equator there are areas with elevated atmospheric pressure. Over the oceans dominated here passat climate with permanent eastern winds, so on. Passyats. The weather here is relatively dry (about 500 mm of precipitation per year), with moderate cloud, summer average temperature is 20-27 ° C, in winter - 10-15 ° C. Precipitation of precipitation increases sharply on the highlighted slopes of the mountainous islands. Tropical cyclones are relatively rare.

These oceanic regions correspond to the tropical desert areas on land with such tropical climates. Average temperature itself warm month In the northern hemisphere about 40 ° C, in Australia to 34 ° C. In the north of Africa and in the interior of California, the most high temperatures On Earth - 57-58 ° C, in Australia - up to 55 ° C. In winter, temperatures are reduced to 10 - 15 ° C. Changes in temperature during the day are very large, can exceed 40 ° C. The precipitation drops a little - less than 250 mm, often not more than 100 mm per year.

In many tropical regions - Equatorial Africa, South and South-East Asia, North of Australia - the domination of the trade winds is replaced subscanatory, or tropical monsoon climate . Here in summer, the intrachetic convergence zone moves on to the north of the equator. As a result, the Eastern Passatal Transfer of the Air Mass is replaced by the Western Musson, with which the main part of precipitation dropped here is connected. Prevailing Types of Vegetation - monsoon forests, loss and highly old savannah

In subtropics

In the belts of 25-40 ° of the northern latitude and southern latitude, subtropical types of climate predominate, forming in conditions of alternation of the prevailing air mass - tropical summer, moderate in winter. The average monthly air temperature in summer exceeds 20 ° C, in winter - 4 ° C. On land, the number and mode of atmospheric precipitation strongly depend on the remoteness from the oceans, the resulting landscapes and natural zones are strongly different. Each of the mainland is clearly expressed three main climatic zones.

In the west of continents prevails mediterranean climate (semishers subtropics) with summer anticyclones and winter cyclones. Summer here is roast (20-25 ° C), cloudless and dry, winter is rained, relatively cold (5-10 ° C). The average annual precipitation is about 400-600 mm. In addition to the Mediterranean itself, such a climate prevails on the southern coast of the Crimea, in Western California, in southern Africa, the south-west of Australia. The prevailing type of vegetation is Mediterranean forests and shrubs.

In the east of the mainland dominates mussionous subtropical climate. The temperature conditions of Western and Eastern are not much different outskirts. Abundant precipitation, brought by the ocean monsoon, here falls mainly in the summer.

Temperate zone

In the belt of the year-round predominance of temperate air masses, intensive cyclonic activity causes frequent and significant changes in pressure and air temperature. The predominance of Western winds is most noticeable above the oceans and in the southern hemisphere. In addition to the main seasons - winter and summer, there are noticeable and sufficiently long transition - autumn and spring. Because of the larger differences in temperature and moisture, many researchers include the climate of the northern part of the moderate belt to subarctic (Köppen's classification), or allocate in an independent climatic belt - boreal.

Subpolar

Over subogenous oceans occurs intensive cyclonic activity, weather windy and cloud, a lot of precipitation. Subarctic climate Merrates in the north of Eurasia and North America, characterized by dry (precipitation no more than 300 mm per year), long and cold winters, and cold summer. Despite the small amount of precipitation. Low temperatures and permafrost makes it harboring the area. Similar climate Southern Hemisphere - Socanctic climate Captures sushi only on the subnutrctic islands and on the earth of Grayam. In the classification of Köppen under a subogenous, or boreal climate, the climate of the taiga growth zone is understood.

Polar

Polar climate It is characterized by year-round negative temperatures air and meager precipitation (100-200 mm per year). Dominates in the zone of the Arctic Ocean and in Antarctica. The most soft in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic, the most severe - on the plateau of East Antarctica. In the classification of Köppen to the polar climate include not only the zones of the ice climate, but also the climate of the zone of the spread of the tundra.

Climate and man

The climate has a decisive effect on water regime, soil, vegetable and animal peace, on the possibility of cultivation of crops. Accordingly, the possibility of the settlement of people, the development of agriculture, industry, energy and transport, living conditions and health of the population depend on climate. Heat losses The human body occurs by radiation, thermal conductivity, convection and evaporation of moisture from the body surface. With a certain increase in these heat losses, a person is experiencing an unpleasant feeling and the possibility of a disease appears. In cold weather there is an increase in these losses, dampness and strong wind reinforce the cooling effect. During the weather drops, stress studies, appetite deteriorates, biorhythms are violated and resistance to diseases is reduced. The climate causes the binding of diseases to certain times of the year and regions, for example, pneumonia and flu are mainly in winter in moderate latitudes, malaria is found in wet tropics and subtropics, where climatic conditions contribute to the reproduction of malaria mosquitoes. The climate is also taken into account in health care (resorts, the struggle against epidemics, public hygiene) affects the development of tourism and sports. According to information from the history of mankind (hunger, floods, abandoned settlements, relocation of peoples) it is possible to restore some climatic changes in the past.

An anthropogenic change in the functioning environment of the process forming the climate changes the nature of their flow. Human activity has a noticeable impact on the local climate. The influx of heat by burning fuel, pollution of industrial and carbon dioxide products, changing the absorption of solar energy, cause an increase in air temperature, noticeable in major cities . Among the anthropogenic processes who have taken global nature are

see also

Notes

1. (Neopr.) . Archived April 4, 2013.
2. , p. five.
3. Local climate //: [in 30 tons] / ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov
4. Microclimate // Big Soviet Encyclopedia: [In 30 tons] / ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. - 3rd ed. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969-1978.