Current on plateales.
Meandra, or ray, is called smooth bends of the plain river. They received their name from the Large Menderes River in Malaya Asia, which is replete with henity. As if snakes, Meandra flowed alone. The band, within which there are meandra, is called the meal belt. Characterized by the observation of the river of the bollard in Western Carpathians, the channel of which crosses the elevated and dissected plain with absolute marks 400 - 600 m. Elevation of the valley of this winding river Possess a large radius of curvature. As a result, the width is emitted - about 1 LLC m. For more than one hundred years (from 1855 to 1964), the outlines of the bed changed, new coastal cliffs appeared, the old people were filled with clay alluvia, the Plesa and rolling were completely rebuilt. However, it did not increase or decrease the meal belt.
On a wetrated seaside plain, drying, as shown, the outlines of the Valley for 35 years also practically did not change. Square of pebble braids and meandering belt remained the same, but during the same time they were moved to almost 900 m, and part of the former ples and many side ducts were filled with pebble alluvium and disappeared. This shows that the river valleys are conservative on the plains, they change slowly, although the channel processes behave actively. The largest deformations at the bottom of the river valleys occur during floods and floods. Where most of the year of the river are small or even dry, these changes are best expressed.
Install the age of the valleys is not so easy. For example, the development of the Volga Valley in its middle the course began about 5 - 6 million years ago. The largest deepening of the valley occurred about 3 million years ago. In this era, the river was deepened his bed, he filled it with alluvia. The duration of the deepening epoch, or, as the geomorphologists say, "Circling", was 5 - 10 times less than the duration of the expansion of the valley and filling it with allume. Such conclusions came scientists after studying alluvia on the Volga terraces.
Side shifts River beds usually lead to the destruction of the slopes, strengthening the slope processes on them, an increase in the number of large fragments in alluvia. In the mountainous areas where deep valleys prevail, the volume of debris material is more significant, the flow is forced to adapt to the new relief.
Dry valleys, at the bottom of which sands, gravel, clay, are found on earth quite often. Giant canyons remind the rapid activities of the aquatic thresholds in the distant past. But the rocks hot, the rocks can no longer tell about these processes. One of these places is a plateau in the very center of Asia. Here the area of \u200b\u200bformer river valleys reaches 60 thousand km2. Now the relief is dominated by flat surfaces with traces of erosion blur and the remains. It is difficult to establish the directions of the flow of ancient rivers - part of them did not fall into the sea, but in the inner lakes.
Another area with dry rivers is the desert, and her east - the Arabian plateau. Here, dry valleys (Wadi) begin on the steep slopes of the mountains, intersect the intergical depressions and end in closed basins. Width of Wadi reaches 15 - 20 km, and the length of 500 is 600 km. During rare but strong rainywhich happens not every year, according to their bottom, a stormy flow of a depth of only 1 - 2 m is sweeping. But for one flooding, the stream transfers such a number of debris material that for a while acquires the type of fall. Then the water disappears, and in the dry valley it becomes hot. However, dry valleys are found not only in desert areas. In Altai, in the North American Cordillera, on Verkhnekolomsky Highlands and in other places of the Earth there are valleys formed in the past catastrophic flows that rushed at an incredible speed. These streams are more known as breakthrough floods. The valleys formed by such streams cut through the rock rocks, forming giant boilers with huge boulders on the bottom. In these valleys it is pointless to seek the river beds, they simply do not. Once a long time ago, several thousand years ago, bored an extensive basin, creating a deep lake. Water filled out the lake hollow, and the flow of water in the nearest valleys. At the same time, water flows destroyed mountain passes and former valleys, formed large waterfalls, very large wreckage moved. Gradually, the lake disappeared, and only dry valleys and boilers from former waterfalls remained on the surface.
The material found and prepared for the publication of Grigory Luchansky
A source:Report "Movement on Rivers". Types of rivers.In our country, a large number of rivers for which you can swim in tourist courts. All of them do not care on each other and at the same time have general signsallowing you to combine them in types. Vodnikov tourists have developed at least five classifications. Their application allows you to properly solve the task that each tourist group poses, choosing a route; Where to go when to go and what to go.
Relief of the terrain and river
This classification reflects primarily the nature of the river, depending on the relief of the geographical area, where it flows. According to this classification, the river is divided into plain, mining and taiga (sometimes they are called foothill) and mountain.
Plain rivers. There are a lot of plain rivers in Russia. They have wide valleys, with a minor depth and steep slopes, small slopes, the channels of them, as a rule, are winding and stacked from soft sediment materials (sand and clay), the water flow rate in line is small, as a rule, not more than 1 m / s , the shores are most often covered with forest or shrub. Rock breeds are usually no obstacles are represented by sandy shallows and rolling, as well as rods from the trees of the trees or brought trees. The largest rivers of the European part of the country - Volga, Dnipro are most pronounced. Western Dvina And their tributaries, such as the wind, gum, the influx of the lower flow of Ob, for example Lyapin.
However, in the rivers of the European part rivers flowing through the hill and mountain ridges, there are areas where indigenous rocks forming the thresholds come to the surface. The most famous for those who are flooded now the Dnipro thresholds, Migi-thresholds on the river. Southern Bug, superpowering thresholds r. Musto. IN large quantities There are thresholds on the rivers of the North of the European part. The thresholds alternate with long calm, almost without the flow of splas. These rivers belong to a special Karelian type, for example, p. Ohta in Karelia, r. Leather in the Arkhangelsk region.
Mining taiga rivers. This type belongs to the rivers of old mountain areas, such as the Urals or relatively low mountain systems of Sayan, Eastern Siberia. and the Far East. The rivers are often flowing in rocky shores, forming thresholds, sewers, waterfalls, cheeks. They are found on them and dumps, as well as shallow and rolls from large pebbles and cobblestones. The slopes of the mountain-taiga rivers reach 10 m / km, the flow rate in the thresholds is 4 m / s. Mountain-taiga rivers are usually sufficiently designed gorges and valleys, the spray areas are interrupted by rather long Ples and Bystrin. Typical mountain and taiga rivers can be considered r. Skin in the Urals, r. Cantileger in Sayanov, r. Vitim in Transbaikalia.
Mountain rivers. These include the rivers of the highland regions of the Caucasus, Tien Shan, Pamirosha, Pamir, Altai. Compared to the mountain-taiga, they have an even more steep drop (up to 20 m / km), completely few ples, the thresholds pass one into another often without a break, the flow rate in the thresholds reaches 6-7 m / s. Mountain river valleys are located at considerable height and are often poorly designed. Examples of mountain rivers-Obugoo and Muksu on the Pamirs, Zeravshan on Pamirou-Alae, Nara on Tian-Shan, Shavla in Altai. The same type belongs to some cool rivers Karpat, for example, the origins of Cheremosha, rod.
It should be noted that the boundaries between the types of the mountain and mountain-taiga river are somewhat blurred. In addition, the same river can belong to three or two types, respectively, in the upper, middle and lower current. So, Chulyshman is almost all of its entire-mountain river, Biya, as if a continuation of Chulasman below Teletskoy Lake, is a mountain-taiga river, and Ob, one of which is Biya, - plain river. Slash, the influx of the mustache, - in upper current Mountain Taiga River, and in the lower current-flat. There are examples and reverse alternation. So, the cip, the influx of the beatim, is the upper flow, within the Bounty brand, the flat river, in the lower flow-mountain-taiga.
The magnitude of rivers and water
The rivers belong to the rivers flowing within several geographic areas and having a pool area of \u200b\u200bmore than 50,000 km 2, such as Volga, Dnipro. The average of the river proceeds within one geographical zone and have a pool area from 2,000 to 50,000 km 2, for example, the Kema River, Meta, Sakmar, Obuggoo, Chulyshman. Small belongs to the rivers with the pool area from 1,000 to 2,000 km 2, for example, the Sandalash River, Ulug-oh.
Power Character and Water Mode
Rivers with high spring floors. This type includes most of the rivers of our country, flowing in areas with abundant snow cover (Eastern European Plain, West Siberian Lowland, Urals). Spring flood caused by melting of snow, gives up to 40-60%, and sometimes the most annual flow. The flood goes into the summer inter-level level, which can be low in dry summer, Middle in the average size of the sediments summer and high in the rainy summer. The inter-level level is very stable and changing slowly.
Rivers with temperate spring floods and summer rain floors. These are the Carpathians Rivers, the Western Fornings of the Caucasus and Transcaucasus, the Mountains of Southern Siberia. A pretty high spring flood, the oblivion of snow melting, stretches until the beginning of summer due to the height of pools above sea level. Abundant summer rains cause rain floods. Due to the narrowness of the valleys and steep slopes, rainwater quickly flows into the river. Therefore, the spring flood is almost without a break goes into summer floods, which are 8-10 over the summer. Thus, the share of summer runoff increases, and the share of the spring drops to 30-40%.
Rivers with low spring floods and predominance of summer floods. This type includes the rivers of the highland of the Caucasus and the mountains Central Asia and rivers located in the eastern regions of the country with monsoon climate (Most Eastern Siberia and Far East). On the rivers, the highly stable summer flood is caused by the melting of glaciers, on the rivers of Eastern Siberia and the Far East-monsoon rains. The proportion of spring flow falls to 20-30, the share of summer increases to 50-60%.
The complexity of the alloy
This classification is a purely tourist. It is contained in the "list of classified tourist routes" and is reviewed once every four years due to the emergence of new vessels, the development of water tourism technology, the emergence of new means and safety methods. It can also vary depending on the flow of water in the river (with a large water consumption during the flood or flood, the complexity of the river passing is usually increasing). This classification also depends on the class of applied vessels: for kayak river, as a rule, it is more complicated.
All the plain rivers do not exceed the first category by their technical complexity, that is, do not contain obstacles that have an individual character and requiring an individual approach (thresholds and shiver). The exception is the Karelian-type river with routes to the third category of complexity inclusive.
The most characteristic obstacles on the rivers of the first category of complexity-grieces, rigs and dawns, as well as artificial obstacles - low bridges, dams, etc. However, the same rivers represent an increased danger during the spring flood.
Large rivers are interesting for water tourism, as a rule, in the upper course, significantly higher than the start of shipping. On medium and small mountain-taiga and mountain rivers, routes from the second to the sixth category of complexity are possible. Routes on the rivers of the highlands are safer to perform in spring before the start of the summer flood or in the fall after its completion.
The main elements of the valley and river bed
The rivers are natural significant and continuous streams of water that feed on atmospheric precipitation (rains, thawed snow waters, glacial waters) are formed everywhere where the terrain has at least a slight bias. The river itself forms the river through which it flows, and it differs from artificial watercourses. The connection of the rivers among themselves, the combination of all rivers, pouring their waters to one lake or the sea, is called a river system. In each river system, the main river and its tributaries are distinguished, which, in turn, can take the influx of the second, third order, and so on.
Each river system collects superficial I. the groundwater With the occupied territory, which is called the catchment area, or the river pool. The pools of the neighboring rivers are separated from each other by watersheds, usually passing through the most sublime places in the area. Occasionally bifurcations are occurring, that is, the separation of rivers into two streams, one of which is poured into the river of another pool.
The place where the water forming the river for the first time takes the type of surface stream, is called the source. The river can begin with a spring, to flow out of the lake, swamps, take the beginning from the language of the glacier.
Some rivers are formed from the confluence of two, usually close to water water, for example, Ob starts from the confluence of Bii and Katun, Northern Dvina - From Sukhona and South. In this case, when determining the length of the river for the source, the longer components of the rivers are taken.
The end portion of the river at the place of imposition of it in the sea, the lake or another river is called a mouth. At the mouth, the water flow slows down and most of the portable particles are deposited opposite the mouth in the form of shames.
River Valley -these are narrow and elongated long, for the most part Winding hollow form of relief formed as a result of river flow activities. Valleys are limited to coastal slopes, or sides.
Fig. 1. Elements of the river valley:
1 - brocco; 2 and 3 - left and right slopes (board); 4 - floodplains; 5 - flood level 6-level in the interlene; 7 - the height of the shore; 8-width of the river in the flood; 9 - the width of the river into the airway; 10 terrace; 11- Valley width
The lowest point of the valley is called the bottom, the top edge of the coastal slope - rod. The bed of the river, according to which it flows into the intercession, is called a channel. During the flood, that is, with the rise of water, the river comes out of the river and floods the bottom of the valley - I will understand.
The slopes of the river valley have the form of ledges or steps with more or less horizontal surfaces that are called terraces. The terraces may be several. Each river terrace is a trace of an ancient, higher DNA of the Valley.
The classic shape of the river valley with a complete set of its elements is found only on plain rivers. On the mountain rivers there is often no floodplain and the riverbed takes all the bottom of the valley and comes close to the indigenous shore.
In the mountain and mountain-taiga areas of the river, often in deep narrow valleys with steep slopes - canyons, Which, depending on the hardness of rock rocks, there may be one form or another. Rocky, rotten high banks of the river (in the mountain and taiga regions) are called cheeks (Siberian name). Schemas are also called rocks located against each other on both sides of the river. Rocky wall with a height of more than 5 m in a narrow place of the river valley or a cape who goes into the river and makes it difficult to bomom.
The cross section of the river bed is rarely symmetrical, it is especially asymmetrically on the turns where the water circulation arises over the surface from the convex coast to concave, and the bottom is the opposite. Therefore, a concave shore is blurred by turning, approaching gradually to the board of the valley, where it reaches in the end of the root shore, folded with more ancient rocks.
The highest, steep and climbing part of the root shore is called yar. The upstream of the river is a part of the Yar, connecting with the straight line of the coast, is called the top shoulder of the Yar, and the lower part of the yar, which connects with the straight line of the shore, is the lower shoulder.
The products of the blur of concave, or external, the shore are transferred to the bottom flow and are postponed from the convex, or internal, shore, forming a low gentle sandy sand. The depth of the bed from the convex coast to the concave (Yar) is growing slowly. Immediately beyond the end of Yar, the sand becomes edged, that is, the coast has a view of a low wall with sufficient tourist courts with a depth of the coast. In the immediate vicinity of Yara and the cutting sand passes strazhen - Line of the highest water velocities in the stream. Behind the Lower Shoulder of Yara Strazhen passes to the opposite shore, so in the spring shore the flow rate slows down and the lower shoulder of the Yar is formed by-time - Underwater sandy shallow of small comparatively sizes.
All the river valleys, and even moreover, the cutters are winding, that is, consist of alternating turns, or meander.Meandra with closely converging start and end are called Luke. The characteristic example-well-known Samara bow on the Volga in the area of \u200b\u200bKuibyshev, who enters the Zhigulevsky Mountains. The path along the river between the beginning and the end of the Samara Luke is more than 7 times higher than the shortest distance between them on land.
At the beginning of Samara Luke in the Volga flows p. Usa, flowing very close to the end of Luke u s. Perevil. This made it possible to a well-known ring water route with a small wolf of the first category of the complexity "Zhigulevsky Around the Movement".
The riverbed often makes meanders within the valley. Songs of the Moseandra bed within the valleys are called rauches, steep and short - knees. Meanders of the river bed within the valleys often change, the river is rinsed by a new course, an island is formed by two ducts. A shorter and straight duct becomes the main, longer duct, which was previously empty or knee, closed by nanos first at the output, and then at the entrance, forming an elongated flood lake - an old man. Staritsa in the flood connected to the river.
Fig. 2. Turns of the bed and the river valleys:
1 - convolution; 2 - the border of the valley; 3 - Emight; 4 - Luka.
Obstacles to rivers
District. Complicated education Of the two shames growing from opposite banks towards each other. Drugates often exist in places shifts directions of turns of the channel, that is, in the transition places of the flow of the flow from one shore to another. Drops for a long time exist in the same place of the bed. There are three types of dugoves: normal (Fig. 3), shifted and stovery. All rods consist of top and bottom braids or shames, between which the ridge is located, where the depth is the smallest, and the speed of the flow is the highest. In the ridge ridge there is a trough - the channel with the greatest depths. From above, the ridge of the row leads a headband with a gradually falling depth, immediately behind the ridge downstream is the basement of rolling with a sharp increase in depth.
Parts of the channel, located above and below the ridge of the row, are called the top and bottom mladian dell.
On the plain rivers, all elements of sand rolling are easy to highlight on the river in the color of water - deeper places are dark, on smaller shines yellow sand. On the mountain and mountain-taiga rivers, they are also found, shared and other elements described above, isolated by the products of the rumble of the bed, they can be folded both sand and pebbles of different sizes, up to cobblestones.
The shifted flow (Fig. 4) is characterized by the fact that the upper and lower splashing hollows are highly entering each other, continuing each along its shore, while comb
the rolls can be directed along the longitudinal axis of the river or even so that the direction of flow in the trough will be an angle of more than 90 ° in the direction of the river flow. Swelling flows through the comb beyond the trough, which can enter the tourist to delust and tighten the vessel to the stranded. Rossipal dugs have several ridges, fuzzy pronounced troughs and braids located in line without visible patterns, so they are especially difficult for passing.
Tourist parliament classifies elements of the channel and water flow that are not found on shipping rivers and are mostly small and middle rivers, which are held sports tourist hiking.
Threshold. The area of \u200b\u200bthe river bed with a sharp increase in the slope and the flow rate relative to the plots above and below the threshold. The thresholds are formed in places of intersection of the Rock Rocks Groin, Morane, the exits of the difficult indigenous mountain breeds, clusters of boulders, products of mountain columns and the villages, the consequences of human activity, such as explosive work when laying roads (artificial or explosive thresholds). In front of local thresholds with a particularly steep fall, sections of calm water (PLES) are sometimes formed due to the threshold river.
The characteristic elements of the threshold are waterproof, water pits, or barrels, and standing waves.
Waterproof. We are divided into waterfall (the angle of more than 45 °), watercourses (angle of about 45 °) and just plums (an angle of less than 45 °). Plums gerier usually have the shape of a triangle formed by the line of the greatest inflection of the longitudinal profile of the river bed and oblique jets from the rocks that limit the drain at the base. Convective oblique jets lead to the appearance of a standing wave or a track of standing waves for the vertex of the triangle. Cool plums, watercourses and waterfalls usually form immediately after the drain hole, or barrel, is the reverse flow area over the surface, and behind it the system of standing waves. The triangle in this case is not formed. In the threshold there may be one plums in the entire width of the river, it can also be divided by protruding rocks and stones into several plots of various widths and power.
The threshold may also consist of several consecutive plots. If one plums or sequential threshold plums go one after another with an interval that does not exceed the length of the vessel, the threshold is called single-stage. If the vessel can freely make a maneuver on the transition from one shore to another, the threshold is called a multistage. If between two consecutive plums can be adjusted to the coast on the raft, these plums are advisable to consider relating to different thresholds. If the line of the greatest inflection of the longitudinal profile of the river bed in plum is perpendicular to the direction of the flow of water, then the plum is called direct. Drain is called oblique, when the angle between the line of the launcher of the longitudinal profile and the flow of acute. Sometimes in a narrow braid plum on the line of inflection of the longitudinal profile, the depth of the bed of the coast is very different, then the drain will be twisted, or screw.
Standing waves, or trees. They are formed when water moves in plums due to the addition of longitudinal, transverse and returnable local velocities in the stream arising from the meeting of water with heterogeneities in the cross section of the bed. Stating wave is formed below that heterogeneity, which she is obliged to his birth. The waves are called standing because they are stationary on the shores, unlike moving wind and tidal waves. The height of standing waves reaches several meters and depends on the flow of water in the river, the flow rate, the depths of the river and the relief of the bottom.
Standing waves whose crests are perpendicular to the direction of water flow, are called straight, waves, whose crests are located under an acute angle to flow, are called oblique. Sources of straight standing waves are, as a rule, distortion of the flow cross section at the bottom of the river, for example, the ridge of pitfalls. The oblique standing waves are formed most often due to the distortion of the coastal line, for example, behind the protrusions of the coast. Standing waves also occur when the fusion of two streams, for example, when a large tributary is shifted. In such places, there is sometimes a system of many steep point standing waves-rolling. An important characteristic of the standing wave is the length of its slide, which is compared with the length of the tourist vessel. Waves are steep, or short, when the slope is less than half the length of the tourist vessel, and gentle, or long, when the wave skate is equal or length tourist vessel. Very short standing waves have a reverse comb, as if a water visor, directed against the flow.
Water pits, or barrels. They are formed for very powerful and steep plums (Fig. 5). They are characterized by a strong reverse flow of water on the surface. The barrel can be considered small if its size is less than half the length of the vessel, and large, if more. Water in barrels often contains a lot of air, so it has a smaller specific gravity And worse holds the vessel.
Shivera. Rocky part of the river bed with fast flow, in small depths and randomly scattered in line with scuba and protruding stones. In the sewers, due to the high flow rate in the stream, standing waves arise, reverse flows, sometimes water pits (barrels). Unlike the thresholds, the sewers do not have clean powerful plots, in the shovel of plums local, the connection of consecutive plums with each other is poorly traced, therefore it is difficult to highlight the line of preferential water flow - a jet. The length of Shiver ranges from several tens of meters to several kilometers. Shivery often begin and end the thresholds.
Prints.On rivers with a rapid flow, fitness are often formed, that is, the volatile waterproof, most often the rock, the outer bank of the river turning under the action of centrifugal forces. The fit pictures are formed on very steep turns, since on the turns, the stroke of the flow is located close to the outside turn of the turn, there is a significant mass of water on it, and directly from the shore creates various distributions of speeds across the stream. If the water of the river is considerable, and the turn is very cool, the shredded trees are formed at the shore itself. The distribution of flows in the fitness in this case will be viewed in Fig. 6b. With a high water water of the river, but at a less cool turn, as well as at a negative steepness of the coast, a jackhaft may not occur under water. Then the distribution of currents in the fit will be viewed in fig. 6 a. A similar picture occurs in the fit on a fairly steep turn in a stream with a small consumption of water. Foots with a jackhammer are easily recognized on the river along the jackhamal shaft, the fitness without a jacking shaft is much more difficult to recognize, and the subcomprix to the shore is much stronger in them.
Catch. On rivers with a rapid flow, anti-flows in the planes parallel to the bottom of the river, the ılov (Fig. 7) may be formed. The emergence of them is connected with the separation of the course from
shores for one reason or another (protrusion protrusion, flow of inflow, etc.). The catch are created in the presses, near the dumps, with sharp extensions of the bed, on the shallow and with sharp accelerations of individual parts of the flow (jets), for example, during the confluence of two ducts. It is sometimes difficult to get out of the street, since you need to have time to leave a jet, forming a catch, crossing it in a short time.
The boundary of opposing currents or currents with different speeds. It occurs when the tributaries in the river (especially if the tributaries are comparable to water consumption with the main river), when flowing around by the stream of large surface obstacles (stones, rocks, stoves). These boundaries are very small in length (sometimes the length of the transition from one speed to the other is 30-50 cm) and are dangerous in that the tourist vessel with the speed of one stream is suddenly individual with its own parts in the stream with other speeds, instantly experiencing a variety of forces . To avoid the coup of the vessel when crossing the boundaries of opposing currents, you need to use a variety of technical techniques.
Challenge or hall. Characteristic obstacles peculiar to flat rivers taiga zone and mountain-taiga rivers are formed by trees trunks deposited at the top of the island, to the entrance to a small duct, on the outer bank of the rotation of the river. In the afternoon, the ruins demolish, but on the decline of water, they arise again, occur during summer floods, and they can exist on small and narrow taiga rivers and increase over the years. There is a very dangerous obstacle, it is difficult to recognize, since it appeared that it seems part of the coast and only in close proximity begins to be felt a strong flow, sucking under the blockage. On mountain and taiga rivers great danger Representation of the rivers located on the external beaches of the rivers are partially fit, but not yet fallen low-tilted trees. Especially dangerous such trees for ships with relatively highly located rowers and catamarans.
On the rivers flowing in locality, artificial, that is, created by people, obstacles.
Bridges. Transport and pedestrian bridges and bridges are often found. Bridges are installed on the supports facing the river. Supports represent the same danger for a tourist vessel, like single-water surfaces on a plot with a rapid flow, have the value of the width of the passage between the supports and the direction of the flow. There are usually many concrete blocks and reinforcements near modern reinforced concrete bridges. Pedestrian bridges have more often wooden supports located closer to each other, and low flooring. Near modern, new bridges in a row can meet remnants of supports or piles of old bridges located nearby.
Dam. Basically there are two types of dams - modern reinforced concrete and vintage stone-wooden mill or regulating consumption for a leoplava. Second-type dams are located in different stages of destruction and are waterproof different steepness and heights, in varying degrees clogged. Often these waterproof are passable, especially for kayak. Reinforced concrete dams require escaping.
Scones. Hollows from wooden stakes, driven into the bottom of the river, brave the whole river. There are a narrow gate in the clips, where the tops are installed for fishing. Most cases are found on small rivers in the form of residues, but stakes may be dangerous for the shell of ships.
Cables. Present a danger to tourist vessels hanging over the water of ferry ferry. Usually, these cables are highly raised above the water off the banks of the river, where you should pass under them. It is very important to notice this cable on time.
Molaous alloy. Although the forest alloy is almost not used, yet the tourist may have to face it. During alloy, tourists can not go to the river. The mile alloy usually begins immediately at the flood. In small rivers, it ends quickly, on medium rivers can delay until the middle, and on the largest - until the end of the summer. The rivers for which for many years was carried out a milestoy alloy of the forest, usually clogged by fake-logs, one end of which lies at the bottom of the river, and the other end is shallow under the surface of the water. This end of the log is invisible, and the meeting with it when driving, especially against the flow, ends damage to the shell, and sometimes damage to the vessel's frame.
Weight.On rivers where a milestoy alloy of the forest is carried out, all summer has spare systems from narrow, several logs of dams held by steel cables and braveling individual river ducts in order to direct the fuel forest to the main channel. There are also accumulative west, brave all the channel for the purpose of accumulating the forest for the rush or transshipment to the shore. As an obstacle, we wish the same in the downtime, it takes a delaying course, and it is impossible to pass.
You can go under the high bank, where the cable is raised high above the water, and the logs do not reach the shore. You can also, being in the west, dilute temporarily or thump the links. The accumulative west usually always have a lot of forest, so they need to be brought.
Row walls. On small alloy rivers (it is especially characteristic of the rivers of the European North and Carpathians), there are often a rude wall-wall-walls from logs located on the concave external coast of turns of the channel, held from the inside log cells with stones. A ricking wall as an obstacle is similar to the fit, but it often sticks out souts from logs, metal brackets, bonding logs.
The latter type of artificial obstacles should include the overall litigation of the channel in the most different, including sharp, objects within the settlements.
The main characteristics of the river defining
The complexity of the alloy
Water consumption. An important characteristic of the river is important for a vodna tourist is water consumption, that is, the volume of water flowing through the cross section of the flow per unit of time (m 3 / s). Water consumption depends on the size of the basin, its water, the nature of the relief, geological structure, soil cover and vegetation area. Water consumption is directly proportional to the area of \u200b\u200bthe pool, therefore, the lower the flow of the river, since more and more the tributaries fall into it. The exception is the rivers flowing through the desert, and the river, part of the water of which is spent on irrigation, such as Amudarya, Syrdarya, Kuban, Terek.
The relief of the pool affects the amount of precipitation - the higher the mountain, the more precipitation, and on the rate of receipt of wax and rainwater in the direction - the steeper of the mountain, the faster the river collects Tel and rainwaterThe sharper peaks of summer rain floods. The nature of vegetation also affects the rate of flow into the river and raindrops. Snow melts in the forest slowly, the forest is longer delays thal and rainwater; Steppe, desert quickly give water river.
For comparing between different water collection pools The magnitude of the flow is introduced the magnitude of the flow module, that is, the ratio of water consumption in this river target to the pool area above this stem. The flow module is the amount of water in liters that the river receives from each square kilometer of the pool in one second, is measured in l / km 2 * s. The greatest stock in the mountains. On the northern slope of the Caucasus, it reaches 50, and in Western Transcaucasia 75 l / km 2 * s. Large running lakes are one of the most powerful flow regulators. If there are many lakes in the river basin, then all flood peaks will be smoothed, stretched in time and small on the amplitude.
Climatic factors affect water consumption: temperature and distribution of precipitation by season of the year.
Flood. This is the highest water standing phase in the river. On the plain rivers of moderate climate caused melting of snow (spring flood), on the mountain rivers-melting of glaciers and snow (summer flood).
Flood. A relatively short-term rise of water in the river as a result of heavy rains. It usually has a clearly pronounced peak-the highest level, which moves along the river with an average rate of its flow, forming a flood wave. Before the passage of the peak, water comes, after passing - decreases. Flood peak can be caused artificially, for example, the discovery of the reservoir dam in the upper flow of the river, as well as a breakthrough of the dam (ice or soil), holding the lake in the upper reaches of the mountain river.
Flood lift (Fig. 8 a) is characterized by more high levels Water on the straightest and transverse circulation of it on the surface from the middle to the shores (the shallow garbage floats off the coast). A decrease in the flood (Fig. 8b) is characterized by a higher water level off the coast and transverse circulation over the surface from the shores to the middle (the small garbage floats in the middle of the bed). Forewide, and especially flood, is also characterized by muddy, dirty water. Flood can also be caused by melting glaciers in the river basin.
Inter-level. Summer season In the overwhelming majority of tourist areas of the country corresponds to an inter-level level - the lowest standing of water, when there is no significant influx of snow and rainwater into the river, in high mountainous areas and in the Far East, the interaced is shifted to autumn. The average international level corresponds to the average for the climatic conditions of the year. In the interagment of the river, it is like in the steady mode, the channel processes almost do not go, the channel most fully corresponds to the water flow current in it. However, in case of more rainy summer Tourists face high water.
It is not a flood, but just greater than the average, the influx in the water river, that is, a higher standing of the cross-level. Water, as a rule, is transparent, there is no sharp oscillation levels, comes close to the coastal bushes, pouring pebble shames and almost all of the islands.
In the arid summer, the tourist can face low water - standing below the average intermune level. A characteristic sign of a low water is a significant difference in the flow rates on the Ples, in the thresholds and shivery. On the pops of the flow is almost not felt. On the river a lot of pebble, steeply flowing into the water of shames and islands. With a sustainable change of weather, a transition from high or low water to the middle center level may be observed. Unlike sharp flood recession and lifts, this transition is stretched for one or two weeks and goes with transparent water.
Bias Highly important characteristic rivers, expressed by the ratio of the difference in the edges of the water of the beginning and the end of this section of the river to its length (measured in m / km or recorded dimensionless decimal fraction). The bias of the river is a parameter, largely determining the flow rate. The river in general or its large portion can be characterized by an average bias, but the swimming conditions in small areas will be determined, among other factors, local slopes of these small sections.
Longitudinal profile of the river. The graph, along the vertical axis of which the cuts of water are postponed, and horizontal - the distance of the corresponding points from the source or the mouth of the river. On the longitudinal profile it is easy to highlight areas with different slopes. Usually the river with a well-designed channel produces a longitudinal profile in the form of a parabola - it is called the equilibrium profile. On average, the slope decreases smoothly from the source to the mouth.
In the upper course, the bias can be significantly higher than the average, but the river is small. The speed of water is high, the river is more often flowing in one channel, erosion (erosion) is dominated by water. On average, the slope is close to the average, the water water of the river is increasing, there are ducts and islands, erosion and accumulating activity of the river are approximately balanced. In the lower flow, the slope is lower than the average, the water water has increased significantly, a lot of ducts and islands, the river mainly postpones the material, washed above. But all this is true on average. In practice, in any course of the mountain or mountain-taiga river, plots can meet both small and with a big bias. Some rivers in the upper reaches flow along the swampy waterprooper plateau and have a small bias, and large only in the middle course, breaking the bordering ridges (for example, Siberian rivers such as the Tsipa).
Patency rivers
Vodnikov tourists are primarily interested in the passability of the river - the main and hard-catching characteristic, which develops from many factors and which is different for different types of rivers and different classes of ships.
The patency of the plain rivers is mainly determined by the sufficient consumption of water at the point of the start of the alloy and the number of perennial impassable duties on the river. The permeability of the mountain-taiga rivers depends on the water consumption at the point of the start of the alloy, slope and the flow rate, as well as on the nature of the valley. The block has a secondary value. When masting mountain rivers, especially with the predominance of ice-made, it is necessary to consider not only the minimum required water consumption at the start point of the alloy, but also the maximum allowable for a safe alloy (on medium rivers).
In the medium-sized climatic conditions, the plain rivers of the country, currently currently available in the forest area, available for swimming in kayaks at a distance of at least 40 km from the source (on the map of 1: 1,0000) or from the very source, if the river serves the only runoff Lakes are at least 80 km 2. This corresponds to the inter-water consumption of 3-6 m 3 / s. On mountain and taiga and mountain rivers, the minimum water consumption at the point of the start of the alloy should be 7-12 m 3 / s, depending on the slope, the flow rate, the nature of the valley. On mountain rivers with ice-catering, this consumption can be achieved 10-15 km from the source (on the rivers of Central Asia sometimes directly from the glacier), at most mountain-taiga rivers - at 20-30 km. The greater the bias and the flow rate, the greater the water consumption is required for the start of swimming. However, to ensure the proper level of security, all these characteristics are limited from above, and with the improvement of alloy techniques, alloy and insurance funds, this level is gradually growing. For the most universal modern vessels, multi-sided catamarans are now available to rivers with an average bias up to 20 m / km and maximum slopes of certain short sections (3-5 km) to 40 m / km at water costs from 10 m 3 / s to 60 m 3 /from. For catamarans with an increased buoyancy margin and modern rafts on inflatable elements, these quantities can be taken higher by 10%, for frame-inflatable kayodok-below by 20%, for rigid ripecracks, below by 30-40%.
However, the bias itself affects mainly only on the flow rate of the river. To determine its passability, it is much more important to know the degree of development of the channel and the valley, which is set together by the bias of the river and water consumption depending on the hardness and heterogeneity of the rocks of the channel and the valley. Little river and a large river, passing the same drop in levels, make a different work, therefore, with the same material, the channel and valleys are blurred in different ways. Where there are few water, the dropper levels in solid rocks will be triggered by steps, waterfalls unsuitable for swimming; In the same place, where water can be expected, even in solid rocks, the formation of a more homogeneous bed, possibly suitable for swimming. Therefore, in terms of passability, it is important to know the material and the degree of development of the channel and the river valleys.
Rivers with weakly developed canyon-shaped gorges are less available for swimming. Small the development of the gorge speaks about the hardness of rocks or the insufficient stream power: and in the same case, in a weakly developed gorge, it is possible to expect difficult or impassable obstacles in the form of waterfalls, steep high plots. In a weakly developed gorge, it is also difficult to organize exploration and insurance, passing rivers with such gorges only well prepared and specially equipped groups.
There are various strength on the river stream, primarily the power of gravity. The magnitude of its component acting on the water in the direction of flow depends on the river slope. The more bias, the more this component, the higher the water speed. The flow rate is ultimately the main factor that determines the complexity and danger of the river for the tourist. The component of gravity is opposed by the power of friction of water about the coast and the bottom of the river and the power of internal friction between the layers of water. These forces are determined by the degree of roughness of the material of the bottom and the coast of the river, depth and width of the bed. The larger the particles constituting the bottom and the coast, the more friction force.
The centrifugal force (on the turns of the bed) and the Coriolis force caused by the rotation of the Earth also apply to water in the river. The centrifugal force acts from the center along the radius of rotation, the Coriolis force in the northern hemisphere is always aimed at the flow. These forces cause transverse flows in the river (the flow caused by Coriolis, in tourist practice, can not be considered). There is some average flow rate and local speed. The local velocity is zero at the bottom and shores and the maximum on some line below the surface of the water (the corresponding line on it on the surface of the water is called stray).
On the distribution of velocities in the flow section, the flows laminar, turbulent and with a spatial mode are distinguished. Laminar flows characterized by parallel movement of layers of fluid are rarely found in tourist practice: they can exist only at very low depths, water speeds and slopes of the bed. So, with the depth of the river 20 cm, the laminar stream may exist at no more than 1 cm / s. The tourist almost always deals with a turbulent flow, characterized by the formation of the vortices in the flow volume, that is, in the fact that the various parts of the liquid have not only longitudinal, but also transverse components. The vortices arising from the bottom and shores are broken down and move towards the center of the stream. In a turbulent stream, the maximum local velocity line is also below the flow surface, however, the increase in speed when removing from the bottom occurs unevenly. At the bottom of the bottom there is a very thin layer of zero and low speeds, and then speeds rapidly increase and can reach, for example, already at a depth of one tenth of 40-50% of the maximum speed, and at a half-grade-80-90% maximum depth. For a turbulent stream, you can calculate the maximum speed. It is directly proportional to the slope and depth of the river and inversely proportional to the roughness of the bottom (the half-Diameter of particles, the foundation bottom) in various degrees. Below are the graphs of the maximum velocity V of V from the slope I at various depths H and the roughness of the channel D, (Fig. 9) and from depth with various slopes (Fig. 10), provided that the river is rectangular.
In fig. 11 Dan graph of constant speeds when changing the slope, the depth of the river constant roughness of the bed. If we take some kind of boundary speed, for example 2 m / s, then you can determine under what combinations of the slope, the depth and roughness of the bottom the flow rate will be higher or below the boundary. Knowing that the flow rate largely determines the complexity and danger of the river, by setting certain boundary speeds, for example, 1.5 m / s, 3 m / s, obtaining approximate data on slopes and depths in which the river will be simple , complex and very difficult.
If the obstacle is underwater and with a smooth row (large stone, underwater ridge, vapor ledge, dam), then the violation of the stream structure occurs mainly in the vertical plane. Depending on the flow rate and relative (to the depth of the river), the height of the obstacle for it is formed either a system of standing waves, parallel to the ridge of obstacles, or a vertical waterproof area with the opposite flow by the movement of the surface layer of water (water pit, or barrel, - Fig. 5). Sometimes in tourist reports, the complexity and danger of the river are evaluated by such a parameter as the product of water consumption for a slope. This parameter to some extent gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe maximum river speed, since it is proportional to the slope into the degree of one second, and the water flow rate is proportional to the flow rate. The attractiveness of this parameter is that the bias and water consumption can be obtained from the tables of the main hydrological characteristics of the river. But they need to use it carefully. More accurate results gives calculation of the maximum river speed. The magnitude of the maximum speed of the river into the interash is also given on topographic maps. The flow rate is influenced by obstacles in line. The degree of their influence can be calculated. For example, massive protrusions in line with a diameter of 1 m, following each other with an interval of 5 m, reduce the flow rate of about 1.8 times, and thick aqueous vegetation height from the bottom to the surface of the water - up to 10 times.
The riverbed is produced in such a way that the smallest energy was consumed on the movement. This condition is usually carried out on rivers with a well-designed channel and in the interleum. Rivers with the not developed channel (in young mountainous areas), as well as in the flood tolerate a lot of particles different sizesAnd the patterns mentioned above are not always valid (there are so-called channel processes, that is, the formation of the channel). These patterns do not act in places narrowing the river. In such cases, it may be observed completely different in the type of stream with a spatial structure characterized by a strong offset of the line maximum speeds To the depth, as well as the presence of a steady transverse flow along the surface of the river from the shores to the middle of the bed and on the bottom of the middle to the shores. Such a structure does not have visible distinctive signs And can meet in the thresholds, canyons, cheeks, in general in poorly developed ruses at high water consumption. A tourist recognizes this stream structure when the vessel is greatly dragged into a jet when the exit from the jet requires considerable crew efforts. Spatial flow mode - one of the cases of stable transverse water flow rate in line. Transverse speeds reaching 30-40% of the maximum flow rate and directed from the coast to the middle of the river, arise also due to the vortex formation off the coast of the turbulent flow. These speeds have a random distribution over time and in space.
Stable transverse speed occurs on the rotation of the river due to centrifugal force. There is always a circulation current on the turn. On the surface, the water is shifted from the inner coast of turn to the external. At the outer coast, the water velocity is directed from the surface to the bottom, and along the bottom of the water shifts from the outer coast of the turn to the inner (Fig. 8 V). The maximum magnitude of the transverse speed is large enough (it can reach 30-50% of the average flow rate) and the CE must be considered when overcoming turns. The transverse speed leads to a displacement of the stream straightening to the outside turn of the turn.
The circulation flow rate causes erosion of the external shore and the formation of bells in internal. On the mountain rivers with a high flow rate on steep turns, the circulation flow causes water to the outer rocky shore (presser). Due to the circulation flow on the steep turns of high-speed rivers, a marked transverse slope of the water surface is formed. Nice transverse speeds also occur with a rapid flood lift or decline in water. When climbing the water river, the middle of the flow rises, the transverse current on the surface is directed from the middle of the channel to the shores. When decaying water, the middle of the flow fails, the transverse current on the surface is directed from the shores to the middle of the river (Fig. 8 A, b).
When streamlining obstacles in the row, the areas of transverse and even reverse currents. Throwing around the thread of obstacles, as the course in line, can be laminar or turbulent. Laminar flow without disrupting the stream structure with smooth spripe and jet closure is observed either at very low flow rates, or with an ideally streamlined form of an obstacle. Both cases in tourist practice are almost never found. Turbulent flow around obstacles is characterized by a violation of the stream structure.
If the obstacle performs above the water (stone, protector of the coast), then the violation of the flow structure occurs mainly in the horizontal plane. In front of the obstacle, the zone of increased pressure is formed, due to which a water "pillow" occurs (water rises, and the transverse flow along the frontal part of the obstacle). Zone appears for the obstacle reduced pressure (The so-called waterproof zone) due to the fact that the jet is broken from obstacles. Depending on the flow rate, the shape and size of the obstacle, the breakdown of the jet occurs with the side or almost from the frontal surface of the obstacle. The length of the waterproof zone may exceed the barrier of the obstacle 10 times. For large protrusions of the shore, the waterproof zone sometimes forms a plot with regular circular motion of water - already familiar to us by catch (Fig. 7). In the early breakdown, the jet near the frontal part of the obstacle arise oblique standing shafts, diverting on the parties from him. The area of \u200b\u200bstanding water behind the surface stone is often called the speed, or simply the "shadow" of the stone.
Reverse flows may occur under the action of external forces, such as wind or tide. Known wind harness at the mouth of the Neva, causing flooding, as well as tidal waves, rotating reversal of rivers in the assistive part for 30-50 km (on some rivers of the European North, flowing into the White and Barents Sea). Such features of rivers should be found in preparation of the campaign.
The river, passing in his direction, on the one hand, blurs it, and on the other hand, puts the material of the erosion in places where the flow slows down. The greater the bias, the higher the flow rate, the greater the erosion activity of the river in the flood prevails over the accumulatory. We can assume that for a certain area of \u200b\u200bthe river, where the bias is larger than the middle, the blurring activity prevails, and where the slope is less than the average - accumulating. Plots with a predominance of erosion activity are characterized by thresholds, cheeks, sewers. For sections with a predominance of accumulatory activity, robes are characterized, apparent sewers and especially okwals. This is not a mandatory rule, but the dominant trend.
In the breakthrough the river mass of homogeneous rocks, cheeks are formed, and not only in soft rocks, but also in sufficiently solid. The shale canyons of cheeks are known at the East Caucasus, the cheeks of the Tuvinian River Ka-Hem in the Lavova Array and others. Usually the cheeks are replete with thresholds, because in the mass of one rock formation there are many inhomogeneities. In addition, in the cheeks frequent collaps, also contributing to the appearance of thresholds. Thresholds, cheeks and sewers encountered in the areas of the river with a large bias are individual, and the line of movement in them should be determined depending on the structure of each obstacle after its intelligence.
In areas with a lower bias, with the predominance of the accumulating activity of the river, some regularities of the formation and structure of obstacles can be allocated, unambiguously determining the choice of the movement line. The river carries the material of various sizes - from the sand suspended in the water to the so-called inhabitants (stones up to 1-2 m in the diameter). The patterns of deposit of such applications are similar: they are all postponed in places where the flow slowdowns occur.
Where are these places in line? If there is an island on the river, the flow slows down when dividing the duct and mover of jets from the duct, that is, in the head and tails of the island, where the elongated braids are formed. If two ducts of unequal length, then in a longer flow slower, because it is less than a bias. It means that it is scored by the nanos more, and the water should be less in it, as the river gradually climbed it. It can be expected that the most clogged will be the exit of longer ducts: it is at the outlet of the water is very hampered by the sub-line of faster water with a short duct. Often, especially on mountain rivers, a longer duct ends with a steep and very small downturn from the applied water of the tile. The mass of the nanos is carried by the tributary, especially the inclusive, and these nans are falling out from the mouth of the tributary - where it is slowed down by the substitution of the water of the main river. In places of inflows of tributaries, usually apparent sewers or shames are created.
The sections marked above with a large bias (the predominance of erosion activities) and with a smaller bias (the predominance of accumulating activity) differ well on the map and on the ground. They differ primarily by the character of the valley. In areas with a large bias, the valley is narrow, like the gorge, the channel is usually one, without duct. On sites with a smaller bias, the valley is wide, the river is often divided into docks. The location of the transition from some sections to others and the site of the profile fractile is also clearly visible on the ground. At the place of transition from a larger slope to a smaller flow slows down, so at the end of a complex area with a large bias you can expect a long apparent sewer. The slowdown of water in front of the threshold of the type of simple stage can also lead to the formation of the assaulic wear.
The impact of the flow on the floating ship
Consider briefly the impact of the flow on the floating ship. The impact of the flow on the floating object occurs within the depth of its immersion. Any freely floating object moves with the speed of flowing water or faster. The greater the mass of the subject, the bias of the river and the smaller the area of \u200b\u200bcontacting the surface of it with water, the more its speed differs from the water speed.
The most interesting for the tourist of the impact on a single-circuit vessel already mentioned oppositely directed flows (border of catch and jet, flows in standing waves, etc.). The overall pattern is the smaller the ship's sediment and more of its size, the weaker the impact on the local currents. In the area of \u200b\u200bstanding waves, this impact is expressed in the occurrence (due to different direction of surface flows on the rolling waves) of the torque, aspiring to put the vessel across the flow (lag), that is, to the lowest stability for a single-populated vessel. Similar forces arise when feed and nose fall in the field of flows with different or even oppositely directional speeds. In this case, the moment of forces oppositely acting on the nose and stern may be sufficient not only for the turn of the lag, but also for the coupness of a narrow and long low-rise vessel, such as kayaks. Two-circuit (catamarans) and multicompute (rafts) of the court much colder in these cases. Vertical components of the flow, for example, in the waterways, are trimmed and the ships of the ships depending on which part of them is valid for the vertical flow. Very large waterways can turn the small ships. In streams S. spatial structure There is a delay in the vessel in the region of maximum speeds (in the jet) under the action of the transverse component of the flow rate.
We present to your attention the video tutorial on the topic "Mountain and Plated Rivers". In this lesson, you will get acquainted with the characters of the flow of rivers and find out what thresholds and waterfalls are. Initially discuss what affects the nature and speed of the river flow. Consider examples of the mountain and equible mentioned water streams, I will see what the difference is.
Subject: Hydrosphere
Lesson: Mountain and Plated Rivers
The purpose of the lesson: to get acquainted with the nature of the flow of rivers and find out what thresholds and waterfalls are.
The nature and speed of the river flow affects the relief, according to which the river flows.
The plain rivers flow slowly, through wide plains. The height difference (difference) between the source and the mouth of the plain rivers is minimal. The plain rivers are crying, i.e. Their drill describes zigzags, forming a wide valley.
Fig. 1. Plain rivers ()
Examples of plain rivers: Don, Volga, Oka, Yenisei, Amazon, hay.
Fig. 2. River Oka
Mountain rivers flow much faster than the plains, they do not form wide valleys and convolutions. Typically, mountain rivers flow through narrow deep valleys, gorges. Many rivers take their origin in the mountains, and then descend on the plain.
Fig. 3. Mountain River ()
Examples of mountain rivers: Colorado, Terek, Mbom, Mekong (in the upper flow).
The outlets of rocks and jets in the river rivers form thresholds.Overcoming them, the river is foaming.
Waterfall -a significant drop in the river with a ledge crossing the channel.
The highest waterfall - Angel in South America, 1054 meters high.
Fig. 4. Waterfall Angel ()
Signs of waterfalls: Angel, Niagara (one of the most beautiful and most powerful), Victoria, Talnik (the highest in Russia), Iguazu (the most powerful).
Homework
Paragraph 30.
1. What are the difference between the mountain and low rivers?
Bibliography
Basic
1. The initial course of geography: studies. for 6 cl. general education. institutions / etc. Gerasimova, N.P. Nezlukov. - 10th ed., Stereotype. - M.: Drop, 2010. - 176 p.
2. Geography. 6 cl.: Atlas. - 3rd ed., Stereotype. - M.: Drop; Dick, 2011. - 32 s.
3. Geography. 6 cl.: Atlas. - 4th ed., Stereotype. - M.: Drop, Dick, 2013. - 32 p.
4. Geography. 6 CL.: CONT Maps: M.: Dick, Drop, 2012. - 16 s.
Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Directory and Statistical Collections
1. Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia / A.P. Gorkin. - M.: Rosman-Press, 2006. - 624 p.
Literature for preparing for GIA and EGE
1. Geography: initial course: tests. Studies. Handbook for students of 6 cl. - M.: Humanit. ed. Center Vlados, 2011. - 144 p.
2. Tests. Geography. 6-10 kl.: Teaching manual / A.A. Letlyagin. - M.: Agency "Agency" Krp "Olymp": "Astrel", "AST", 2001. - 284 p.
1. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().
2. Russian Geographical Society ().
We present to your attention the video tutorial on the topic "Mountain and Plated Rivers". In this lesson, you will get acquainted with the characters of the flow of rivers and find out what thresholds and waterfalls are. Initially discuss what affects the nature and speed of the river flow. Consider examples of the mountain and equible mentioned water flows, see what the difference is.
Subject: Hydrosphere
Lesson: Mountain and Plated Rivers
The purpose of the lesson: to get acquainted with the nature of the flow of rivers and find out what thresholds and waterfalls are.
The nature and speed of the river flow affects the relief, according to which the river flows.
The plain rivers flow slowly, through wide plains. The height difference (difference) between the source and the mouth of the plain rivers is minimal. The plain rivers are crying, i.e. Their drill describes zigzags, forming a wide valley.
Fig. 1. Plain rivers ()
Examples of plain rivers: Don, Volga, Oka, Yenisei, Amazon, hay.
Fig. 2. River Oka
Mountain rivers flow much faster than the plains, they do not form wide valleys and convolutions. Typically, mountain rivers flow through narrow deep valleys, gorges. Many rivers take their origin in the mountains, and then descend on the plain.
Fig. 3. Mountain River ()
Examples of mountain rivers: Colorado, Terek, Mbom, Mekong (in the upper flow).
The outlets of rocks and jets in the river rivers form thresholds.Overcoming them, the river is foaming.
Waterfall -a significant drop in the river with a ledge crossing the channel.
The highest waterfall is Angel in South America, 1054 meters high.
Fig. 4. Waterfall Angel ()
Signs of waterfalls: Angel, Niagara (one of the most beautiful and most powerful), Victoria, Talnik (the highest in Russia), Iguazu (the most powerful).
Homework
Paragraph 30.
1. What are the difference between the mountain and low rivers?
Bibliography
Basic
1. The initial course of geography: studies. for 6 cl. general education. institutions / etc. Gerasimova, N.P. Nezlukov. - 10th ed., Stereotype. - M.: Drop, 2010. - 176 p.
2. Geography. 6 cl.: Atlas. - 3rd ed., Stereotype. - M.: Drop; Dick, 2011. - 32 s.
3. Geography. 6 cl.: Atlas. - 4th ed., Stereotype. - M.: Drop, Dick, 2013. - 32 p.
4. Geography. 6 CL.: CONT Maps: M.: Dick, Drop, 2012. - 16 s.
Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Directory and Statistical Collections
1. Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia / A.P. Gorkin. - M.: Rosman-Press, 2006. - 624 p.
Literature for preparing for GIA and EGE
1. Geography: initial course: tests. Studies. Handbook for students of 6 cl. - M.: Humanit. ed. Center Vlados, 2011. - 144 p.
2. Tests. Geography. 6-10 CL.: Educational and methodical manual / A.A. Letlyagin. - M.: Agency "Agency" Krp "Olymp": "Astrel", "AST", 2001. - 284 p.
1. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().
2. Russian Geographical Society ().
Test Compiled as possible. The level of knowledge of the terminology and skills is checked to relate objects and work with a contour card on this topic. The work includes the criteria for assessing students' knowledge and answers.
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Administrative
test
by geography
on this topic:
"Inland waters"
class: 8.
the date of the:
Option 1. Level A 10 points
1. Specify rivers that belong to the northern pool Arctic Ocean:
a) Ural, Onega, Kama b) Onega, Yenisei, Lena
c) Pechora, Anadyr, Amur d) Kuban, Terek, Dnipro
2. Most rivers of Russia have a power type:
a) raindrops b) snow c) mixed d) underground
3. Border River:
a) Lena b) Volga c) Yenisei d) Amur
4. Advance offer:
Relief shape having a type of stage or ledges with horizontal or slope by a sloping surface is
a) watershed; b) meander; c) terrace; d) Delta.
5. Home River With all her tributaries:
a) river system b) river basin B) river mode
6. Lakes in which rivers flow, but do not originate, called:
A) Selfless b) waste
C) tectonic d) fresh.
7. Flooding is most often on rivers current:
a) from Sevra south; b) from the south to north c) from west to the east; d) from east to west.
8. Complete distribution eternal Merzlota Characteristic to:
A) Sakhalin Island; b) Kamchatka c) Peninsula Taimyr; d) Kuril Islands.
9. Indicate the territory where rivers with flood mode are located:
a) Eastern European Plain; b) West Caucasian Mountains;
c) medium-grained plateore; d) Far East.
10. The flat river is:
a) Terek b) Ob b) Anadyr d) Pechora.
Level 10 points
a) Ob flows into the Kara Sea c) the source of the Volga River - the Caspian Sea
b) Lena flows into the Chukotka Sea d) Oka flows into the Volga
2. The main causes of the spread of the marshes: (2 points)
A) flat relief d) insufficient moisture
B) dismembered relief g) tectonic depressions on the earth's surface
C) Moisturizing coefficient View more than 1
1. Rybinskoe a) tectonic
2. Onega b) glacier-tectonic
3. Baikal c) artificial
4. Kronotsky d) volcanic
Answer:
Level C - 15 points.
1. Determine the River on the description: (5 points)
Takes the beginning in Elbrus glaciers, flows into the Azov Sea, forms a delta. In the warm part of the year, the level in the river is preserved high due to melting of snow and ice in highlands. Often, such a power mode leads to floods.
a) Terek; b) Amur; c) Kuban; d) Neva.
a) River Irtysh;
b) Lake Hank;
C) Vitim River;
d) the Yana River;
E) Lake Baikal; e) the Don River;
g) Lake Ladoga;
h) River North Dvina; and) River Kama;
K) Rybinsk reservoir.
Option 2. Level A 10 points
1. Specify rivers that belong to the pool of the Pacific:
a) Lena, Indigirka, Kama b) Oka, Neva, Terek
c) Kamchatka, Anadyr, Amur d) Kuban, Irtysh, Ishim
2. From climate depends:
a) flow rate b) river mode c) flow direction
3. Border Lake of Russia:
a) Baikal b) Onega c) Khanka d) Chan.
4. Advance offer.
Formed from river seals before the mouth of the River Plain, on which the river is divided into the sleeves
a) Delta b) terrace c) meander g) watershed
5. A short-term rise in the water level in the river, caused by entering the river of abundant precipitation:
a) flood b) flood c) flood
6. Rivers prevail in our country:
A) with summer floors; b) with flooding mode; c) with spring floors;
7. Most rivers of Russia have mixed nutrition with a predominance:
a) rain b) snow c) underground d) glacial
8. Mountain glaciers are distributed on:
A) the Caucasus; b) Southern Urals; c) Plateau Puratorna; d) Vasyugania.
9. For what of the regions is characterized by the greatest degree of wetlability of the territory?
but) Western Siberia; b) the Ural;
c) the Far East; d) North Caucasus.
10. Mountain river is an:
a) Volga b) Ural c) Terek g) Lena
Level 10 points
1. Select correct statements: (2 points)
A) Ob - the biggest influx of Irtysh c) the largest tributaries of the Volga - Kama and Oka
b) the origin of the hangars - Lake Baikal d) in Baikal flows 30 rivers
2. The main causes of education perennial Murzlota: (2 points)
A) snow winters c) coating icing
B) long winters d) frosty winter D) long-term permafrost
3. Set the match. (6 points)
Lake The origin of the lake basin
1. Teletskoye a) tectonic
2. Kurilsky b) glacier-tectonic
3. Ladoga c) artificial
4. fraternal d) volcanic
Answer:
Level C - 15 points
1. Determine the description of the river: (5 points)
Refers to the Northern Ocean Basin, originates in Altai Mountains. River basin The rivers together with the tributaries is the largest in Russia.
a) Volga; b) oh; c) Lena; d) Amur.
2. What numbers on the map are indicated:
a) River Yenisei;
b) the Vilyui River;
c) the Indigirka River;
D) the Pechora River;
e) lake Onega;
e) River Volga;
g) Rybinsk reservoir;
H) River Angara;
and) the Ural River;
K) River Oka.
Answers:
Level A 10 points
1 option 2 option
1 b 1 in
2 in 2 b
3 g 3 in
4 in 4 a
5 A 5 b
6 and 6 in
7 b 7 b
8 at 8 a
9 B 9 A
10 b 10 in
Level 10 points
1. A, G - 2 points 1 B, in
2. A, B - 2 score 2. B, g
3. 1 V, 2 b, 3a, 4 g - 6 points 3. 1 A, 2 g, 3 b, 4 V
Level with 15 points
1. in (Kuban) 5 points 1. B (OB)
2. 10 points
a 11 A 6
b 14 b 7
at 10 in 8
g 9 g 1
d 15 d 16
e 3 E 2
w 12 g 13
s 4 s 5
and 17 and 18
to 13 to 19
Evaluation Criteria: 35 points
Rating "5" - 35-30
Evaluation "4" - 29 -25
Rating "3" - 24 -17
Rating "2" - 16 and
Level C - 15 points
1 option
1. Select true statements:
but ) For plain rivers with a predominance of snow nutrition, characterized by spring flood;
b) Russian rivers belong to the pools of all oceans;
in ) Almost all the rivers of Russia in winter there can be ice stations
d) The area of \u200b\u200bthe marshes exceeds 80% of Russia.
Option 2
1. Select Invalid Approval:
a) the lakes of the southern regions of Russia have saltwaten water;
b. ) Mountain glaciers are distributed in the Caucasus, Altai, Kamchatka;
c) 60% of the territory of Russia is occupied by many years of Merzlot.
d) Russian rivers belong to the pools of all oceans.
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