There are different classifications for dividing countries into regions. There are geographical ones, there is a UN classifier, there are copyright ones. Therefore, there is only one doubt that Southern Europe is the one near the Mediterranean Sea, because this sea washes precisely the south of Europe. We will include in Southern Europe:
- Andorra, southern Spain and Portugal
- Monaco,
- states located on the Apennine Peninsula (Italy, Vatican City, San Marino),
- Greece,
- island states of Malta and Cyprus.
Sometimes Southern Europe also includes Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, southern regions Ukraine and the European part of Turkey. But if memory serves, we have already entered them into .
Important peculiarity of the situation in the countries of Southern Europe, which are located on the peninsulas and islands of the Mediterranean Sea, is that they are on the main sea routes from Europe to Asia, Africa and Australia, and Spain and Portugal are also ports on the way to America. All these countries, their history and economy are closely connected with the sea.
Equally important is the fact that the region is located between the rest of Europe and the countries of North Africa. Although the countries’ connections are carried out across the sea, these connections are multilateral and centuries-old. There were times when people from Africa claimed dominance in this region, then vice versa - northern Africa became colonies of Portugal, Italy and Spain. And Malta is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, led by Great Britain, i.e. still a colony (to put it bluntly).
The relief of the region is an alternation of lowlands, hilly ridges and individual mountain ranges up to 1000 m high.
Southern Europe. Climate
Southern Europe is a region with a predominant subtropical climate. The coast here is dry and hot, especially in summer. There is practically no vegetation on the coast, bare earth and rocks. The waters of the Mediterranean Sea will delight you pleasant temperature starting in May. The average temperature in summer is about +24 °C, in winter it is quite cool - about +8C. Precipitation is about 1000-1500 mm per year.
Inland waters
Southern Europe has mountainous terrain and subtropical climate with dry summers they form unique conditions for the formation of a river network. Rivers, as a rule, have a large slope and a shallow bed. Many of them, especially on the Iberian Peninsula, have rapids in their lower reaches. The amount of water in rivers fluctuates greatly throughout the year. In winter, during rains, the rivers are quite muddy due to suspended matter from the banks and the bottom of the riverbed. In summer, rivers become shallow, and some in southern Italy and Greece dry up completely in the summer.
Flora and fauna
Even the names themselves are unusual: strawberry trees, holm oaks, myrtles, olives, grapes, citrus fruits, magnolia, cypresses, chestnuts, junipers. Fauna: roe deer, servals, horned goats, foxes, monitor lizards, wolves, badgers, raccoons. But the places where all this grows or runs around to look for it - as was written above, especially on the coast, the area is deserted of vegetation.
Population and economic activity
Traditionally, Southern Europe has a high birth rate, but natural population growth is low. Peoples: Spaniards, Italians, Portuguese, Greeks. Population density, from 10 or more people per km² (someone wrote that this is high density!?). The predominant religion is Catholicism.
In most countries, agriculture, mining, animal husbandry, and the production of machinery and instruments, fabrics, and leather are widespread. Of course, grapes are grown here. Tourism is still popular, but if refugees from Arab countries occupy territories, the situation may change.
Climate-forming factors:
1. geographical latitude;
2. proximity or distance from seas and oceans;
3. the nature of the underlying surface;
4. influence of cold warm sea currents;
5. orographic factor;
6. atmospheric circulation;
7. absolute surface height;
8. vegetation, ice and snow cover;
9. anthropogenic factor.
Let us characterize each of these climate-forming factors and determine the nature of its impact on the formation of the climate of Foreign Europe.
1. Foreign Europe is located primarily in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. The determining factors of the thermal regime are total radiation and radiation balance. In Western Europe they naturally decrease from south to north. Total radiation on the island. Sicily and the south of the Balkan Peninsula is about 160 kcal/cm2 per year, at the latitude of Paris about 100, and at the latitude of Stockholm 80. The same significant differences are noted for the average annual radiation balance, varying from 60 kcal/cm2 in the Mediterranean, in the Paris region - 40 and up to 10 in the north of Scandinavia. These circumstances determine significant differences in temperature conditions.
Isolines annual total radiation and radiation balance pass approximately in the latitudinal direction, i.e. The climate has a zonal distribution. But isotherms, especially winter ones, deviate significantly from parallels. This deviation is explained by the impact on temperature conditions other factors. In the annual course of total radiation and radiation balance, seasonality is clearly revealed in air circulation. The presence of thermal seasons of the year is distinctive feature throughout Europe, but the duration of the seasons and the degree of severity vary significantly across its territory.
2. Air masses of three main types circulate over Europe: temperate, arctic and tropical. The proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, with the dominance of the western transport of air masses in temperate latitudes, determines the predominance of sea air in Foreign Europe. The dominance of humid Atlantic air determines the widespread development of oceanic climate varieties in Western Europe. The orography of the territory and, first of all, the absence of mountain barriers in the way of the western air flow (with the exception of the Scandinavian mountains) contribute to the penetration of sea air into the interior of the continent. The oceanic nature of the climate is also enhanced by the influence of the seas and bays that extend deeply into the European landmass. Continental air masses penetrating from the east play a lesser role. Northern Territories are subject to frequent incursions of arctic air, which occasionally reach the Alps and Pyrenees in winter; Southern Europe is influenced by tropical air masses, which in summer can sometimes penetrate as far as southern Scandinavia.
The circulation of other air masses is determined by the distribution of atmospheric pressure. The most important feature pressure distribution in lower layers atmosphere is the presence of high pressure belts in the Arctic and subtropics and belts between them low blood pressure. In winter, the role of the Asian (Central Asian or Siberian) anticyclone is great, giving a large spur towards Western Europe. In the subtropics the most high value pressure reaches in the area of the Azores Islands, where the Azores High is located. Center low pressure Temperate latitudes over the Atlantic is the Icelandic Low. The degree of expression of pressure centers and their influence on air circulation vary seasonally.
Annual quantity atmospheric precipitation for foreign Europe, and especially for Central and Northern Europe, it is characterized by sufficient stability. This is evidenced by the ratio of the maximum annual precipitation to the minimum, ranging from 2 to 3. In Southern Europe, this ratio can reach 4-5, which may be a consequence of the less stability of circulation processes, including the frequency of Mediterranean cyclones in the winter half of the year.
Humidity in the territory of Foreign Europe decreases from north to south and from west to east.
Surface moisture is determined not only by the amount of precipitation, but also by other factors. The main one is temperature, on which the amount of evaporation mainly depends. Because of this, areas that receive equal amounts of precipitation but have different thermal conditions may differ greatly in moisture levels. Evaporation has a zonal course. It reaches its greatest value in Southern Europe - 1000-1250 mm per year, and in Northern Europe it is 600-800 mm per year, while the ratio of precipitation to evaporation value, in general, characterizes the degree of moisture in the territory. If the amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation, excess moisture is created, but if it is less than evaporation, then moisture is insufficient. Excessively humidified areas with a maritime climate and those areas with a continental climate in which, with relatively low amounts of precipitation but low temperatures, evaporation does not reach large values (for example, eastern Fennoscandia). The center and east of the Iberian Peninsula, the east of the Apennine and Balkan peninsulas, and some areas of the Danube plains are not sufficiently moistened. The remaining areas have moderate moisture. It must be borne in mind that areas characterized by annual moderate moisture may experience a sharp moisture deficit in certain months. This primarily applies to Southern Europe, where in summer low precipitation is combined with high evaporation. In different seasons of the year, the heating of land and adjacent water areas changes, which causes corresponding seasonal changes atmospheric circulation.
3. One of the most powerful currents in the world flows off the coast of Foreign Europe - the North Atlantic (Gulf Stream), which has a significant impact on its climate. In this regard, there is a deviation of all meteorological indicators from the norm, as evidenced by Table No. 2.1 Warm waters of the current have a warming effect and lead to the formation of a unique Mediterranean type of climate. IN winter time Every year, a series of cyclones form over the ocean surface, which can penetrate far to the east, thereby leading to an increase in temperature and precipitation.
4. Due to the proximity of Foreign Europe to the Atlantic Ocean, the climate becomes humid and warms. In the direction from west to east, there is a gradual transformation of sea air into continental air, which makes the climate less humid and warm.
5. Due to the peculiarities of the relief of Europe, its fragmentation and absence of long-distance meridional and rather low mountain ranges, Atlantic air freely penetrates to the east, not only into Eastern Europe, but also beyond the Urals, into Asia.
During the winter season in Europe, Atlantic air masses associated with a general westerly transport. Differences in the thermal properties of air masses determine the formation of fronts and cyclones. Fronts arise between air masses various types(between arctic and temperate, temperate and tropical), and between different subtypes (for example, between temperate marine and continental). Precipitation is largely associated with cyclonic activity on fronts. In January, the main paths of the polar front cyclones pass over the north of the British Isles, the south of Scandinavia, the Baltic, and Mediterranean Sea.
In winter, the transfer of air from the ocean to land and the warming influence of the North Atlantic (Gulf Stream) Current, the waters of which rush from the southwest to the northeast along the “cyclone road” moving from the coast North America to the shores of Europe, soften the climate, causing significant above-zero temperature anomalies in the east of the North Atlantic. The Gulf Stream originates in Caribbean. Two branches deviate from it: the first to the south and southeast, and the most powerful one goes to the northeast called the North Atlantic Current or Gulf Stream Drift, which reaches the shores of Europe.
The water temperature in the Gulf Stream off the coast of Florida on the ocean surface is about 26C, within Sargasso Sea it is only a few degrees higher than the water temperature in areas of the ocean adjacent to the current. As you move north and northeast, the temperature of the Gulf Stream gradually decreases, but remains quite high compared to the temperature of the ocean outside this current. So, in April at the latitude of the Arctic Circle in the central section of the current it is 20C, while several hundred kilometers to the west it is only a few degrees above zero, and even further west is the edge of the polar ice Greenland Sea. The current speed is approximately 7 km/h. The width of the current core at Cape Hatteras is about 100 km. As a result, a stable and very deep Icelandic depression forms over the North Atlantic; in the center the pressure drops to 997 hPa.
The Azores anticyclone moves south in winter, its area is small, and it does not have any effect on the climate of Europe in winter.
Over the cold continental surface of Eurasia, air masses cool, the air becomes denser and settles. As a result, areas of high pressure are formed in the surface layers of the atmosphere and low pressure in the upper layers. The pressure increases most sharply over the central regions of Eurasia, where the Asian anticyclone is formed; in its center the pressure reaches 1040 hPa.
At the contact of moist and warm Atlantic air masses with cold continental masses, cyclogenesis arises - the polar front. Its long-term average trajectory takes it over the Scottish Highlands and southern Scandinavia.
The western movement of air masses leads to the formation of high pressure centers over the south of Central Europe. In the east they represent a spur of the powerful Asian anticyclone, in the west, over the Iberian Peninsula, the Azores anticyclone, in the center - shallow areas of high pressure over the basins of Central Europe.
Over the Mediterranean Sea basin, limited to the north by a mountain barrier, local cyclogenesis develops. The large mass of the Mediterranean Sea has extremely limited water exchange with the Atlantic Ocean due to the high Gibraltar threshold. In summer the sea accumulates a large number of heat, and in winter it turns out to be abnormally warm compared to the Atlantic at the same latitudes. Most often, Mediterranean cyclones form over the waters of the Gulf of Genoa, over the Tyrrhenian and Ionian seas, over the island. Cyprus. The passage of Mediterranean cyclones is accompanied by heavy rainfall, and in the mountains - snowfall.
In this regard, the course of the isotherms of the winter months in Europe deviates greatly from the latitudinal one and reveals very noticeable differences in the temperature regime not only between north and south, but also between the west and east (the exception in this regard is southern Europe, where the isotherms of the winter months adhere to the direction West East). When moving to the east, due to the transformation of air masses, the warming influence of the western transport decreases significantly, which is manifested in a change in the course of isotherms. The general pattern of the isotherms of the winter months for most of Western Europe is their length from northwest to southeast, and in some cases (Atlantic regions) from north to south. The warming influence of the North Atlantic Current is most fully manifested in northwestern Europe, where the mountainous regions of Scandinavia and the British Isles are in the path of relatively warm air masses.
Plays a big role in air circulation in winter polar region high pressure, sending waves of cold Arctic air far to the south. Sometimes they penetrate from the Mediterranean and even into North Africa, causing sharp but short-term cold snaps.
The Scandinavian mountains, determining the originality and thickening of the isotherms of the winter months, are an important climatic divide that separates the relatively warm winter regions of western Scandinavia from the cold regions of eastern Scandinavia. The January zero isotherm runs from southwest Norway (Bergen) through the Jutland peninsula and Berlin to Belgrade. Its direction is determined warm waters Atlantic. To the west of the zero isotherm, average January temperatures are positive.
Most of Western Europe in winter lies within positive average monthly temperatures; on the Atlantic plains of France and the British Isles, average January temperatures are about +7? C. Only the interior regions of Fennoscandia and the east of Central Europe have negative temperatures. However, in areas lying within the positive average temperatures of the winter months, absolute temperatures down to -15? C, -20 are possible. The highest winter temperatures are observed in the region of Mediterranean Europe, where the course of isotherms acquires a sublatitudinal trend, and average January temperatures vary from 0C in the north of the southern peninsulas to +10 and even +12 on the southern outskirts.
Due to these thermal conditions, a significant part of the territory of Western Europe is deprived of sustainable snow cover.
Snow cover is established, as a rule, annually on the plains east of the Bergen-Hamburg-Vienna-Belgrade line, where average temperature winter months below -3?C. In the north of Fennoscandia its duration reaches 6-7 months. In the south of Fennoscandia and in the east of the German-Polish lowland from 1 to 2 months, in the Danube plains 3-4 weeks. In France, the British Isles, and the northern Mediterranean, although snow falls, it quickly melts, lingering only in the mountains.
The westerly transport of air masses is not constant. It is best expressed north of the Pyrenees, Alps and Carpathians. For example, in winter in the northern part of Scandinavia, southwestern winds are 50-40% in frequency (Finland - northern Sweden) and 35% in Poland, decreasing further to the south.
In the northern and eastern parts of foreign Europe, winter prevails cloudy weather with moderate frosts. In the British Isles, the meadows turn green at this time, but wet snow occasionally falls, which is often replaced by cold rains. The eastern part of the Central European Plain is characterized by stable snow cover; It reaches its greatest thickness (up to 60-80 cm) in the north of Sweden.
The territory of Foreign Europe is well moistened. Precipitation falls in the form of rain, the largest amount (1000-2000 mm) falls on the windward, western slopes of the mountains of Scandinavia, the British Isles, the Alps, the Apennine and Dinaric mountains. As you move east, the moisture content in the air, and therefore the amount of precipitation, decreases to 400 mm in the east of the Balkan and south-east of the Iberian Peninsula.
Over the Atlantic, due to the predominance of westerly air transport, air masses are saturated with moisture, and therefore cyclonic activity leads to heavy precipitation (mainly in the form of rain) in almost all of Western Europe. They are especially large in the west of Scandinavia and the British Isles, the western parts of which are the first to encounter Atlantic air masses. A general decrease in the amount of precipitation occurs as one moves east, which is due to the attenuation of cyclonic activity in this direction and the gradual transformation of sea air into continental air.
The distribution of precipitation across the seasons is not uniform. The Atlantic regions are well moistened throughout the year (precipitation is maximum in winter). This is explained by the activation of the Icelandic cyclone during the cold season. As you move eastward, the maximum precipitation shifts to summer months, rains also fall during intramass convention at this time. In Southern Europe maximum amount precipitation falls in winter as a result of cyclonic activity on the polar front.
The degree of moisture in a territory is characterized by the ratio of the amount of precipitation to the amount of evaporation. The coastal areas in Western Europe and those inland areas where, with relatively small amounts of precipitation, but low temperatures evaporation is low. Insufficient degree of moisture in the center and east of the Iberian Peninsula, the east of the Apennine and Balkan Peninsula, and certain areas of the Danube plains. The remaining areas have moderate moisture. Some areas may experience moisture deficiency in early summer, when low precipitation is combined with high evaporation.
In summer The westerly air transport dominant over Europe remains. However, due to better heating of the continent, pressure and temperature gradients over land and ocean decrease, which, in turn, leads to a weakening of cyclonic activity. Due to the seasonal shift in circulation in the summer, the Azores High expands and shifts northward.
Its spur fills the entire Mediterranean and southern part of Central Europe. In summer, anticyclones often pass over the Mediterranean in the lower layers of the atmosphere, which creates significant weather stability here. The zone of formation and movement of cyclones narrows (compared to the winter season) and moves to the north, covering mainly Iceland, Scotland, and Scandinavia in the summer half of the year. Tropical air fills the Mediterranean region in summer; above southern part temperate zone Europe is dominated by air of temperate latitudes; continental in the east and maritime in the west.
In summer, the course of isotherms differs little from the course of isolines of total radiation. Only in the Atlantic regions do isotherms bend to the south (moderating influence of the sea), in Eastern Europe - to the north.
In summer, the thermal regime is more consistent with the zonal distribution solar heat(see Fig. 1.1). The July isotherms extend sublatitudinally, and only in the interior regions do they deviate to the northeast.
The following patterns are observed in the distribution of temperatures over the territory of Foreign Europe in summer: the continent experiences strong heating; The further south you go, the more significant this heating is. However, the coast is affected by the relatively colder ocean, temperatures there decrease slightly.
In Scandinavia, average July temperatures range from +10? C in the far north of Norway to +15 in the south of Sweden. Moreover, in the summer in the continental sector of Fennoscandia, where the moderating influence of the ocean does not affect, the air warms up more than at the same latitudes on the west coast: the average July temperature in southern Finland reaches +17? C, while in southern Norway it is equal only +13.
On the plains of the rest of Europe, July isotherms vary from +17? C in the north of Central Europe to +20 in the south of France and +22 on the Danube plains. In mountainous areas they change their sublatitudinal direction and follow the slopes of mountain ranges and massifs, repeating their outlines.
The warmest part of Europe is the Mediterranean. Here throughout summer period stands clear sunny weather, occasionally interrupted by strong thunderstorms. Average July temperatures vary from +23? C in the north of the southern peninsulas to +25 +26 in the south. In numerous intermountain basins they can rise to +28; Only in the mountains does the heat lessen and the rains fall more often.
The distribution of precipitation in the summer months is quite complex. There are very few of them in the Mediterranean, which is due to anticyclonic weather conditions and the prevailing winds of the northern directions here, flowing along the eastern periphery of the anticyclones. In other areas, the amount of precipitation in summer is equal to that in winter or even more (in the east). This is explained by the significant moisture content of the air due to its higher temperature.
In general, Western Europe is characterized by sufficient, and in some places heavy, amounts of precipitation. At the same latitudes more precipitation receive coastal territories. Mountain areas are better hydrated than the surrounding plains; on maps they stand out as peculiar islands high humidity. The windward slopes of the mountains of the British Isles and Scandinavian mountains receive a particularly large amount of precipitation (1500-2000 mm or more). The inner leeward slopes of Fennoscandia receive much less precipitation: from 500 to 700 mm, and in the north even less than 500 mm. Because temperatures here are low and evaporation is low. The entire area is characterized by excessive or sufficient moisture. In the central regions of Europe, the amount of annual precipitation and the nature of moisture are largely determined by the topography. On the Central European Plain, an average of 550 to 750 mm of precipitation falls; in the Central Middle Mountains, this amount increases to 1000-1500 mm and even 2000 mm, but there is especially a lot of moisture (about 2000 mm falls on the windward slopes of the Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians. Evaporation in Central Europe is only 600-700 mm. Consequently, there is sufficient moisture everywhere, but in the mountains it is excessive.
Low annual precipitation - less than 400 mm is typical for the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula, the interior of Scandinavia and Finland, and the east of the Balkan Peninsula. The Danube plains receive from 400 to 600 mm per year, and the Lower Danube plains receive 300 mm, which is explained by the isolation and leeward location of these plains in relation to the moisture-carrying air flow.
There are significant differences in the distribution of precipitation by season. In the Atlantic regions, precipitation falls more or less evenly throughout the year with some maximum in the autumn - winter season, which is associated with the frequent arrival of cyclones from the Atlantic. In the eastern regions of the temperate zone, the uniformity of precipitation is disrupted. Maximum precipitation occurs in the summer months.
Southern Europe is characterized by extreme uneven distribution precipitation by season with a clearly defined summer minimum, long period droughts and their no less clear maximum in the winter period of the year due to the frequent passage of polar-front cyclones. Winter rains in the Mediterranean are not prolonged; cloudy during the day rainy weather often gives way to clear, sunny weather. Due to the seasonal movements of the Mediterranean front, in the southern half of the Mediterranean the maximum precipitation occurs in mid-winter, in the northern half - in September - October and partly at the end of winter.
In southern Europe, maximum precipitation occurs in the winter season, while summer is dry. The narrow localization of winter cyclogenesis zones and the complex orography of the region create a mosaic picture of the distribution of atmospheric moisture. Significant amounts of precipitation are observed in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, in the Northern and Southern Apennines, where about 1500-2000 falls, and in the west of the Dinaric Highlands - more than 5000 mm (Crkvice station - maximum 8063 mm). The entire southeastern slope of the Alps also belongs to abundantly moist areas. Through which the trajectory of cyclones passes, bringing up to 4000 mm of precipitation. At the same time, in the intermountain basins and on the leeward coastal lowlands of the southeastern regions of all Mediterranean islands, the amount of falling moisture is reduced to 500-350 mm. In conditions high temperatures evaporation in the subtropics increases to 1000-1300 mm, so atmospheric humidification turns out to be sharply insufficient even in average annual terms. IN summer season in the northern regions of the European Mediterranean from 1 to 3 months, in the southern regions there is practically no precipitation for up to 5 months.
Temperate zone: A - northern boreal part of the temperate zone: a - marine type climate; b - transitional from marine to continental.
B - southern boreal: a - marine type of climate; b - transitional from sea to continental; c-even more continental (region of the Danube plains).
Subtropical zone: A - maritime climate Atlantic Europe; b - transitional climate from maritime Atlantic Europe to continental Eastern Europe.
Mountain climate ( hatching)
The complex impact of these factors and the peculiarities of climate, temperature, precipitation and snow cover make it possible to distinguish the following climatic zones and climate types within which Foreign Europe is located:
1. Arctic climate zone;
2. subarctic;
3. moderate:
Northern boreal temperate zone:
a) marine type of climate;
b) transitional from maritime to continental.
South boreal:
a) marine type of climate;
b) transitional from maritime to continental;
c) even more continental (the region of the Danube plains).
4. subtropical:
a) maritime climate of Atlantic Europe;
b) transitional climate from maritime Atlantic Europe to continental Eastern Europe.
5. mountain climate:
a) mid-mountain climate;
b) highland climate.
Europe is the second smallest part of the world (after Australia), which together with Asia forms the continent of Eurasia, which is the largest both in area and in population.
Basic Geographical Information
The territory of Europe is located in the western part of the Eurasian continent and occupies 10 million km². Almost all of the land is in the temperate zone. The regions in the south and north occupy climatic zones, respectively. The Atlantic Ocean and 16 seas wash the southwestern shores. North Sea Arctic Ocean wash the land in the north. The Caspian Sea is located on the southeastern border. Coastline strongly indented, the ocean basins have formed a huge number of islands and peninsulas. Extreme points:
- north - North Cape;
- south - Cape Marroki;
- west - Cape Roca;
- east - the eastern slope of the Polar Urals.
The largest islands are Great Britain, Iceland, Ireland, New Earth, Corsica, Sicily and Sardinia. Their total area is 700 thousand km². About twenty-five percent of the territory falls on the peninsulas: Apennine, Pyrenees, Balkan, Kola and Scandinavian.
Europe is usually divided into Eastern, Western, Southern and Central parts. The political map shows 50 independent states. The largest are Russia, Ukraine (part of the country’s territory is de facto not controlled by official authorities), Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy. Europe is third, after Asia and Africa. Most countries are in a state of rapid population aging. On National composition influenced by migration processes, revolutions and wars. Many nations have developed a complex gene pool. The dominant religion is Christianity.
Relief
On the subcontinent mountain systems combined with plains. This is due to the fact that part of the area stands on the East European Platform. Final geological structure European part acquired light 30 million years ago. Tectonic movements formed the basins of the seas and raised mountain ranges to their current heights.
Glaciers that existed thousands of years ago dramatically affected the land surface. In the process of melting, they transferred rocks far to the south. Huge masses of sand and clay formed lowlands called "polesie". Unlike Asia, Europe does not have high mountain ranges. The highest points are:
- Elbrus is the highest point of the subcontinent and Russia, 5642 m.
- Mont Blanc is a massif in the Western Alps, 4810 m.
- Dufour is the highest point in Switzerland, 4634 m.
- Liskamm is a peak on the border of Italy and Switzerland, 4527 m.
The movement of the crust was accompanied by volcanic activity. Volcano Etna, 3340 m high, is located in Sicily. On the Italian mainland there is another active volcano, Vesuvius. The topography of Eastern Europe is dominated by uplands: Central Russian, Podolsk, and Volga. There are also lowlands here: the Black Sea and Caspian. The formation of the relief continues to this day. This is evidenced by regular earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Inland waters
The confluence of the rivers Inn and Ilts into the Danube River
Most of the reservoirs belong to the Atlantic Ocean basin. The most big rivers: The Rhine, Vistula and Oder are located in the Central and Eastern parts. Important role Their diet consists of melted snow waters. After the end of the flood, river levels drop. In winter they freeze.
The largest river, the Volga, begins in the Valdai Hills. It is fed by the Kama and Oka channels, and its length is 3530 km. The second largest river, the Danube, stretches for 2850 km. It connects the countries of Western Europe with each other. The Dnieper, with a length of 2201 km, is the most big river Ukraine. It begins in the Valdai Upland and ends in the Dnieper estuary of the Black Sea.
Lakes are distributed unevenly across the area. The largest is the Caspian Sea, containing salt water. It is followed by the freshwater Ladoga and Lake Onega. Other lakes are located in the southeast. These include Elton and Baskunchak.
Climate
Climate map of Europe according to Köppen
Due to its location in a temperate climate zone, the European part of the world has clearly defined seasons. The north and south of Europe are radically different from the eastern part. The annual amount of sun received in the south is several times greater than in the north. The proximity of the Atlantic Current to the North Atlantic Current increases the temperature off the western coasts.
The interaction of air masses forms frequent cyclones. They bring thaws in winter and rains in summer. Formed anticyclones give heat in summer and clear but cold temperatures in winter. The main role in climate formation is played by the transfer of air masses in the west. Due to the plains in the east, arctic air penetrates far to the south.
The Arctic zone is dominated by cold, dry air. The sun stays low above the horizon almost all year. The subarctic zone covers the coast of the Barents Sea, northern Scandinavia and Iceland. Summer temperatures there rise above ten degrees Celsius. Most of Europe lies in the zone temperate latitude. The climate varies greatly between seasons. The southeast belongs to the continental zone. There are hot summers but warm winters. The southern part covers subtropical zone. In summer there is tropical heat, and the maximum winter temperature is 10°C.
Flora and fauna:
Vegetable world
Green World Arctic zone is represented by lichens and mosses. In the south, in the forest-tundra zone, dwarf trees and shrubs grow. The dominate coniferous trees: firs, spruces, cedars and larches. It is being replaced by a zone of deciduous forests. Oak, aspen, birch and maple grow here. The foot of the mountains is home to conifers. Below the forest belt, alpine meadows begin. The territory of the Caucasus is a zone of unique herbaceous plants and trees. There is boxwood, chestnut, and rhododendron. The flora of southern Europe is characteristic of the subtropics. Here you can see palm trees and vines. The green world of the subcontinent is diverse and multifaceted.
Animal world
In polar bears and arctic foxes. The coast is home to seals and walruses. Diverse. It is inhabited by wapiti, bears, lynxes, sables and squirrels. The fauna of broad-leaved forests is just as multifaceted. Badgers, squirrels, wild boars, deer and minks live here. The steppes are a haven for compact animals: foxes, jerboas and saigas. The mountainous regions are inhabited by chamois, goats, rams and goitered gazelles.
Minerals
Coal mines are located in England, Germany, Poland and Ukraine. In the Volga region there are large deposits oil and gas. The North Sea shelf began to be developed in the second half of the 20th century. Here is a source of hydrocarbon raw materials.
Thanks to vulcanization processes, ore deposits were formed. Various types of metals are mined in the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, Lorraine and Krivoy Rog basins. Ore and precious stones are found in the Urals. There is also mercury, uranium and polymetals. Europe is the source of granite, marble and basalt.
Atmospheres. Carbon dioxide emissions form acid rain and I could. Wastewater. Active exploitation soil cover leads to erosion. All European countries cooperate closely with each other. Their task is to unite to stop the destructive effects of developed industry.
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The features of the WE climate are determined by its extent from north to south, the circulation of air masses and the nature of the underlying surface - the absence of mountain barriers to the invasion of sea air.
Foreign Europe is located in 4 climatic zones (Arctic-subtropical). Changes in zones, different distances from sea coasts, and a variety of large relief forms determine a wide variety of climates. conditions The annual values of the radiation balance - the main energy climate factor - vary almost zonally across the territory of Europe. North E receives 2 times less solar radiation than the South (1250 MJ/m2 in the northern regions to 2500 MJ/m2 in the south of the Mediterranean Peninsula).
The predominant part of Europe is located within the temperate belt, which is characterized by westerly air transport, formed under the influence of 2 powerful pressure systems over the North Atlantic: Icelandic min and Azores max. Atlantic air masses, warm and humid (western transport), most often move over the European surface. The exceptions are the Apennine, Iberian, and Balkan peninsulas, where tropical VM circulation predominates here in summer; and Arctic air masses come to the northern regions of Fennoscandia in the cold season. The dominance of humid Atlantic air causes the climate to be oceanic. The oceanic nature of the climate is also enhanced by the influence of seas and bays protruding deeply into the land. On the Atlantic coast, the climate is maritime with cool summers and relatively warm winters. There is a lot of rain all year round. As you move away from the ocean, the climate gradually changes to a warm climate. The influence of relief is also manifested in an increase in the amount of precipitation on the slopes, facing the western winds (western slopes of the Alps).
Winter. VM transfer proceeds more intensively. This is facilitated by the formation of a zone of low atm pressure. The main pressure center is the Icelandic mine. The processes of such transfer are most active in the east North Atlantic, this is facilitated by 2 warm currents: the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic. The Azores anticyclone moves south in winter and decreases in size. Gradually, a powerful cooling of the VM occurs over the surface of Europe and the formation of zones of increased atmospheric pressure. These processes occur more clearly over Asia, where the Asian anticycle is formed, which covers Eastern Europe in the 2nd half of winter. In the zones of contact between warm and humid Atlantic volcanoes and cold continents, a polar front is formed. According to long-term averages, the polar front is passing over the Scottish Highlands and southern Scandinavia. The maximum boundaries of the passage of this front are from the North Arctic Circle to latitude 50. In this polar front, cyclones are formed that bring heavy precipitation. Another pressure center is the atmospheric minimum over the Mediterranean Sea, where cyclones originate. The main zones of cyclone formation: the Gulf of Genoa, the Ionian Sea and Cyprus district. From the Mediterranean zone, the cyclone moves to the east and north and carries a large amount of precipitation. Availability warm currents and From the sea contributes to the formation of winter positive anomalous t. So in winter 0 the isotherm rises to a latitude of 70º, and the winter positive t anomaly is +20̊. The warmest parts of Europe are the Mediterranean. In winter there is maximum precipitation. This is explained by the influx of warm and humid volcanic substances from the Atlantic Ocean. The greatest amount of precipitation falls on the windward slopes of mountainous mountains; the maximum values are typical for places where cyclones pass.
Summer. During this season of the year, thermal contrasts between land and ocean decrease. The Icelandic mine is weakening and decreasing in size. At the same time, the Azores antitsik is growing rapidly and dominates most of Europe. There is little precipitation. In Northern Europe there is a zone of cyclogenesis and a large amount of precipitation. Isle, British Isles, Scand. As a result, the weather here is cool with frequent cyclonic rains. In summer, the Azores anticyclone grows and covers the space above the Mediterranean Sea. As a result of this, there is an influx of VMs from northern Africa. The thermal regime does not have such anomalies and corresponds to zonal standards. The minimum t values in July are typical for northern Norway and the state. +10, in the south of Sweden +15, in central Europe average July from +17 in the north, +20 in France, +22-26 in Sredrye. PRECIPITATION. For Scandinavia and British Isles typical values: for windward slopes 2000 - 3000 mm, internal areas 500-700 mm. In central Europe and the Central European Plain 550-750 mm. On the Danube plains, precipitation decreases to 500 mm. In Southern Europe there is max precipitation in winter, min in summer. North-west of the Iberian Peninsula, north. and south Apennines up to 1500 - 2000. West of the Dinaric Highlands up to 5000 mm. The maximum is observed at the Crkvice station and is 8063 mm. In the northern regions of the Mediterranean, droughts lasting from 1 to 3 months are observed, in the southern regions up to 5 months.
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