The mountain system of southern Siberia is located in the very center of the Eurasian continent and is mountains of tectonic origin. They owe their formation to the movements of the lithospheric plates of the earth's crust.
An example of primary tectonic formations is the Himalayas. The mountain ranges of the South Siberian mountains were formed as a result of tectonic processes occurring in the old mountainous countries; repeated movements and uplifts led to the formation of folded block mountains.
All mountains of Southern and Eastern Siberia belong to this type.
Geographical position
This is one of the largest mountain systems in Russia, and even the former Soviet Union. Geographically, the system is formed by two mountainous countries, Altai-Sayan and Baikal. They include the Altai, Eastern and Western Sayan mountains, the Tonnu-Ola ridge, the Kuznetsk Alatau, the Yablonevy ridge of Transbaikalia and the Stanovoye Highlands, which borders the Khabar-Daban ridges. Geographically, this Eastern Siberia- Tyva, Buryatia, Altai Republic, Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk region and Kemerovo region.
Relief features
(Picturesque mountains, clear river Altai Territory )
Relief features, natural landscape, forest vegetation zones are very diverse, the main thing that unites all these mountains is the taiga zone. Foothills from the side Western Siberia and Altai Territory are represented by taiga and boreal forests, which pass into the southern taiga zone and, above 2000 meters above sea level, into the mountain taiga. If the Kuznetsk Alatau is a low-mountain and mid-mountain terrain, then the Sayans and Altai are mountains with alpine high-mountain terrain.
Mountain taiga in the upper tiers is inferior to alpine and subalpine meadows, char are common, and in intermountain basins small glaciers. The Khabar-Daban and Tonnu-Ola ridges are a typical mountain taiga with all its diversity of flora and fauna, bear and wapiti, an abundance of the most ancient bird of our forests - wood grouse, blueberry and blueberry glades.
In the Western Sayan Mountains, areas of high-mountain tundra are common. Here you can find reindeer and cranberries. The main wealth of the taiga South Siberian Mountains- Siberian cedar pine. It is the mountains that are the main habitat of this coniferous species, which is considered sacred for all the peoples of Siberia.
The mountain system of the South Siberian Mountains influences the climate of the entire region. The most noticeable places in Siberia in this regard are the wide mountain basins - Minusinsk, Tuva, Kurai, Chui. They have a special favorable microclimate for the life of indigenous peoples and farming there, as nowhere else. The height of the mountains of Siberia reaches 2500-2600 meters above sea level.
All the rivers of Siberia and Far East originate in the mountains. Glaciers and mountain springs are the sources of all the mighty Siberian rivers. Additionally, we can add that the climate features of the Siberian mountain system also contribute to the replenishment of water resources. The sharply continental climate of southern Siberia with cold winters and hot summers in the mountains is abundantly flavored with precipitation. The mountainous regions of Siberia are among the wettest in terms of precipitation. In all historical eras, this led to the formation of raised swamps, and at higher levels - glaciers.
(Lake Akkem at the foot of Mount Belukha, Altai Territory)
Most of the most famous mountain peaks of Russia are located in this region - Mount Belukha in Altai, the highest point in Siberia, 4506 m. Kodar Range in the Stanovoye Highlands, height 3072 m. Peaks of the Western Sayan - Aradansky (famous Ergaki) height 2456 m, Zvezdny height 2265 m. Kyzyl-taiga, height 3121 m. The ridges of the Eastern Sayan with the highest point Munku-Sarlyk with a height of 3491 m and the Grandiose peak (the node of this mountainous country) 2982 m. This is not only an attractive place for pioneers and climbers, the mountains of southern Siberia are a storehouse of useful minerals, precious metals and uranium ores. Such researchers and writers as Vyacheslav Shishkov, Grigory Fedoseev, Vladimir Arsenyev, Nikolai Ustinovich were fans of this mountain system and described it in their books.
General characteristics of Southern Siberia
The mountain belt of Southern Siberia is the largest mountainous country in Russia, covering an area of more than $1.5 million sq. km. This is a deep area and elevated above the level of the World Ocean. The distribution of landscapes here has a well-defined altitudinal zonation. More than half of the area is occupied by typical mountain taiga landscapes. The relief is very rugged and the amplitudes of its heights lead to diversity and contrast natural conditions. Winters are quite severe, which is a condition for the spread of permafrost.
Thanks to the warm summer upper limit landscape areas occupy high position. Steppes, for example, rise to a height of $1000$-$1500$ m, and forest zone has an upper limit of $2300$-$2450$ m. The nature of this physical-geographical country is also influenced by the adjacent territories. For example, the nature of the steppe landscapes of the Altai foothills is similar to the Western Siberian steppes, the forests of Northern Transbaikalia are almost no different from the South Yakut taiga, the steppe intermountain basins of Tuva and Eastern Transbaikalia are similar to the Mongolian steppes.
The mountains of Southern Siberia do not allow the penetration of air masses from the west and north into Central Asia and are an obstacle to the spread of Siberian plants and animals to Mongolia and vice versa. This belt of mountains, starting from the 17th century, has always attracted the attention of Russian travelers. The first Russian cities were founded by pioneer Cossacks - Kuznetsky Ostrog, Krasnoyarsk, Nizhneudinsk, Barguzinsky Ostrog.
In the 18th century, the first non-ferrous metallurgy and mining enterprises appeared here - the Nerchinsk silver smelting plant and the Kolyvan copper smelting plant. The discovery of gold deposits in Altai, Salair, and Transbaikalia was of great importance for further development countries. The Russian Academy of Sciences, the Geographical Society, and the Mining Department send their expeditions to this physical-geographical country, which include prominent scientists - P.A. Chikhachev, I.A. Lopatin, P.A. Kropotkin, I.D. Chersky, V.A. Obruchev et al.
Note 1
The work of Siberian scientific and industrial organizations made a great contribution to the study of the region. The materials collected over this long period of time provide sufficient full description features of the nature of the mountain belt of Southern Siberia. Studying geological structure territory contributed to the discovery large deposits mineral.
Physiographic location of Southern Siberia
The mountain belt of Southern Siberia is a continental territory, remote from the oceans. The mountains stretch from west to east for $4500$ km. They start from the plains of Western Siberia and reach the ridges lying on the coast Pacific Ocean. To the north and east of Altai there are two ridges. In the first case, the Salair Ridge and Kuznetsk Alatau, in the second case, the Western Sayan and Tannu-Ola. Between the ridges is the Tuva Basin. Eastern Sayan is located perpendicular to Western Sayan. Between them and Kuznetsk Alatau there is the Minusinsk Basin. The Eastern Sayan gradually turns into the Khamar-Daban and Barguzinsky ranges - these are the Baikal ranges. To the east of Lake Baikal, the Transbaikal mountainous country begins. It consists of low Yablonovy, Borschovochny, Olekminsky ridges and elevated plains - the Vitim Plateau.
The mountains of Southern Siberia are located between the Arctic Ocean river basin, the inland drainage region of Central Asia and the Amur basin. The mountains have clear natural boundaries in the north and west, which separate them from neighboring physiographic countries. The southern border is the state border of Russia with Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China. In the east from the confluence of the Shilka and Arguni, the border goes north, reaches the Stanovoy Range and goes to the upper reaches of the Zeya and Maya.
The mountains of Southern Siberia include:
- Altai;
- Western and Eastern Sayan;
- Ranges of the Baikal region;
- Highlands of Transbaikalia;
- Stanovoy Ridge;
- Aldan Highlands.
These ranges unite into two large mountainous countries, which formed within the geosynclinal zone. This giant zone is the result of the interaction between the Chinese and Siberian platforms.
The resulting countries have names:
- Altai-Sayan mountainous country;
- Baikal mountainous country;
- Aldan-Stanovaya mountainous country.
The width of this mountainous country is from $200$ to $800$ km.
The geographical location of Southern Siberia influences the features of nature:
- Altitudinal zonation is well expressed in the distribution of landscapes;
- More than $60$% of the area is occupied by typical mountain-taiga landscapes;
- The mountainous terrain is very rugged;
- Natural conditions are varied and contrasting.
Relief of Southern Siberia
In terms of age, the relief of the mountain belt of Southern Siberia is relatively young, formed in Quaternary time. The result of its formation was the latest tectonic uplifts and erosional dissection.
The Altai-Sayan mountainous country includes:
- Kuznetsk-Salair mountain region;
- Altai Mountains;
- Both Sayans;
- Tuva mountain region.
To Baikalskaya mountainous country applies:
- Ranges of the Baikal region;
- Ranges of Transbaikalia;
- Baikal-Stanovaya mountain region.
Note 2
The highest mountain region in the mountain belt of Southern Siberia is Altai with the Belukha peak, whose height is $4506$ m. The Baikal mountainous country has lower altitudes and only within the Baikal-Stanovoy mountain region they become more than $3000$ m. In the structure of the mountains of Southern Siberia there is in orographic terms, symmetry, the center of which is the Baikal seam. The mountain ranges have a northwest direction to the west of this seam, and a northeast direction to the east of it. Large forms of relief in the mountain belt of Southern Siberia include mountain ranges, highlands, plateaus, intermountain basins - Kuznetsk, Minusinsk, Tuva, Tunkinsk, Baikal.
A feature of the mountains of Southern Siberia is the tiered relief:
Alpine highland terrain – highest tier. Its formation occurred in areas of significant Quaternary uplifts above $2500$ m.
This relief characterizes:
- Great depth of dissection;
- Significant height amplitude;
- Predominance of narrow ridges with steep slopes;
- Hard to reach peaks;
- Distribution of modern glaciers.
- Distribution of glacial landforms - troughs, sheep's foreheads, curly rocks, etc.
The alpine terrain, characterized by its harsh climate, accounts for $6$% of Russia's area. Nivation, frost weathering, and solifluction play a major role here.
Mid-mountain terrain. It is typical for Southern Siberia. Its formation is associated with the erosional dismemberment of ancient denudation surfaces raised by neotectonic movements. Characteristic of this relief are extensive flat interfluves, a dense network of deep river valleys.
Low mountainous terrain. It is typical for the outlying areas, where the elevation is the least. Low mountains have a height of $300$-$800$ m and form chains of hills.
Features characteristic of low-mountain terrain:
- Small amplitude of recent tectonic movements;
- Low relative heights;
- Gentle slopes;
- Development of deluvial cloaks.
Low-mountain relief is clearly expressed in the intermountain depressions of Eastern Transbaikalia.
Ancient leveling surfaces. These are undulating or small hilly denudation plains, widely represented in Eastern Altai, Sayan, Northern Transbaikalia at an altitude of $1500$-$2600$ m. The relief was formed by denudation processes during the Mesozoic era and Paleogene. In the Cenozoic era, these plains were uplifted by tectonic movements different heights. In the central regions of the mountain belt of Southern Siberia, the amplitude of uplifts reached a maximum compared to the outskirts.
Intermontane basins. They are located at an altitude of $400$-$1300$ m. As a rule, they are limited by the steep slopes of neighboring ridges, and they are composed of Quaternary loose sediments carried down from neighboring ridges. Basins most often have a flat topography. Their relative height amplitudes are small.
The article talks about the mountain ranges of southern Siberia and explains what determines the specifics of the mountain climate. Indicates the factors that formed the basis for the formation of mountain peaks. Supplements acquired knowledge of geography (8th grade).
The movement of tectonic plates was the main factor that influenced the formation of the mountain range.
The result of this movement has characteristics characteristic of folded-block formations dating back to the Mesozoic period, which took their current form.
Rice. 1. Mountains of Southern Siberia.
The mountains of Southern Siberia have attracted the attention of Russian researchers since the beginning of the 17th century. It was then that Cossack explorers founded the first cities here.
In the first half of the 18th century, manufactories and factories focused on the mining industry and non-ferrous metallurgy were founded here.
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The mountain belt of southern Siberia stretches up to 4500 km.
The most typical are mountain taiga larch and dark coniferous forests, which occupy about 3/4 of the entire territory. They dominate in the mountains natural areas characteristic of the taiga, and above 2000-2500 m already - for the mountain tundra.
A significant elevation above sea level is the main factor that indicates a pronounced altitudinal zonation in the separation of reliefs. The most common are mountain taiga landscapes, which cover over 60% of the entire territory.
Extremely rugged terrain and significant altitudinal amplitudes outline the diversity and contrast of natural conditions.
The largest mountain systems Russia, included in the South Siberian ridge are:
- Baikal region;
- Transbaikalia;
- Eastern and Western Sayans;
- Altai.
The highest peak is considered Altai mountain Belukha.
Rice. 2. Mount Belukha.
The mountain range is located on moving plateaus. This is a natural cause of fairly frequent seismological tremors that lead to earthquakes.
A natural wall of pinnacles is located in the interior of the mainland area. This explains the continental nature of the local climate.
It is worth noting that these areas are characterized by the presence of mountain steppes. In mountainous areas they rise to different heights and occupy small areas.
The peaks do not allow penetration air flows from the west and from the north to Central part Asia. They serve as a natural and reliable barrier to the spread of flora and fauna of Siberia to Mongolia.
Only in Altai the climate is slightly milder due to the characteristic high cloudiness. It protects the array from freezing. The summer period here is fleeting.
Rice. 3. Russia’s borders with other states in the region of the mountains of southern Siberia.
Geographical position
The mountain peaks of Southern Siberia are “sandwiched” between the river basin of the Arctic Ocean, the internal drainage region of Central Asia and the Amur basin. The peaks have clear natural limits to the north and west. Here they separate the territory from neighboring states. The southern border is Russia's neighborhood with Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China. In the eastern part, the boundaries of the massifs go north.
Highlands, and Aldan Highlands. The mountains formed within a giant geosynclinal zone. It arose as a result of the interaction of large blocks of the earth's crust - the Chinese and Siberian platforms. These are part of the Eurasian and experience significant horizontal movements, which in the zone of their contact are accompanied by crushing into sedimentary folds and the formation of mountains, faults of the earth's crust and the introduction of granite intrusions, the formation of various (ore and non-metallic) deposits. The mountains were formed during the Baikal, Caledonian and Hercynian folding eras. During the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, mountain structures were destroyed and leveled. The clastic material was carried into the intermountain basins, where at the same time there was an accumulation of thick strata of stone and. In Neogene-Quaternary times, as a result of intense movements of the earth's crust, large deep faults were formed. In the lowered areas, large intermountain basins arose - Minusinsk, Kuznetsk, Baikal, Tuva, and in the elevated areas - medium-high and partially high mountains. The highest mountains of Altai, where is located highest point throughout Siberia, Mount Belukha (4506 m). Thus, all epiplatform fold-blocks are revived. Vertical and horizontal movements of the earth's crust continue, so this entire belt belongs to the seismic regions of Russia, where the force can reach 5-7 points. Particularly strong earthquakes occur in the lake area. .
The rivers flowing from the mountains are rich in hydropower. fill lakes located in deep basins with water, and especially the largest and beautiful lakes Siberia - Baikal and.
54 rivers flow into Baikal, and one flows out. Its deepest lake basin in the world contains gigantic reserves of fresh water. The volume of its waters is equal to the entire sea and accounts for 20% of global and 80% of internal volumes fresh water. The water of Lake Baikal is very clean and transparent. It can be used for drinking without any cleaning or treatment. The lake is home to about 800 species of animals and plants, including such a valuable commercial fish, like omul and grayling. Seals also live in Baikal. Currently, a number of large industrial enterprises and cities. As a result, the unique qualities of its waters began to deteriorate. In accordance with government decisions, a number of measures are being taken to protect nature in the lake basin to maintain the cleanliness of the reservoir.
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general characteristics
The mountains of Southern Siberia are one of the largest mountainous countries of the Soviet Union: its area is more than 1.5 million hectares. km 2. Most of the territory is located inland at a considerable distance from the oceans. From west to east, the mountains of Southern Siberia stretch for almost 4500 km- from the plains of Western Siberia to the ridges of the Pacific coast. They form a watershed between the great Siberian rivers flowing to the Northern Arctic Ocean, and rivers that give their waters to the drainless region of Central Asia, and in the extreme east to the Amur.
In the west and north, the mountains of Southern Siberia are separated from neighboring countries by clear natural boundaries, most often coinciding with the ledges of the outlying areas of the mountains above the adjacent plains. The state border of the USSR and the Mongolian People's Republic is taken as the southern border of the country; the eastern border runs from the confluence of the Shilka and Arguni north, to the Stanovoy Range, and further, to the upper reaches of the Zeya and Maya.
The significant elevation of the territory above sea level is the main reason for the clearly expressed altitudinal zonation in the distribution of landscapes, of which the most typical are mountain taiga, occupying more than 60% of the country’s area. The highly rugged terrain and large amplitudes of its heights cause significant diversity and contrast in natural conditions.
The geographical location of the country, contrasting mountainous terrain and continental climate determine the peculiarities of the formation of its landscapes. Harsh winter contributes to the widespread distribution of permafrost, and comparatively warm summer determines the high position of the upper boundary of landscape zones for these latitudes. The steppes rise in the southern regions of the country to 1000-1500 m, the upper limit of the forest zone in some places reaches 2300-2450 m, i.e. it passes much higher than in the Western Caucasus.
The adjacent territories also have a great influence on the nature of the country. The steppe foothills of Altai are similar in the nature of their landscapes to the steppes of Western Siberia, the mountain forests of Northern Transbaikalia differ little from the taiga of Southern Yakutia, and the steppe landscapes of the intermountain basins of Tuva and Eastern Transbaikalia are similar to the steppes of Mongolia. At the same time, the mountain belt of Southern Siberia isolates Central Asia from the penetration of air masses from the west and north and makes it difficult for Siberian plants and animals to spread to Mongolia, and Central Asian plants to Siberia.
The mountains of Southern Siberia attracted the attention of Russian travelers from the beginning of the 17th century, when Cossack explorers founded the first cities here: Kuznetsky fort (1618), Krasnoyarsk (1628), Nizhneudinsk (1648) and Barguzinsky fort ( 1648). In the first half of the 18th century. mining and non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises are being created here (Nerchinsk silver smelting and Kolyvan copper smelting plants). The first ones began Scientific research nature.
The discovery in the first half of the 19th century was important for the development of the country's economy. gold deposits in Altai, Salair and Transbaikalia. Since the middle of the last century, the number of expeditions sent here for scientific purposes by the Academy of Sciences has increased, Geographical Society, Mining Department. Many prominent scientists worked as part of these expeditions: P. A. Chikhachev, I. A. Lopatin, P. A. Kropotkin, I. D. Chersky, V. A. Obruchev, who made a significant contribution to the study of the mountains of Southern Siberia. At the beginning of our century, V.V. Sapozhnikov studied Altai, F.K. Drizhenko conducted research on Baikal, geographer G.E. Grumm-Grzhimailo and botanist P.N. Krylov worked in Tuva, and V.L. worked in the Eastern Sayan. Komarov. Gold-bearing areas were explored and soil-botanical expeditions were carried out, which made a great contribution to the study of the country, in which V. N. Sukachev, V. L. Komarov, V. V. Sapozhnikov, I. M. Krasheninnikov and others took part.
After the October Revolution, diverse studies of natural resources were carried out by large complex expeditions of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Kuznetsk-Altai, Baikal, Gorno-Altai, Tuva, South Yenisei, Transbaikal) with the participation of the most prominent Soviet scientists.
Of great importance were the works of Siberian scientific and industrial organizations - the West Siberian and East Siberian branches of the USSR Academy of Sciences, institutes of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, especially the Institute of Geography of Siberia and the Far East, territorial geological departments of the Ministry of Geology, airborne geodetic enterprises, hydrometeorological service departments, and higher educational institutions.
Materials from Soviet-era expeditions quite fully characterize the natural features of the mountains of Southern Siberia, and a detailed study of their geological structure contributed to the discovery of a large number of mineral deposits (rare and non-ferrous metals, iron ores, mica, etc.).
Geological structure and history of development
Altai, Western Sayan and Baikal region in the Nature of the World section of our website.
Mountain building processes did not appear simultaneously on the territory of the country. First, intense folded tectonic uplifts occurred in the Baikal region, Western Transbaikalia and Eastern Sayan, which are composed of Precambrian and Lower Paleozoic rocks and arose as folded mountain structures in Proterozoic and Old Paleozoic times. In different phases of Paleozoic folding, the folded mountains of Altai, Western Sayan, Kuznetsk-Salair and Tuva regions were formed, and even later - mainly in the era of Mesozoic folding - the mountains of Eastern Transbaikalia were formed.
During the Mesozoic and Paleogene, these mountains, under the influence of exogenous forces, were gradually destroyed and turned into denudation plains, on which low hills alternated with wide valleys filled with sandy-clayey deposits.
In the Neogene - the beginning of the Quaternary, the leveled areas of the ancient mountainous regions were again raised in the form of huge arches - gentle folds of a large radius. Their wings in places of greatest stress were often torn apart by faults, dividing the territory into large monolithic blocks; some of them rose in the form of high ridges, others, on the contrary, sank, forming intermountain depressions. Ancient folded mountains as a result of these newest uplifts (their amplitude averaged 1000-2000 m) turned into highly elevated stepped plateaus with flat tops and steep slopes.
Exogenous forces resumed their work with new energy. Rivers cut the outlying areas of the rising mountain ranges with narrow and deep gorges; weathering processes resumed on the peaks, and giant screes appeared on the slopes. The relief of the raised areas “rejuvenated”, and they again acquired a mountainous character. Movements of the earth's crust in the mountains of Southern Siberia continue to this day, manifesting themselves in the form of fairly strong earthquakes and slow uplifts or subsidences that occur annually.
Quaternary glaciation was also of great importance in the formation of relief. Thick layers of firn and ice covered the most elevated mountain ranges and some intermountain basins. Tongues of glaciers descended into river valleys, and in some places adjacent plains emerged. Glaciers dissected the ridge parts of the ridges, on the slopes of which deep rocky niches and cirques formed, and the ridges in some places became narrow and acquired sharp outlines. The ice-filled valleys have the profile of typical troughs with steep slopes and a wide and flat bottom filled with moraine loams and boulders.
Types of relief
See photographs of the nature of the mountains of Southern Siberia: Altai, Western Sayan and Baikal region in the Nature of the World section of our website.
The relief of the mountains of Southern Siberia is very diverse. Nevertheless, they also have a lot in common: their modern relief is relatively young and was formed as a result of recent tectonic uplifts and erosional dissection in the Quaternary. Other characteristic feature mountains of Southern Siberia - the distribution of the main types of relief in the form of geomorphological belts or tiers - is explained by their different modern hypsometric position.
Alpine highland terrain is formed in areas of particularly significant Quaternary uplifts - in the highest ridges of Altai, Tuva, Sayan, Stanovoy Highlands and Barguzinsky ridge, rising above 2500 m. Such areas are distinguished by a significant depth of dissection, a large amplitude of heights, a predominance of steeply sloped narrow ridges with inaccessible peaks, and in some areas - a wide distribution of modern glaciers and snowfields. A particularly significant role in the modeling of the alpine relief was played by the processes of Quaternary and modern glacial erosion, which created numerous pits and cirques.
The rivers here flow in wide trough-shaped valleys. At the bottom there are usually numerous traces of the exaration and accumulative activity of glaciers - ram's foreheads, curly rocks, crossbars, lateral and terminal moraines.
Areas of alpine relief occupy about 6% of the country's area and are characterized by the most severe climatic conditions. In this regard, the processes of nivation, frost weathering and solifluction play an important role in the transformation of modern relief.
Particularly typical for Southern Siberia mid-mountain relief, occupying over 60% of the country's area. It was formed as a result of erosional dissection of ancient denudation surfaces and is typical for altitudes from 800 to 2000-2200 m. Thanks to Quaternary uplifts and a dense network of deep river valleys, fluctuations in relative heights in mid-mountain massifs range from 200-300 to 700-800 m, and the steepness of the valley slopes is from 10-20 to 40-50°. Due to the fact that mid-altitude mountains have been an area of intense erosion for a long time, the thickness of loose sediments here is usually small. The amplitudes of relative heights rarely exceed 200-300 m. In the formation of the relief of interfluves the main role belonged to the processes of ancient denudation; modern erosion in such areas is characterized by low intensity due to the small size of watercourses. On the contrary, most of the valleys of large rivers are young: they have a V-shaped transverse profile, steep rocky slopes and a stepped longitudinal profile with numerous waterfalls and rapids in the riverbed.
Alpine peaks of the Kodar ridge (Stanovoye Highlands). Photo by I. Timashev
Low mountainous terrain developed in the least elevated outlying areas. Low mountain areas are located at an altitude of 300-800 m and are formed by narrow ridges or chains of hills stretching along the periphery of the mid-mountain massifs towards the foothill plain. The wide depressions separating them are drained by small low-water rivers originating in the low-mountain zone, or by larger transit streams originating in the interior regions of mountainous regions. Low-mountain relief is characterized by a small amplitude of recent tectonic movements, insignificant relative heights (100-300 m), gentle slopes, widespread development of deluvial raincoats.
Areas of low-mountain relief are also found at the foot of mid-mountain ridges along the outskirts of some intermountain basins (Chuyskaya, Kuraiskaya, Tuva, Minusinskaya), at an altitude of 800-1000 m, and sometimes even 2000 m. Particularly typical low mountainous terrain for intermountain depressions of Eastern Transbaikalia, where the relative height of the outlier hills is from 25 to 300 m.
On the ridges of Eastern Altai, Sayan and Northern Transbaikalia, poorly dissected by modern erosion, they are widespread. ancient leveling surfaces. Most often they are located at an altitude from 1500 to 2500-2600 m and are undulating or shallow denudation plains. They are often covered with large-block placers of bedrock fragments, among which in some places there are low (up to 100-200 m) dome-shaped hills composed of the hardest rocks; Between the hills there are wide hollows, sometimes swampy.
The main features of the relief of the planation surfaces were formed by denudation processes during the Mesozoic and Paleogene. These denudation plains were then raised to varying heights as a result of Cenozoic tectonic movements; the amplitude of the uplifts was maximum in the central regions of the mountainous regions of Southern Siberia and less significant on their outskirts.
Intermountain basins are important element relief of the mountains of Southern Siberia. They are usually limited by the steep slopes of neighboring ridges and are composed of loose Quaternary sediments (glacial, fluvioglacial, proluvial, alluvial). Most intermountain basins are located at altitudes from 400-500 to 1200-1300 m. The formation of their modern relief is associated mainly with the processes of accumulation of loose sediments, which were carried here from neighboring ridges. Therefore, the bottom relief of basins is most often flat, with small amplitudes of relative heights; Terraces are developed in the valleys of slow-flowing rivers, and areas adjacent to the mountains are covered with mantles of deluvial-proluvial material.
Climate
See photographs of the nature of the mountains of Southern Siberia: Altai, Western Sayan and Baikal region in the Nature of the World section of our website.
The country's climate is determined by its geographical location in the southern half of the temperate climate zone and in the interior of the Eurasian continent, as well as the features of the contrasting topography.
The amount of total solar radiation in January ranges from 1-1.5 kcal/cm 2 in the foothills of Northern Transbaikalia up to 3-3.5 kcal/cm 2 in Southern Altai; in July - from 14.5 to 16.5, respectively kcal/cm 2 .
The position of the mountains of Southern Siberia in the most remote part of Eurasia from the seas determines the peculiarities atmospheric circulation. In winter, an area of high atmospheric pressure (Asian anticyclone) forms over the country, the center of which is located over Mongolia and Transbaikalia. In summer, the interior of the continent becomes very hot, and low atmospheric pressure sets in. As a result of the heating of the Atlantic and Arctic air masses arriving here over the mountains, continental air is formed. Over the southern regions of the country, where continental tropical air comes into contact with the cooler air of temperate latitudes, there is a Mongolian front, which is associated with the passage of cyclones and precipitation. However, the bulk of summer precipitation comes here as a result of processes of transport of Atlantic air masses coming from the west.
The climate of the country is somewhat less continental compared to the neighboring plains. In winter, due to the development of temperature inversions, the mountains turn out to be warmer than the surrounding plains, and in the summer, due to a significant decrease in temperature with height, the mountains are much colder and more precipitation falls.
In general, the climate is quite harsh for the latitudes in which the country is located. Average annual temperatures here are negative almost everywhere (in the high mountain zone -6, -10°), which is explained by the long duration and low temperatures of the cold season. The average January temperature is from -20 to -27°, and only in the western foothills of Altai and on the coast of Lake Baikal does it rise to -15 -18°. Northern Transbaikalia and intermountain basins, where temperature inversions are clearly expressed, are distinguished by especially low January temperatures (-32, -35°). In summer, these basins are the warmest areas of the mountain belt: average July temperatures in them reach 18-22°. However, already at an altitude of 1500-2000 m The duration of the frost-free period does not exceed 20-30 days, and frosts are possible in any month.
The climate features of the regions of Southern Siberia also depend on their location within the country. For example, the sum of temperatures during the growing season at an altitude of 500 m above sea level reaches 2400° in the southwest of Altai, in the Eastern Sayan it decreases to 1600°, and in Northern Transbaikalia - even to 1000-1100°.
On the distribution of atmospheric precipitation, the amount of which varies in different areas from 100-200 to 1500-2500 mm/year, strong influence has mountainous terrain. Largest quantity precipitation is received by the western slopes of Altai, Kuznetsk Alatau and Western Sayan, to which wet air masses from the Atlantic Ocean. Summer in these areas is rainy, and the power snow cover in winter it sometimes reaches 2-2.5 m. It is in such places that you can find damp fir taiga, swamps and wet mountain meadows - elani. On the eastern slopes of the mountains lying in the “rain shadow”, as well as in the intermountain basins, little precipitation falls. Therefore, the thickness of the snow cover here is small and permafrost is often found. Summer here is usually hot and dry, which explains the predominance of steppe landscapes in the basins.
In the mountains of Southern Siberia, precipitation falls mainly in the summer in the form of long rains and only in the most eastern regions - in the form of downpours. The warm period of the year accounts for up to 75-80% of the annual precipitation. In winter, much precipitation falls only on the western slopes of the mountain ranges. The snow, blown by strong mountain winds, fills the gorges here and accumulates in rock crevices and on wooded slopes. Its thickness in such places sometimes reaches several meters. But in the southern foothills of Altai, in the Minusinsk Basin and Southern Transbaikalia, little snow falls. In a number of steppe regions of the Chita region and the Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, the thickness of the snow cover does not exceed 10 cm, and in some places it is only 2 cm. It’s not every year that a toboggan run is installed here.
Most of the mountain ranges of Southern Siberia do not rise above the snow line. The only exceptions are the highest ridges of Altai, Eastern Sayan and Stanovoy Highlands, on the slopes of which modern glaciers and firn fields lie. There are especially many of them in Altai, the area of modern glaciation of which exceeds 900 km 2, in Eastern Sayan it barely reaches 25 km 2, and in the Kodar ridge, in the east of the Stanovoy Highlands, - 19 km 2 .
Permafrost is widespread in the high mountains of Southern Siberia. In the form of islands, it is found almost everywhere and is absent only in the western and northwestern regions of Altai, on Salair, as well as in the Kuznetsk and Minusinsk basins. The thickness of the frozen layer varies - from several tens of meters in the south of Transbaikalia to 100-200 m in low-snow regions of Tuva and the eastern part of the Eastern Sayan; in Northern Transbaikalia at an altitude of more than 2000 m maximum permafrost thickness exceeds 1000 m.
Rivers and lakes
See photographs of the nature of the mountains of Southern Siberia: Altai, Western Sayan and Baikal region in the Nature of the World section of our website.
The sources of great rivers are located in the mountains of Southern Siberia North Asia- Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei, Lena, Amur. Most of the country's rivers are mountainous in nature: they flow in narrow valleys with steep rocky slopes, the slope of their bed is often several tens of meters per 1 km, and the flow speed is very high.
The upper reaches of a mountain river in the Stanovoye Highlands. Photo by I. Timashev
Due to the variety of conditions for the formation of runoff, its values are very different. Maximum value they reach the ridges of Central Altai and Kuznetsk Alatau (until 1500-2000 mm/year), the minimum flow is observed in the south of Eastern Transbaikalia (total 50-60 mm/year). On average, the runoff module in the mountains of Southern Siberia is quite high (15-25 l/sec/km 2 ) , and rivers carry up to 16,000 out of the country every second m 3 waters.
Mountain rivers are fed mainly by spring melt water and summer-autumn rains. Only some of them, starting in the high ridges of Altai, Eastern Sayan and Stanovoy Highlands, also receive water in summer from melting glaciers and “eternal” snow. Altitudinal zonality is observed in the distribution of the relative importance of nutrition sources: the higher the mountains, the greater the role of snow, and in some places, glacial nutrition due to a decrease in the share of rain. In addition, rivers starting high in the mountains are characterized by longer flood duration, since the melting it's snowing first in the lower part of their basin and only in midsummer in the upper reaches.
The nature of nutrition significantly affects the regime of rivers and changes in their water content according to the seasons of the year. The flow of most rivers during the warm period reaches 80-90% of the annual winter months accounts for only 2 to 7%. In mid-winter, some small rivers freeze to the bottom.
There are many lakes in the mountains of Southern Siberia. For the most part they are small and located in the basins of glacial cirques and cirques in the high mountain zone or in depressions between moraine ridges and hills. But there are also large lakes, for example Baikal, Teletskoye, Markakol, Todzha, Ulug-Khol.
Soils and vegetation
See photographs of the nature of the mountains of Southern Siberia: Altai, Western Sayan and Baikal region in the Nature of the World section of our website.
The main pattern of distribution of soils and vegetation in Southern Siberia - altitudinal zoning - is due to changes in climatic conditions depending on the altitude of the area above ocean level. Its nature also depends on the geographical location and height of the mountain ranges. In Altai, Tuva, the Sayans and the mountains of Southern Transbaikalia, the foothills and lower parts of the slopes are usually occupied by steppes with chernozem soils, and above the mountain-taiga zone there are clearly defined zones of alpine vegetation, and in some places high-mountain desert. The landscapes of the mountains of the Baikal-Stanovoy region are more monotonous, since sparse forests of Daurian larch dominate almost everywhere here.
The features of altitudinal zonation also depend on the moisture conditions that are associated with the formation of the so-called cyclonic and continental provincial variants of its structure. But according to the observations of B.F. Petrov, the first of them are characteristic of the wet western slopes, the second - of the drier eastern slopes of the mountains, located in the “rain shadow”. Continental provinces are characterized by large differences in the thermal regime and landscapes of slopes of southern and northern exposure. Here, on the southern slopes of the ridges, steppes and meadow steppes with chernozem or chernozem-like soils often predominate, and on the cooler and wetter northern slopes, taiga forests on thin mountain-podzolic soils prevail. In the ridges of cyclonic regions, the influence of slope exposure is less clear.
The flora of the regions of Southern Siberia is very diverse. In Altai, which occupies a relatively small territory, about 1850 plant species are known, i.e. approximately 2.5 times more than in all zones of the West Siberian Plain. Tuva, the Sayan Mountains and Transbaikalia are characterized by the same richness of flora, where, along with typical Siberian plants, many representatives of the Mongolian steppes are found.
In the mountains of Southern Siberia there are several high-altitude soil and plant zones: mountain-steppe, mountain-forest-steppe, mountain-taiga and high-mountain.
Grass steppe of the Tuva Basin. Photo by A. Urusov
Mountain steppes even in the south of the country they occupy relatively small areas. They climb the slopes of the western foothills of Altai to an altitude of 350-600 m, and in Southern Altai, Tuva and dry Southern Transbaikalia - even up to 1000 m. In dry intermountain basins they are found in places at an altitude of 1500-2000 m(Chuyskaya and Kuraiskaya steppes) or move far to the north (Barguzinskaya steppe, steppes of Olkhon Island on Lake Baikal). Often the steppes of intermountain basins have an even more southern character than the steppes of neighboring foothill plains lying at the same latitude. For example, even semi-desert landscapes predominate in the Chuya Basin, which is explained by the great dryness of its climate.
In Transbaikalia, above the mountain steppes, a zone of mountain forest-steppes begins. The meadow-steppe herbaceous vegetation of open spaces here is quite diverse: along with steppe grasses, there are many shrubs (Siberian apricot - Armeniaca sibirica, ilmovnik - Ulmus pumila, meadowsweet - Spiraea media) and mountain meadow grasses (cobresia - Kobresia bellardi, gentian - Gentiana decumbens, clematis - Clematis hexapetala, sarana - Hemerocallis minor). The northern slopes of the hills and valleys are occupied here by larch and birch forests, or very common for Transbaikalia pine forests with an undergrowth of Daurian rhododendron.
Landscapes most typical for the mountains of Southern Siberia mountain taiga zone, which occupies almost three-quarters of the country's territory. In the southern regions they are located above the mountain steppes, but much more often the mountain-taiga landscapes descend to the foot of the mountains, merging with the flat taiga of Western Siberia or the Central Siberian Plateau.
The upper limit of tree vegetation lies in the mountains at different altitudes. The mountain taiga rises highest in the interior regions of Altai (in some places up to 2300-2400 m); in the Sayan Mountains it only occasionally reaches a height of 2000 m, and in northern parts Kuznetsk Alatau and Transbaikalia - until 1200-1600 m.
South Siberian mountain forests consist of coniferous species: larches, pine (Pinus silvestris), ate (Picea obovata), fir (Abies sibirica) and cedar (Pinus sibirica). Deciduous trees - birch and aspen - are usually found as admixtures with these species, mainly in the lower part of the mountain-taiga zone, or in burnt areas and old clearings. Larch is especially widespread in Southern Siberia: Siberian (Larix sibirica) in the west and Daurian (L. dahurica) in the eastern regions. She is the least demanding climatic conditions and soil moisture, and therefore larch forests are found in the far north of the country, and at the upper limit of forest vegetation, and in the south they reach the Mongolian semi-deserts.
Forests do not occupy the entire area of the mountain-taiga zone of Southern Siberia: among the taiga there are often vast meadow glades, and in the intermountain basins there are significant areas of mountain steppes. There are, of course, much fewer large swamps here than in the flat taiga, and they are located mainly on flat interfluves in the upper part of the zone.
Soils typical for mountain taiga are characterized by low power, rockiness and less intense manifestation of gleyization processes than in the plain taiga. In the mountain taiga altitude zone In the western regions of Southern Siberia, mainly mountain-podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils are formed, but in the east of the country, where permafrost is widespread, various variants of acidic permafrost-taiga and long-term seasonally permafrost mountain-taiga slightly podzolized soils predominate.
The nature of the vegetation of the mountain-taiga zone in different regions of Southern Siberia is different, which is due to both the increasing continentality of the climate to the east and the influence of the floras of neighboring territories. Thus, in the humid western regions - in the Northern and Western Altai, Kuznetsk Alatau, Sayan Mountains - dark coniferous taiga predominates. In Transbaikalia, it is rare, replaced by light coniferous forests of Daurian larch or pine forests.
Virgin vegetation cover The taiga of Southern Siberia has undergone dramatic changes as a result of human activity. A lot of forest areas the lower parts of the slopes have already been reduced, and arable land is located in their place; mountain meadows are used for grazing and haymaking; Industrial timber harvesting takes place in the foothills.
Above the mountain taiga begins high mountain zone. Summer here is cool: even in July and August the temperature sometimes drops below 0° and there are snowstorms. The growing season does not last long: summer begins in early June, and in August the onset of autumn is already felt in the upper part of the zone. The severity of the high-mountain climate determines the most important features of soils and vegetation. The mountain-tundra, mountain-meadow and soddy-podzolic soils that form here are characterized by low thickness and strong rockiness, and the plants are usually stunted, have underdeveloped leaves and long roots that go deep into the ground.
For the high mountain zone of Southern Siberia, the most typical landscapes are mountain tundra. Despite a certain similarity with the tundras of the plains of northern Siberia, they differ significantly from them. There are few extensive swamps typical of lowland tundras in the highlands, and peat formation processes are not very typical for them. Peculiar rock-loving plants settle on rocky soils, while the grasses and shrubs of the highlands belong to “short-day” plants.
Among the landscapes of the South Siberian highlands, four main types are distinguished. The temperate continental and humid high mountain regions of Altai and Sayan are especially characterized by subalpine and alpine meadows. In more continental areas at the same altitudes, rocky, moss-lichen and shrubby forests predominate. mountain tundra. In Transbaikalia and the Baikal-Stanovaya region, unique tundra-alpine alpine landscapes; meadows are rare here, and in the belt of subalpine shrubs, except for the round-leaved birch typical of the mountains of Southern Siberia (Betula rotundifolia), bush alder (Alnaster fruticosus) and various willows thickets of dwarf cedar become common (Pinus pumila). Finally, in the southern regions of Altai and the Tuva Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which are strongly influenced by Central Asia, along with the tundra there are developed high mountain steppes, in which Mongolian upland xerophytes and grasses predominate.
Mountain forest-steppe of Eastern Tuva. Photo by V. Sobolev
Animal world
See photographs of the nature of the mountains of Southern Siberia: Altai, Western Sayan and Baikal region in the Nature of the World section of our website.
The geographical location of the country determines the richness and diversity of its fauna, which includes animals from the Siberian taiga, northern tundra, steppes of Mongolia and Kazakhstan. In the South Siberian highlands, the steppe marmot often lives next to reindeer, and the sable hunts wood grouse, tundra partridge, and small steppe rodents. The mountain fauna includes more than 400 species of birds and about 90 species of mammals.
The distribution of animals in the mountains of Southern Siberia is closely related to the altitudinal zones of vegetation. The zoocenoses of the foothills of the Southern and Western Altai and the Sayan basins differ little from the zoocenoses of the steppe plains adjacent to the mountains. Various small rodents also live here - gophers, hamsters, voles. Foxes and wolves make their burrows in the thickets of steppe bushes, hares and badgers hide, and feathered predators soar in the sky - the steppe eagle, falcon, kestrel.
However, it has a different character animal world steppe basins of Eastern Altai, Tuva Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and especially Southern Transbaikalia, where many mammals that came here from the steppes of Mongolia are found: gazelle antelope (Procapra gutturosa), tolay hare (Lepus tolai) jumper jerboa (Allactaga saltator), Transbaikal marmot (Marmota sibirica), Daurian ground squirrel (Citellus dauricus), Mongolian vole (Microtus mongolicus) etc. Along with the predatory animals of the Siberian steppes - ferret, ermine, wolf, fox - you can see the manul cat in the mountain steppes (Otocolobus manul), Solongoya (Kolonocus altaicus), red wolf (Cyon alpinus), and from birds - a red duck (Tadorna ferruginea), mountain goose (Anser indicus), demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo), Mongolian lark (Melanocorypha mongolica), stone sparrow (Petronia petronia mongolica), Mongolian finch (Pyrgilauda davidiana).
The fauna of the mountain taiga zone is especially rich, where living conditions are much more diverse than in the lowland taiga. Graceful red deer are often found in the mountain taiga (Cervus elaphus sibiricus), musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), elk (Alces alces), Mountain goat (Capra sibirica). Small rodents are also numerous: chipmunks, shrews, voles, squirrels, and on stone deposits - hay pikas (Ochotona alpina). The abundance of rodents and ungulates attracts predators here. There are bears in the dense thickets of the dark coniferous taiga (Ursus arctos), lynx (Lynx lynx), wolverine (Gulo gulo), sable (Martes zibellina), weasel (Mustela nivalis), ermine (M. erminea), ferret (Putorius eversmanni). The world of birds is also diverse. Of the large taiga birds, wood grouse live here (Tetrao urogallus, T. urogalloides) and black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), meet hazel grouse (Tetrastes bonasia), woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus), thrush (Turdus ericetorum), nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) and many others.
The fauna of the highlands is much poorer. In summer, roe deer are found in alpine meadows, which are excellent pastures for ungulates. (Capreolus pygargus), mountain goat, argali (Ovis ammon), musk deer, deer, and in the mountain tundra - herds of wild reindeer. The most common rodents are marmots and pikas, and the most common birds are partridges and Altai snowcocks. (Tetraogallus altaicus), alpine (Pyrrhocorax graculus) and red-billed jackdaw (P. pyrrhocorax). However, already in September, when the mountains are covered with snow, most animals leave here for the forests of the mountain-taiga zone.
Many animals in mountainous areas are of great commercial importance, for example fur-bearing animals - weasel, ermine, fox, marmot. Sable is mined in the Sayan Mountains and the Baikal region. The secondary objects of hunting are capercaillie, hazel grouse, and partridge; In summer, a lot of geese and ducks are caught on mountain lakes.
IN last decades sika deer were brought from the Far East to Altai and the Sayan Mountains (Cervus nippon hortulorum) and a raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) who are perfectly acclimatized. The muskrat also acquired important commercial significance. (Ondatra zibethica).
Natural resources
See photographs of the nature of the mountains of Southern Siberia: Altai, Western Sayan and Baikal region in the Nature of the World section of our website.
The mountains of Southern Siberia are distinguished by a wide variety of their natural resources. They are especially rich in various minerals, and primarily in ores of non-ferrous metals - copper, zinc, lead; There are also deposits of gold, silver, tin, mercury, tungsten, molybdenum, precious and semi-precious stones and minerals.
Are important iron ores, which lie in the depths of Mountain Shoria, Kuznetsk Alatau, Khakassia, Altai, Sayan and Transbaikalia. In Kuznetsk Alatau and Eastern Sayan there are deposits of manganese and titanium. In the intermountain basins there are coal basins (Kuznetsky, Minusinsky, Ulug-Khemsky); In Transbaikalia, brown coals predominate. Other non-metallic minerals include mica, graphite, asbestos and building materials.
Water resources are also significant. Numerous fast mountain rivers flowing in rocky gorges and having a steep fall can be used as sources of hydropower. Forests on mountain slopes are distinguished by high quality wood. Important role The meadows of the highlands and mountain-taiga zone, especially pastures and hayfields of Altai, Chita region, Buryat and Tuva Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics, are important for the development of livestock farming.
The development of the natural resources of the mountains of Southern Siberia is associated, however, with much greater difficulties than in lowland countries. Rugged terrain, narrow rocky valleys and rugged mountain rivers- a serious obstacle to movement in mountainous areas, and the harsh climate in many places excludes the possibility of farming.
Despite this, in the mountains of Southern Siberia, mineral deposits, forests and energy resources are being developed on an ever-increasing scale. Developed into last years traditional branch of economy - livestock breeding; Agriculture penetrated far into the mountains. Currently, the most densely populated and developed areas of the country are the foothills of the country, and especially the flat areas of the Kuznetsk and Minusinsk basins, Rudny Altai, and the steppe. Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and Chita region. Within their boundaries, large territorial production complexes with mining, coal, metallurgical, chemical, forestry, engineering and light industry enterprises were formed.
Magnificent prospects for the development of the productive forces of all regions of Southern Siberia were outlined by the decisions of the 25th Congress of the CPSU. In the tenth five-year plan, the first units of the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station will be put into operation, and construction of the Shulbinskaya hydroelectric power station in Altai will begin. Much work remains to be done on the construction of large thermal power plants - Gusinoozerskaya and Neryungri. Work began on a broad front to create the Sayan TPK, increase the capacity of metallurgical enterprises, coal mines and open-pit mines in Southern Siberia.
Further growth of agriculture is also planned - an increase in the production of grain and livestock products, which will make it possible to better satisfy the population's needs for food and create resources of agricultural raw materials for lung development and food industry.
The main investments are directed towards the accelerated development of the natural resources of the foothill regions of Altai, the industry of Kuzbass and Southern Transbaikalia. This is explained by the high economic efficiency of investments and the ability to get a quick return on them.
However, the tasks of the Tenth Five-Year Plan also provide for the widespread development of resources and inaccessible interior regions of the mountains of Southern Siberia, the wealth of which is still insufficiently used. To this end, a significant expansion of transport and road construction is planned, in particular a large volume of work on the construction of the Baikal-Amur Mainline, and the widespread deployment of energy-intensive industries based on the use of cheap electricity, primarily in the mining and metallurgical industries. New well-appointed cities and towns and large specialized state farms will appear in the mountains of Southern Siberia. It is also planned to make wider use of the country's recreational resources - the development of tourism, the expansion of the network of resorts, sanatoriums and holiday homes.
See photographs of the nature of the mountains of Southern Siberia:
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