Fresh water land. Sushi waters. See what "sushi waters" are in other dictionaries

See what "SUSHI WATER" is in other dictionaries:

SUSHI WATERS- waters (mostly fresh) carried by rivers and concentrated in lakes, reservoirs, ponds, canals, swamps, trapped in glaciers, as well as groundwater. According to rough estimates (Shchukin, 1980), the water reserves in the riverbeds of the globe ... ... Ecological Dictionary

land water- Waters of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, glaciers, as well as underground waters ... Geography Dictionary

Waters of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, glaciers, as well as groundwater (total volume of about 35.8 million km3). Mostly insipid. * * * WATER SUSHI WATER SUSHI, water of rivers (see. RIVERS), lakes (see. LAKES), reservoirs (see. RESERVOIR), swamps (see. SWAMP (in ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

land water- sausumos vandenys statusas T sritis ekologija ir aplinkotyra apibrėžtis Vandenys, susitelkę upėse, ežeruose, tvenkiniuose, pelkėse, dirvožemyje, ore ir uolienose. atitikmenys: angl. continental waters; terrestrial waters vok. Festland gewässer, n ...

land water Ekologijos terminų aiškinamasis žodynas

Waters of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, swamps, glaciers, as well as groundwater (total volume of about 35.8 million km3). In the main. insipid ... Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary

R 52.24.661-2004: Assessment of the risk of anthropogenic impact of priority pollutants on land surface waters- Terminology R 52.24.661 2004: Assessment of the risk of anthropogenic impact of priority pollutants on land surface waters: 3.1 abiotic component: Abiotic environment, representing a set of inorganic conditions (factors) ... ...

land surface waters- 3.12 land surface waters; PVS: Waters located on the land surface in the form of various water bodies (R 52.24.566). Source: R 52.24.741 2010: Assessment of the toxicity of surface water ... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation

internal waters- vidaus vandenys statusas T sritis ekologija ir aplinkotyra apibrėžtis Vandenys (upės, ežerai, dirbtiniai vandens telkiniai, išskyrus pajūrio teritorinius vandenis), esantys valstybės teritorijoje. atitikmenys: angl. internal waters vok. ... ... Ekologijos terminų aiškinamasis žodynas

- (Lay on the oars) command given on boats. Sushi paddles. At this command, the oarsmen take out the paddles of the oars from the water and align them parallel to the water, and the oars themselves are set perpendicular to the center plane of the boat. Samoilov K.I. ... ... Marine dictionary

Books

,. In a series of volumes containing the research results of the International Polar Year 2008-2009, this book occupies a special place. It contains the results of the study of the Earth's cryosphere and ...
Polar cryosphere and land waters,. The book contains the results, first of all, of field studies of the Earth's cryosphere and natural processes occurring in the cryosphere of polar latitudes, carried out in the Arctic and ...

Water enters land as a result of evaporation from the surface of MC and transport in the atmosphere, i.e. in the process of world moisture turnover. After falling on the land surface, atmospheric precipitation is divided into four unequal and changeable parts: one evaporates, the other flows back into the ocean in the form of streams and rivers, the third seeps into the soil and ground, the fourth turns into mountain or continental glaciers. Accordingly, there are four types of water accumulation on land: rivers, lakes, groundwater, glaciers. In addition, water is found in large quantities in soils and swamps.

River- natural water flow, flowing for a long time in the bed formed by it - channel... The volume of water contained in the rivers is 1200 km 3, or 0.0001% of the total volume of water. The confinement of rivers to one line is relative: in the course of its activity, each river under the influence of the Coriolis force shifts to the right (in the northern hemisphere). The river has a source and a mouth . Source rivers - the place where the river takes on a certain shape and flow is observed. A river can start from the confluence of streams feeding them sources, flow out of a swamp, lake, glacier in the mountains. The source and the beginning of the river are not the same concepts. A river can start from the confluence of two rivers (for example, the Biya and Katun rivers form the Ob River at the confluence) or flow out of a lake (Angara). In this case, the river has no source. Estuary - the place where the river flows into the receiving basin: the sea, lake or other, larger river.

The river with its tributaries is river system consisting of the main river and tributaries of a different order (rivers flowing into the main one are called tributaries of the first order, their tributaries are tributaries of the second order, etc.). The land area from which the river collects water is called by the pool rivers. The main river basin includes the basins of all its tributaries and covers the land area occupied by the river system.

The line dividing adjacent river basins is called watershed. The watersheds are well expressed in the mountains, where they run along the crests of the ridges; on the plains, the watersheds are located on flat interfluves (plakors). The main watershed of the Earth separates two slopes on the planet's surface - the runoff of rivers flowing into the Pacific-Indian basin (47%), from the runoff of rivers flowing into the Atlantic and Arctic oceans (53%).

Each river is characterized by its length, width, depth, basin area, dip (the excess of the source over the mouth, in cm) and slopes (the ratio of the river's fall to the length of the river, in cm / km), flow velocities, water discharge (the amount of water passing through the channel per unit time, in m 3 / s), solid runoff (sediment) and chemical consumption. By the nature of the flow, the rivers are flat and mountainous. Plain rivers have wide valleys, slight dipping, shallow inclines, and slow currents. Of the largest rivers in Russia, the Ob River has the smallest slope (4 cm / km), slightly more near the Volga (7 cm / km). The biggest slope is near the Yenisei (37 cm / km). Mountain rivers are distinguished by narrow valleys and rapid currents, because have a large slope. For example, the slope of the Terek is 500 cm / km.

There are deep and shallow areas in the riverbed. Shallow areas are called rolls, on them, the current speed increases, the deepest sections of the channel between two rifts are called stretches, in these areas the flow rate is slower. Fairway- the line connecting the deepest places along the channel. In some places of the channel, hard-to-erode crystalline rocks (granites, crystalline shales) can emerge on the surface; in such places, rapids, rapids, waterfalls, cascades are formed on the river, and the speed of the river flow increases sharply. The highest waterfall in Angel Land (1054 m) in South America on the Churun River. In Russia - Ilya Muromets - in Kamchatka, Kivach - in Karelia. The most powerful waterfalls are Victoria on the Zambezi River in Africa and Niagara on the Niagara River in North America.

Feeding rivers called the flow of water into their channels; it is brought by surface and underground runoff. The rivers are fed by rain, melted snow, glacial and underground waters. The role of this or that power source, their combination and distribution in time depend mainly on climatic conditions. Depending on the predominant source of power, there is an intra-annual flow distribution - the regime of the river. Annual runoff- the amount of water that the river carries out per year. Depending on the food supply, the amount of water in the river varies throughout the year. These changes are manifested in fluctuations in the water level in the river, called flood, flood and low water.

High water- a relatively long and significant increase in the amount of water in the river, recurring annually in the same season.

Flood- relatively short-term and non-periodic rises in the water level in the river, caused by the flow of rain (melt) water into the river.

Low water- the lowest water standing in the river with a predominance of underground recharge.

The first classification of rivers by feeding conditions was proposed in 1884 by the famous Russian climatologist A.I. Voeikov, who considered the river as a "climate product", identified three types of rivers:

1) feeding exclusively on melted snow and ice (rivers of deserts bordered by mountains with snowy peaks - Amu Darya, Syr Darya, and rivers of polar countries);

2) feeding only on rainwater (rivers with a winter flood - rivers of Europe and the Mediterranean coast, rivers of tropical countries and monsoon regions with a summer flood - the Indus, Ganges, Nile, Amur, Amazon, Congo, Yangtze);

3) mixed feeding (rivers of the East European Plain, Western Siberia, North America).

In addition to the above classification, there are other river classifications that take into account both climate and other factors, such as runoff and regime.

The most complete classification was developed by M.I. Lvovich. Rivers are classified according to the source of supply and the nature of the distribution of flow throughout the year. Each of the four sources of food (rain, snow, glacial, underground) under certain conditions can be almost the only one, accounting for more than 80%, predominant - from 50 to 80% and predominant by 50% - this is a mixed food.

The runoff is spring, summer, autumn and winter. The combination of various combinations of power sources and runoff options makes it possible to distinguish the types of water regime of rivers. The types are based on zoning: polar type, subarctic, temperate, subtropical, tropical, equatorial.

As an example, let us consider the rivers of Russia and the CIS, which belong to the rivers of the subarctic, temperate and subtropical types of the water regime of the rivers.

1) Rivers of the subarctic type have a short feeding regime due to melt water and snow, underground feeding is very insignificant. Many, even significant rivers freeze almost to the bottom. High water - in summer, reasons - late spring and summer rains. These are the rivers of Eastern Siberia (Yana, Indigirka, Kolyma).

2) Rivers of the temperate type are divided into four subtypes:

a) with a predominance of spring melting of snow cover - moderate continental (rivers of the center of the European part of Russia: Volga, Don). In the regime of rivers with a temperate climate, four well-defined phases, or hydrological seasons, are distinguished: spring flood, summer low-water period, autumn flood and winter low-water season;

b) with a predominance of snow melting and rains in spring (Siberian rivers in the upper reaches: Lena, Ob, Yenisei);

c) rainwater supply in winter (not in Russia) - moderate marine or Western European;

d) the predominance of rainfall in summer - monsoon rains (moderate monsoon) - Amur, rivers of the Far East.

3) Rivers of a subtropical type are fed in winter by rainwater (rivers of the Crimea) or in summer as a result of snow melting in the mountains - Syr Darya, Amu Darya.

The density, or density, of the river network (expressed by the ratio of the length of watercourses in the territory to the area of the latter) is determined by the amount of precipitation, as well as the relief of the territory. Most of the rivers are in humid tropical and monsoon areas. The amount of water carried by rivers on average per year is called water content(m 3 / s). The largest river in the world in terms of water content is the Amazon (average annual discharge is 7000 km 3 / year). The size of the river depends on the area of the continents along which they flow and on the location of the watersheds. The longest river Amazon with the Ucayali tributary is 7194 m, it is inferior to the Nile with the Kagera tributary - 6671 m, then the Mississippi with the Missouri tributary - 6019 m.

The hydrographic system of a country is mainly derived from the climate. The density of the river network, the nature of river feeding, seasonal fluctuations in levels and flow rates, the time of opening and freezing - all this is controlled by climatic conditions and, as in a mirror, reflects the climate of those places where the river originates and those regions along which the river flows.

Lakes- inland water bodies of land with stagnant or little running water, not communicating with the ocean, with special living conditions and specific organisms. The volume of lake water is 278 thousand km 3, or 0.016% of the total volume of water. Unlike rivers, lakes are reservoirs of slow water exchange. Many features of their regime are related to this: vertical and horizontal heterogeneity, water circulation, deposition of solid material in the basin, the nature of biocenoses, and, finally, the evolution and dying off of the reservoir. Each lake has three interrelated components: 1) basin - a form of relief of the earth's crust; 2) water mass, consisting not only of water, but also of substances dissolved in it - part of the hydrosphere; 3) flora and fauna are part of the living matter of the planet.

The formation of a lake begins with the formation of a basin. Distinguish between the concepts of "lake basin" and "lake bed". A lake basin is a deepening in the land surface (relief element), filled to a certain level with water. The part of the lake basin filled with water is the lake bed. By origin, lake basins are divided into several genetic types.

Lake basins tectonic origin arise in connection with the formation of crustal deflections (trough lake basins - Chad, Eyre), cracks (fissure hollows of lakes - lakes of Scandinavia, Karelia, Canada), discharges, grabens (Baikal, Great American Lakes, Great African Lakes); differ in great depth and steepness of slopes. Volcanic lacustrine depressions are crater and caldera. Crater craters occupy the craters of extinct volcanoes, filled with water, are numerous in Java, the Canary Islands, and New Zealand. Calderas are similar in origin and morphology to crater ones, for example, the basins of the Kuril and Kronotskoe lakes in Kamchatka. Maars are a kind of volcanic hollows.

The group of lacustrine depressions is quite numerous glacial origin. They can be flat (erosional, accumulative, kame, moraine-dammed) and mountain (moraine-dammed and tarred). On the plains, hollows of glacial origin are widespread in the territory that underwent the last Valdai glaciation. Erosional glacial basins are common within the Baltic and Canadian Shields, which were centers of glaciation. The mainland ice slid from here and eroded tectonic cracks. Consequently, these basins are both tectonic and glacial. Accumulative lake basins were formed where the glacier deposited moraine - loose rocks removed from the central regions (Ilmen, Beloe, Pskov-Chudskoe, etc.).

Input-erosion and input-accumulative depressions are created by the activity of rivers (oxbows) or are areas of river valleys flooded by the sea (estuaries, lagoons), separated from the sea by accumulation of sediments (lakes of the Kuban floodplain, estuaries of the Black Sea coast).

Karst lacustrine depressions arise in areas composed of soluble rocks - limestone, gypsum, dolomite. Dissolution of these rocks leads to the formation of deep, but insignificant basins (found between Lake Onega and the White Sea). Thermokarst- in the permafrost region, in Western and Eastern Siberia.

Organogenic hollows arise in the sphagnum bogs of the taiga, forest-tundra and tundra, as well as on coral islands, they are due to the uneven growth of mosses in the first case, and polyps in the second.

Nutrition of the lakes, i.e. the flow of water into the lake occurs mainly due to ground and underground feeding; atmospheric precipitation; the flow of water from rivers and streams flowing into the lake; condensation of atmospheric moisture.

According to the inflow and discharge of the water mass, the lakes are divided into four groups: 1) well-flowing, into which one or several rivers flow into and one flows out (Baikal, Onezhskoe, Victoria, Ilmen, Zhenevskoe); 2) little flowing or periodically flowing - one river flows into them, but the runoff is insignificant (Balaton, Tanganyika); 3) endless, into which one or several rivers flow, but there is no runoff from the lake (Caspian, Aral, Dead, Balkhash); 4) deaf, or closed - without river flow (lakes of tundra, taiga, steppe, semi-desert).

All lakes experience water level fluctuations. Seasonal fluctuations in water level are determined by the annual regime of precipitation and evaporation and occur against the background of perennial ones. The largest changes in levels both during each year and over a number of years are characteristic of lakes in arid zones. Feeding mainly from the river inflow, and consuming water only for evaporation, these lakes are sensitive to precipitation and evaporation. Lake Chad (Africa) in high-water years almost doubles and acquires an area of 26,000 km 2, which is usually 12,000 km 2. The Aral lake is threatened with complete disappearance due to a decrease in the incoming water from the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers.

According to the chemical composition, the lakes are divided into fresh, brackish and salty. The boundary between fresh and brackish is a mineralization of 3 0/00. Salt lakes have a salt concentration of 24-26 0/00. The most lakes on Earth are Gyusguntag (374 0/00), the Dead Sea (270 0/00).

Flowing and wastewater lakes, as a rule, are fresh, since the influx of fresh water is greater than the discharge. The drainless lakes are salty. Salt lakes include: Elton and Baskunchak ("Russian salt shaker"), Dead (Middle East), Bolshoe Salt (North America).

The geographical location of the lakes is influenced by the climate (zonal factor), which determines the feeding of the lake, as well as endogenous (tectonic movements and volcanism) and exogenous (ice, running water, wind, weathering processes) factors that contribute to the emergence of lake depressions. Areas of the highest concentration of lakes on Earth are associated with plain and mountainous areas of ancient glaciation (humid climate and an abundance of negative landforms created by erosional or accumulative activity of ancient glaciers), with areas devoid of runoff, and with areas of large tectonic faults in the earth's crust. An example of lacustrine countries associated with areas of ancient glaciation are: the lacustrine belt of North America, elongated from northwest to southeast from Lake Mezhvezhie through Lakes Slavolnichye, Athabasca and Winnipeg to the Great Lakes; The Scandinavian Peninsula; Finland, which has at least 35 thousand lakes covering about 12% of the country's surface; Karelia and the Kola Peninsula; the lacustrine plain of the Baltic republics and the lacustrine belt, stretching east and northeast of the Baltic States and including such lakes as Peipsi, Pskov, Ilmen, Ladoga, Onega, etc.

East Africa is an area with a large number of large tectonic lakes; Tibet, Mongolia, and the steppe zone between the Urals and the Ob are also distinguished. Tectonic lakes are the deepest (Baikal - 1671 m.).

A lake is a product of the climate, and lake depressions are a product of the activity of the internal forces of the Earth, groundwater, rivers, glaciers, wind, etc. - this is only one side of the relationship between the lake and the rest of the elements of the geographical landscape, the other side characterizes the reverse impact of the lakes on other elements of the geographical landscape. Large lakes or accumulations of a large number of small lakes have a softening effect on the climate of the adjacent territory; lakes often serve as a regulator of river flow and fluctuations in river levels; lakes, as bases of erosion, control the erosional work of rivers; Finally, the filling of sediments and overgrowth of lake depressions contributes to a change in the relief of the earth's crust (lacustrine-alluvial plains, peat bogs).

The groundwater- waters of the upper part of the lithosphere, including all chemically bound water in three states of aggregation. The total reserves of groundwater are 60 million km 3. Groundwater is considered both as part of the hydrosphere and as part of the earth's crust, which are formed both due to atmospheric precipitation and as a result of condensation of atmospheric water vapor and vapors rising from deeper layers of the Earth. The prerequisites for the presence of water in soils and rocks are free spaces: pores, cracks, voids.

In relation to water, all soils are schematically divided into three groups: permeable, waterproof, or waterproof, soluble.

Under water permeability imply the ability of soils to pass water. Water-permeable rocks can be water-intensive and non-water-intensive (water-holding capacity is the ability of a rock to hold more or less water in it). Water-intensive soils include chalk, peat, loam, silt, loess. To non-water-intensive ones - coarse-grained sands, pebbles, fractured limestones, which freely pass water without being saturated with it.

If a layer of permeable rock contains water, it is called aquifer.

Waterproof, or waterproof, rocks can be water-intensive and non-water-intensive. Non-water-intensive are massive, highly metamorphosed, fractured limestones, granites, and dense sandstones. Clays and marls are classified as moisture-consuming.

Soluble rocks- potash and table salt, gypsum, limestone, dolomites, karst is formed on them (after the limestone highlands Karst in the Dinaric Mountains) - a system of voids (caves, sinkholes, wells) that occurs when rocks dissolve. Karst phenomena, primarily due to the lithological features of the area, develop in various geographic latitudes. They are widely developed along the Adriatic Sea coast - from Karst to Greece, in the Alps, in the Crimea, on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, in the Urals, in Siberia and Central Asia, in southern France, on the southern slope of the Massif Central (Coss Plateau), in northern Yucatan , in Jamaica, etc.

The bulk of groundwater is located in the loose sedimentary strata of continental platforms (crystalline rocks are practically waterproof). All groundwater concentrated in sedimentary rocks is divided into three horizons.

The upper horizon contains fresh water of atmospheric origin (depth from 25 to 350 m) used for domestic, economic and industrial water supply.

The middle horizon consists of ancient waters, mainly mineral or saline, occurring at a depth of 50 to 600 m.

The lower horizon - water is very ancient, often buried, highly mineralized, represented by brines, lies at a depth of 400 to 3000 m and is used for the extraction of salts, bromine, iodine.

The water that occurs on the first water-resistant layer and exists for a long time is called ground... The depth of the groundwater table is different and depends on the geological structure - from several tens of meters (20-39 m) to 1-2 km. The surface of the groundwater table is usually slightly wavy, with a slope towards depressions in the relief (river valleys, gullies, ravines), the speed of water movement in coarse sands is 1.5-2 m per day, in sandy loams - 0.5-1 m per day ...

Groundwater outcrops to the surface form springs. Groundwater lying between two impervious horizons is called pressure or artesian. Usually groundwater and upper artesian waters have a temperature of about the average annual air temperature in a given area, their sources are called cold. Waters with a temperature of +20 0 C and below are cold. Waters and springs with a temperature from 20 0 to 37 0 C are called warm, above + 37 0 C - hot or thermal (exposed to the internal heat of the Earth). In volcanic areas, hot waters pour out in the form of geysers - periodically gushing hot springs (the largest geyser is the Giant in Kamchatka, a powerful jet of hot water gushes from it 50 m upward, the vapor column reaches a height of 300 m).

Swamps- Areas of the earth's surface, excessively humidified by fresh or salt water, characterized by difficult gas exchange, accumulation of dead plant matter, which later turns into peat. Swamps occupy about 3.5 million km 2, or about 2% of the land area. The most swampy continents are Eurasia and North America, 70% of swamps are located in Russia.

The emergence of bogs as the final phase in the development of lakes is only one of the ways in which bogs originate. In addition to overgrowing and peat formation of water bodies, the processes of moistening the land play an important role in the formation of bogs. The occurrence of waterproof rocks and permafrost from the surface (or close to it) facilitates waterlogging of the area, especially in conditions of flat and slightly rugged relief, which prevents drainage. An increase in the groundwater table, leading to waterlogging, can also be secondary - as a result of deforestation in a large area or as a result of a forest fire: in both cases, the groundwater level rises as water evaporation from the soil decreases. The swamp can be the final phase not only in the development of lakes, but also in the development of the forest as a plant association. Finally, swamps are formed as a result of flooding of the earth's surface by running or sea waters. Small marshes appear in the places where the springs emerge, at the foot of the slopes, but the flooding of the floodplain has a particularly great effect.

According to the feeding conditions, the bogs are subdivided into low-lying, raised, and transitional. Lowland swamps feed on ground or river waters rich in minerals, and are located mainly in depressions flooded permanently or temporarily by water. Sedges, horsetails, cinquefoil, reed grass, etc. prevail in grassy bogs, mosses join the listed grasses in hypnum bogs, and birch and alder in forest bogs. Lowland bogs are widespread in the forest zone - Meshchera, in the floodplains of large rivers in Western Siberia, etc.

Horse swamps arise on poorly dissected watersheds and feed mainly on atmospheric precipitation, prevailing in a humid climate. In the vegetation cover of raised bogs, sphagnum mosses play the main role; in addition, wild rosemary, cranberries, sundew are found, and bog pine is among the trees.

Transition, or mixed, type of bog represents a transitional stage between lowland and upland types. In low-lying bogs, plant residues accumulate, the surface of the bog rises, as a result of which the groundwater ceases to feed the bog, and the grassy vegetation is replaced by mosses. In this way, low-lying bogs pass into high bogs, which, in turn, are covered with forest, shrub or meadow vegetation, turning into dry meadows.

In their geographical distribution, bogs show the closest dependence on climate. Low-lying bogs, feeding on groundwater, are confined to drier places, while upland bogs (watersheds) exist in a humid climate and are a typical phenomenon for the forest zone. The greater the ratio of the amount of precipitation to the amount of moisture evaporated during the same period, the stronger the swampiness of the territory.

If the general geographical distribution of swamps is predetermined by the climate, then the relief controls the details of their distribution. Plains and depressions are most favorable in this sense, since such relief forms minimize surface runoff. Among other factors, the lithological structure of the area is of importance - the close occurrence to the surface of watertight rocks. The largest bog massifs are located in the north of the European part of Russia, in Karelia, in Polesie, in the valley of the middle reaches of the Dnieper, in the Meshcherskaya, Balakhninskaya and Mokshinskaya lowlands, the Barabinskaya steppe, in the taiga region of Eastern Siberia and the Far East, on the western coast of Kamchatka.

Glaciers... In polar countries at sea level, and in temperate and hot zones in high mountains, the hydrosphere is represented by snow and ice. The shell of the Earth, which contains perennial, or "eternal", snow and ice, is called chionosphere(the term was first introduced in 1939 by S.V. Kalesnik). The chionosphere is formed as a result of the interaction of the three main shells of the Earth: the hydrosphere, which supplies moisture for the formation of snow and ice; the atmosphere, carrying this moisture and storing it in the solid phase; and the lithosphere, on the surface of which a hard shell may form.

The lower limit of the chionosphere is called the snow boundary (snow line). Snowy border is the height at which the annual arrival of solid atmospheric precipitation is equal to their annual consumption, or as much snow falls during the year as it does not melt. Below this limit, less snow falls out than it can melt, and its accumulation, of course, is impossible. Above the snow boundary, due to a drop in temperature, snow accumulation exceeds its ablation (melting), and eternal snows accumulate here.

The height of the snow border and the intensity of glaciation depend on the geographical latitude, local climate, orography of the area.

Latitudinal differences in the heights of the snow boundary depend on the air temperature and on the amount of precipitation, which are distributed zonally. The lower the temperature and the more precipitation, the more favorable the conditions for the accumulation of snow and for glaciation, the lower the snow line. In the Arctic, the snow boundary lies at an altitude of 200-700 m, in Antarctica - at the level of the World Ocean; in a humid equatorial climate, the snow boundary lies at an altitude of 4600-5000 m, and in a dry tropical climate it rises to 5600 m. Affects the height of the snow line and the amount precipitation. For example, on the well-watered slopes of the Western Caucasus, the snow boundary lies 300-400 m lower than on the drier slopes of the Eastern Caucasus, where it is located at an altitude of 3000-3200 m.

Glaciers- moving perennial ice strata formed on land as a result of the accumulation and gradual transformation of solid atmospheric precipitation. Glaciers affect the climate, give rise to rivers, destroy vegetation when attacked, buried soils, displace wildlife, fill shallow seas, create lacustrine-type reservoirs during retreat, and change the hydrographic network. The movement of glaciers carries rock fragments, smoothes or accentuates existing landforms, glacial accumulation forms special rocks (moraine) and new landforms.

There are two types of glaciations - cover (continental) and mountain. At cover During glaciation, ice completely covers large areas of land, the relief hidden under the ice is almost not reflected on the surface of the glacier. On the island of Greenland and in Antarctica, ice sheets are formed - huge glaciers with a flat-convex surface, slowly spreading in all directions under the influence of their own gravity. Going down to the sea, such glaciers form floating tongues, and when they come off, floating mountains of ice form icebergs.

Mountain glaciation outwardly differs from the cover one in smaller sizes (snow and ice accumulate in depressions and do not go beyond them) and an incomparably wide variety of erosional relief forms: kars, circuses, troughs, etc. Mountain glaciers have a much more pronounced dependence on relief forms and movement - from the slope of the glacier bed.

Glaciers contain 24 million km 3 of water, or 1.6% of the total volume of water. Modern glaciers occupy about 16 million km 2 (about 11% of the land area), of which 99% are in the polar latitudes. The glaciation area of Antarctica is 13.4 million km 2. With the complete thawing of modern glaciers, the level of the World Ocean can rise by more than 60 m, which will lead to the flooding of 10% of the land (about 15 million km 2).

Land waters include rivers, lakes, swamps, artificial reservoirs (canals, reservoirs, ponds), as well as glaciers and groundwater.
The river and its elements. A river is a large stream of water that flows over a decline in the terrain formed by it. This decline is called a river valley.

River valleys are complex. The river itself flows along a depression in its bottom. It is called a channel, or channel.
If there is too much water in the river, then part of it flows out to the flat bottom of the river valley - a backwater.
The place where the river begins is called its source. It can be a source, swamp, glacier, lake. Some rivers are formed from the confluence of other rivers (for example, the full-flowing river of the world of the Amazon).

The place where the river flows into the ocean, sea, lake or other river is called the mouth. If the river splits into numerous branches that cross a flat alluvial plain, then such a mouth is called a delta. Large deltas have the Amazon, Volga, Nile similar. The mouths of other rivers resemble a huge funnel (Parana, St. Lawrence). Such a mouth is called an estuary.

The section of the river adjacent to the leak is called its upstream, and the one that is closer to the mouth is called the lower. The part of the river between the upper and lower reaches is its middle course.
Most of the rivers do not flow into the sea, but into other rivers. A river that flows into another river is called a tributary. The river is considered to be the main one, which is fuller. Therefore, some tributaries may be longer than the main rivers (the Missouri is longer than the Mississippi river in North America; Australia's largest river, the Murray, is shorter than its Darling tributary). The influence of relief on the flow of rivers. The river is very influenced by the relief. So, one of the largest rivers in Africa, the Niger, originates just 200 km from the ocean. But the slope of the terrain in this part of the mainland is such that the river is forced to describe a huge arc 4160 km long in order to reach the Atlantic Ocean.
Water cannot flow upward. Therefore, it is the relief that determines the direction of the flow of rivers.

The nature of the current also depends on the relief. In the mountains, where the slopes of the terrain are large, the rivers are fast and stormy. And on the plains, where the terrain is slightly inclined, the speed of the river flow is low. It becomes rough only where solid rocks come to the surface in the channel. Such places are called rapids.
Sometimes the river meets a ledge on its way. In such places, very beautiful and majestic waterfalls are formed. The highest waterfall in the world - Angel - has a height of 1054 m. It is located in South America, in the Orinoco River basin. However, this waterfall carries relatively little water. In terms of power, it is inferior to many waterfalls below it - Iguazu in South America, Niagara in North America, Victoria in Africa and others.

Lakes. There are many large and small lakes on the globe - closed basins on land filled with water (Table 2). Depending on the properties of water, they are divided into salty and fresh. Salt lakes are endless. Lake basins can be of various origins:

Tectonic (Baikal, Tanganyika, Issyk-Kul) - are formed as a result of the deflection of the earth's crust;
relic (Caspian, Aral) - arise as a result of the separation of parts of the seas due to the uplift of sections of the seabed;
volcanic - lakes partially or completely fill the crater of an extinct volcano;
karst (Svityaz) - fill the hollows that arise as a result of erosion of soluble rocks;
glacial (Ladoga, Onega) - hollows are formed as a result of the work of glaciers;
oxbow lakes are the remains of the river bed.
There are also other types of lake basins.

Swamps. Small and shallow lakes can become overgrown with sediments of rivers and streams over time and become overgrown with vegetation. They turn into swamps - excessively humid areas of the terrain.
Depending on where the bogs get their water from, they are divided into upstream, transitional and lowland ones.
The source of power for lowland bogs is groundwater. They contain dissolved minerals that promote plant growth. Therefore, lowland bogs have a rich and varied vegetation.
Swamp plants die off over time. Their remains, mixed with silt and clay particles, turn into peat, which gradually accumulates. Therefore, the surface of the lowland bog rises slowly. Finally, groundwater can no longer feed it, and such a swamp can dry out. But if the climate is humid, then it can switch to water supply of precipitation. Such swamps are called high bogs. Their vegetation is dominated by mosses and lichens, because only these plants can easily tolerate a lack of minerals, which are scarce in rain or snow waters.

Transitional bogs feed on both precipitation and groundwater.
The swamps are located mainly on the plains. Very swampy West Siberian Plain, north of the Russian Plain.
Glaciers. Surface waters also include glaciers - accumulation of perennial ice on land. They are cover and mountain.
The ice sheets are large and thick. They resemble giant domes. The largest (14 million km2) and thick (up to 4 km) ice sheet covers the whole continent - Antarctica. The area of the glacier covering Greenland is 1.8 million km2. Its thickness reaches 2.5 km.
Mountain glaciers are much smaller and thinner (up to 100 m thick). The long mountain glacier is located in the Cordilleras and is only 93 km long. The width of mountain glaciers is even smaller (2-3 km). They resemble frozen rivers.

The groundwater. A lot of water, mainly in the form of wet rocks, is found in the earth's crust. It gets there in different ways: by impregnation of sediments, condensation of water vapor in underground cavities, filtration of water from lakes and rivers, and the like from the mantle. Porous or fractured rocks, through which water easily passes, are called permeable. Dense rocks form waterproof layers.
There are three types of groundwater: upper water, groundwater and interstratal.
Verkhovodka is groundwater that does not rely on an impervious horizon. Therefore, they are short-lived. If the aquifer reaches the impervious horizon, it will turn into groundwater - groundwater, which rests on the first impervious horizon from the earth's surface.
All other groundwaters are interstratal. Among them are the so-called artesian waters - interstratal waters under pressure. When a well is drilled to a reservoir containing artesian waters, a fountain will hit from it.

Groundwater can be both fresh and salty. The latter sometimes contain substances useful for the human body. Such waters are called mineral waters.
At great depths, groundwater can sometimes be heated to boiling point. Such waters are called thermal waters.

The places where underground waters come to the surface of the Earth are called springs.
Artificial reservoirs. Rivers, lakes, glaciers, swamps, springs are natural reservoirs. In addition to them, there are now many artificial ones on Earth, i.e. man-made reservoirs - canals (artificial rivers), reservoirs and ponds (artificial lakes). They are built for different purposes: for water supply to settlements, irrigation of fields, recreation, fishing, etc. For example, there are navigable canals (the Suez and Panama canals are especially famous), irrigation and drainage canals.

Lakes and swamps containing 3.5% of the total water reserves. Of these, only 2.5% are fresh waters.

Groundwater is found in the upper part in liquid, solid and vapor states. Most of them are formed as a result of seepage from the surface of rain, melt and river waters. Groundwater is constantly moving both horizontally and vertically. The depth of their occurrence, direction and intensity of movement depends on the water permeability of the rocks. Permeable rocks include pebbles, sands, gravel. To waterproof (waterproof), practically impermeable to water, include clays, dense rocks without cracks, frozen soils.

According to the conditions of occurrence, groundwater is divided into:

The most important characteristic of rivers is their feeding. There are 4 power sources: snow, rain, glacier and underground. The role of each of them in different seasons of the year and in different regions is not the same. Most of the rivers are of a mixed type. Rainwater feeding is typical for rivers in equatorial, tropical and monsoon regions. The rivers of the belt with cold, snowy winters feed on the waters of the melting snow. The rivers that start in the high glacier-covered mountains receive glacial power. Underground waters feed many rivers and thanks to them the rivers do not dry up in summer and do not cut out under the ice.

The regime of the river largely depends on nutrition. River mode - the change in the state of the river over time (the amount of its discharge by the seasons of the year, fluctuations in the water level, change). The water regime of the river is characterized by water discharge and runoff. Discharge - the amount of water passing through the channel in one second. Water consumption for a long time - a month, a season, a year is called a runoff. The amount of water that the rivers carry on average per year is called their water flow. The most abundant river is, at the mouth of which, on average, it is 175,000 cubic meters per second. In our country, the most abundant river - (19,800 cubic meters per second).

Lakes. A lake is a natural depression on land filled with fresh or salt water. All lakes of the Earth occupy about 1.8% of the land surface. The largest lake in terms of water area is -lake, the deepest is.

By the origin of the basins, lakes are distinguished:

According to the composition of the water of the lake there are: salty and fresh. According to the regime, there are lakes - sewage, if at least one river originates from the lake and endless. The distribution of lakes over the earth's surface is observed. There are especially many lakes in

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