Biography of Mendeleev their magazine. Brief biography of Mendeleev. Dmitry Mendeleev. Biography: recent years

Kokovtsev (Kokovtsov) Dmitry Ivanovich 11 (23) .4.1887 - no later than 14.7.1918Pet. Member of the Mug "Evening of the Slavevsky". The poetic collections "Dreams in the north" (SPB., 1909), "Eternal flow" (SPB., 1911), "Witch Violin" (SPb., 1913). Odnoklassnik N. Gumileva in Tsarskostskaya

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907)

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev has the merit of the discovery of one of the basic laws of natural science - the periodic law of chemical elements. In its work, the "Basics of Chemistry", he first summarized and systematized a huge number of disparate chemical facts and observations, having laid the foundation of the building of modern chemical science. Periodic law was and continues to remain the starting point for thousands and thousands of new chemical and physical research in all modern chemistry.

Having a boiler's initiative, great ability to work, deep knowledge in the most diverse areas of chemistry, physics, technology and other sciences, D. I. Mendeleev completely gave himself to serving his homeland and their people. In his numerous works, he gave full bold designs a program for using the natural wealth and industrialization of our country. He can fully be called the provisional and father of the chemicalization of the domestic industry and agriculture.

During the years of creative activity, D. I. Mendeleev Russia did only the first timid steps towards the use of their natural wealth. D. I. Mendeleev passionately wanted to raise the domestic science and industry and the well-being of the people. In its numerous printed works and projects, he sharply put the task of turning our country into an economically independent industrial power. Theory and practice, science and life, the word and the case were in D. I. Mendeleev are united and inseparable.

The life and scientific works of D. I. Mendeleev, this giant of human thought and will, every year attract all the increasing attention of cultural humanity and have an increasing impact on the development of chemical and physical sciences.

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev was born on February 8, 1834 in Siberia, in Tobolsk in the family of the director of the local gymnasium. He was in the family by the seventeenth child. His father in the year of birth of Dmitry Ivanovich Epole on both eyes, as a result, he should have left the service and go to a scant retirement. Education of children and all material concerns about a numerous family fell on the shoulders of Mother - Mary Dmitrievna, an energetic and intelligent woman, which to improve the material of the family took over the control of the glass factory of his brother 25 kilometers from Tobolsk.

Seven years old D. I. Mendeleev entered the gymnasium. He studied satisfactorily, except for languages, especially Latin, according to which he often received "units" and "zeros"; On the contrary, to mathematics, physics and history, he showed great interest. In 1848, the Glass Plant was burned down, which was ruled by Maria Dmitrievna Mendeleev, and the family moved to Moscow, to his mother's brother. Since Tobolskaya gymnasium, which D. I. Mendeleev graduated in 1849, belonged to Kazan, and not Moscow district, then according to the rules of that time, he was not adopted at Moscow University. Only after a long hassle and help of Comrade Father, he entered the closed educational institution - St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute, to the Physics and Mathematics Faculty, giving a commitment at the end of the course to stop 8 years to appoint the authorities.

In 1854, when D. I. Mendeleev was only 20 years old, his first printed work on the composition of Ortitis and Pyroxen minerals. In 1855, D. I. Mendeleev graduated from the Institute with the Gold Medal. Doctors advised him to leave St. Petersburg due to the weakness of his health. Dmitry Ivanovich moved to Simferopol, and then in Odessa, where he worked as a teacher of the gymnasium. In 1859, after defending the thesis on a master's degree on the topic "On specific volumes", he went abroad into a biennial scientific business trip. In Heidelberg, Dmitry Ivanovich worked at the outstanding physicochemicals of that time Bunsen and Kirchhoff, conducted a study on the capilequigity, expansion of liquids and the temperature of absolute boiling. There, he first set the existence of a critical temperature of boiling liquids. Abroad, D. I. Mendeleev printed several laboratory studies performed by him and met a number of major foreign scientists. Upon returning to St. Petersburg, he plunged into a teeds pedagogical, research and literary work.

In 1863, D. I. Mendeleev received a professor of the St. Petersburg Practical Institute of Technology, and from 1866 to the University of St. Petersburg, where he had lectured on organic, inorganic and technical chemistry. In addition, he taught in other educational institutions, among whom Vladimir women's courses should be noted. D. I. Mendeleev accepted a living participation in the organization of well-known Bestuzhev women's courses.

In 1865, D. I. Mendeleev defended his thesis on the degree of Dr. Chemistry on the topic "On the compounds of alcohol with water."

In 1869, he opened a periodic law by issuing the famous work "Fundamentals of Chemistry", withstanding numerous editions in Russian, English, German, French and other languages.

The struggle of the reactionary so-called "German school" for the leading place in the Russian Academy of Sciences affected the elections to the Academy of Sciences in 1880, when D. I. Mendeleev was baled and the academician was elected mediocre chemist Bailstein. This fact caused numerous protests from the public and scientific circles of Russia.

In the 70-90s, D. I. Mendeleev studied petroleum, coal and railway deposits of Russia and Pennsylvanian oil deposits in America. Based on his trips and detailed study of the raw materials and fuel base of Russia, he published a number of technical and economic research and articles on the need to rise in the domestic coal, oil and metallurgical industry, planning numerous and bold events of the earliest implementation of their projects. In the same period, he conducted numerous surroundings on the compressibility of gases, according to the resistance of liquids, studied solutions, was engaged in meteorology and ambulance issues. In connection with the last works, wanting to explore the upper layers of the atmosphere, D. I. Mendeleev in 1887, using the rise of the balloon for observing the solar eclipse, the one rose alone and fully fulfilled the research program. The flight in the balloon at that time was risky, especially in the absence of a pilot specialist, which D. I. Mendeleev at the last moment before the rise asked to stay on Earth, as it turned out that from behind the rain the ball was a wet and could not raise two passengers . A similar courage was manifested by D. I. Mendeleev and in other cases where the case concerned science.

In 1890, after 23 years of teaching, D. I. Mendeleev was forced to leave the University's beloved Petersburg as a result of the conflict with the Minister of Folk Education by Delianov, who had refused during student excitement to accept the students transferred to Mendeleev Petition.

Meanwhile, D. I. Mendeleev's works are widely recognized from foreign scientific circles: it is invited to London to read the Faraday lecture, elect a member of numerous foreign academies, societies, will be presented with honorary titles and medals. D. I. Mendeleev was elected an honorary member of the American, Irish and Yugoslav Academy of Sciences, Dublin Royal Society; a valid member of the London Royal Society, the Edinburgh Royal Society; Roman, Belgian, Danish, Czech, Krakow and other academies of sciences. Numerous foreign universities - Cambridge, Oxford, Göttingen, Princeton and others - elected him by the Honorary Doctor. He was also elected an honorary member of several dozen other foreign societies.

After leaving the university, Dmitry Ivanovich focused, mainly on technical and economic issues, leading at the same time scientific and greater literary work; He made an attempt to publish a newspaper called "Rifle" to illuminate the paths of cultural and industrial lifting of Russia. But the publication of the newspaper was not allowed. D. I. Mendeleev takes an active part in the publication of the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, editing chemical and technical and industrial departments in it and speaking as the author of a number of articles. In 1898, he was appointed Guardian (Manager) of the Main Chamber of Measures and Scales. He put the work of this institution for an extremely large height and for the first time organized a great research work in it.

In the last years of his life, D. I. Mendeleev issued "cherished thoughts" and a number of articles in which the most important problems of national economy and culture.

In 1906 his book "To Knowledge Russia", containing numerous thoughts by D. I. Mendeleev about the paths of further development of the domestic folk farming. For three months, this book was reissued several times.

Literary heritage D. I. Mendeleev is huge. It contains 431 printed work, of which 40 are devoted to chemistry, 106 - physicochemistry, 99 - physics, 22 - geophysics, 99 - engineering and industry, 36 - economic and public issues and 29 to other topics. Approximately two thirds of articles and works were devoted to original scientific and technical work and one third - literary and review work and training benefits.

The main business of the life of D. I. Mendeleev, forever desisted his name, was the creation of a periodic system of chemical elements. The opening of the periodic law was the greatest generalization of the entire empirical material in chemistry. Periodic law showed that all chemical elements are naturally linked. If the elements are located in the sequence of increasing their atomic weights, as D. I. Mendeleev did, it turns out that they periodically, through the right gaps, show similar properties. It was first shown that all the variety of chemical elements and their compounds in nature forms a slender system, and the properties of the elements naturally depend on their atomic weight or, as established later, from their atomic number. Known during the work of D. I. Mendeleev 64 chemical elements He placed in the form of a table, which was called the Mendeleev table.

Periodic system of elements

On the table posted here, the periodic system in a modern form, which differs little from this DI Mendeleev. This table also includes 28 chemical elements opened after D. I. Mendeleev, and some clarifications of atomic scales are made. Now 96 elements are known (elements: neptune, plutonium, amerce and Curie in the table are not specified). In each vertical group of tables there are similar elements in order of increasing their atomic weight; Atomic weight is specified under the symbol of the element, the sequence number - above its name.

In each horizontal row, the elements according to the increasing atomic weight and at the same time, by increasing positive valence, from 1 to 7 and decreasing to zero are negative valence.

Periodic law not only established a clear system of interdependence of the physical and chemical properties of substances, but also gave D. I. Mendeleev the opportunity to predict the opening of a number of new ones, before that time of unknown, elements, predetermining their properties. During a number of subsequent years, researchers discovered all the elements (gallium, scandium, germanium and others) in the periodic system, fully confirming the prediction of D. I. Mendeleev.

Based on the Periodic Law, D. I. Mendeleev, a number of corrections in atomic weight and data on the properties of certain elements that did not cause doubts before that did not cause doubts. The atomic weights of India, beryllium, titanium, cerium, uranium and platinum metals, calculated on the basis of the law of Mendeleev, were correct, and the experimental data obtained before that were incorrect. The prediction of new elements and the correction of atomic weights of previously known elements on the basis of the periodic law was a genuine triumph of D. I. Mendeleev.

Opening of the phenomenon of radioactivity in the XX century. The ideas about the structure of atoms sharply changed, showing their complexity - the presence of cores and electrons in their composition. Atomic nuclei, in turn, turned out to be complex formations consisting of protons and neutrons. From the combinations of these particles, atoms of all elements consist. Spectroscopy, radioscopy and quantum mechanics allowed to build atoms. Next was followed by the discovery of isotopy elements, i.e. the presence of the same elements of different atoms, differing in mass and energy, the discovery of artificial radioactivity, the possibility of dividing atoms and mutual transformations of elements. Currently, about 700 species of atoms of chemical elements are found in nature and artificially synthesized, of which about 380 artificially radioactive. These discoveries were a genuine revolution in our ideas about the structure and properties of the substance. They deepened and developed the law of Mendeleev. In the new form, each column of the Mendeleev table includes, in addition to atomic weight and sequence number, also the number of electrons of the atom and other characteristic constants.

New studies of physicists and chemists explained why the properties of atoms change periodically, in accordance with the growth of their atomic number, i.e. Depending on the charge of the kernel. Periodicity turned out to be the result of an electronic structure of atoms.

Periodic law served and continues to serve as a guide star of creative quest in the field of chemical, physical, geological, technical and other sciences. The principle of periodicity after the wording of the Law Mendeleev was transferred to the study of various natural phenomena and properties that could more deeply illuminate the nature and structure of the substance.

The discovery of the periodic law D. I. Mendeleev denied the blind adoption of the blind adoption before his bare experience, empirica, corrected and, where necessary, retreated from experimental data, subjected to deep criticism of the previous formal logical systems. Periodic law, as the general law of nature, is deeply dialectic. Engels in the "Dialectics of Nature" wrote that "Mendeleev, applying an unconsciously Gegelian law on the transition of the quantity in quality, made a scientific feat that can be safely put next to the opening of the Leverright, which computing the orbit of an unknown Neptune Planet." This estimation of the opening of D. I. Mendeleev is now, after its 75 years of testing and development, should be significantly enhanced. The discovery of Leverrier gave science and humanity much less than the great discovery of D. I. Mendeleev, whose importance every year is increasing.

Directly and closely connected with the periodic law were the "Basics of Chemistry", which D. I. Mendeleev wrote: "Basics" - My favorite child, my impression, my teacher's experience, my sincere thoughts. "In the" Fundamentals of Chemistry "really So much creative, generalizing, critical and guiding thought to new quest, which, despite the 75-year-old age (1868-1870), this book and now remains difficult, the study of which is absolutely necessary for each chemist, regardless of age , experience and specialization. In it, D. I. Mendeleev laid the most basics of chemical thinking, without which it is impossible to become a real chemical researcher and a converter of nature. Periodic law and "Basics of Chemistry" opened a new era not only in chemistry, but in all natural science , having a big impact also on materialistic generalizations in various fields of natural and philosophical sciences.

By the number of their largest work, D. I. Mendeleev himself belonged to another "study of the elasticity of gases" and "understanding of solutions as associations." Starting the study of the properties of gases, he discovered the imperfection of the research methods used before it developed several new devices, safely moved to the study of sparse gases in higher layers of the atmosphere and made a lot of new things in meteorology. Making sure that the high layers of the atmosphere are the "Grand Weather Laboratory", D. I. Mendeleev studied the theoretical foundations of the airplane and, as mentioned above, rose in 1887 at the balloon for studying the upper layers of the atmosphere. For the commission of this flight, D. I. Mendeleev was awarded the medal of the French society of aeronautics. The nearest employee D. I. Mendeleev, later academician, D. P. Konovalov wrote: "In the field of the Mendeleev aeronautics, there was a great theoretical work, which also searches for the basis of the" Basics ". His work" On the resistance of liquids and airplane "(1882) According to the famous Russian scientist, the father of Russian aviation professor N. E. Zhukovsky, is the "capital monograph on the resistance of liquids, which now (1909) can serve as the main guidance for crabbrowing, aeronautics or ballistic."

DI Mendeleev's views on solutions as on chemical compounds between dissolved substance and solvent with varying composition properties and formation of certain hydrates in its time, due to the rapid successes of the theory of electrolytic dissociation of Arrhenius and the works of Vant-Gooff, they were challenged by many major researchers. However, later work in this area confirmed the observations and conclusions of D. I. Mendeleev that hydrates exist not only in solid state, but also in solutions. Developed and expanded chemical theory of solutions D. I. Mendeleev, coordinated with physical theories (eletrolitic dissociation, osmotic pressure, etc.), which is now known to the chemicals called the "solvate" theory, now serves as an excellent addition to "physical" theories.

Working on the theory of solutions, D. I. Mendeleev collected and led to the same conditions a huge amount (238 pairs of substances!) Experienced data from other researchers obtained in a wide variety of conditions. He deeply squeezed and mathematically processed them, brought a number of formulas expressing the relationship between the specific gravity and the composition of solutions.

Theoretical works and collected by DI Mendeleev data provided an invaluable service of laboratory and factory practice. He suggested a famous formula of the calorific value of the fuel, which now entered the textbooks. This formula makes it possible to calculate the calorific value for hydrogen analysis, oxygen and nitrogen in the fuel.

Despite the fact that D. I. Mendeleev loved to ride to the tops of the "Truths of themselves in their absolute purity" (from the preface of Mendeleev to the 8th edition of the "Fundamentals of Chemistry"), his reverent thought, dozens of his major works were devoted to the study New ways of development of the Russian industry and agriculture. For him never existed to oppose theoretical science and science applied. He constantly took care of the publication of various kinds of technical guidelines, reference books, encyclopedias that promote the development of the domestic industry.

Looking into the future, D. I. Mendeleev clearly saw in oil precious raw materials for producing a large number of very necessary organic products. In this regard, he throws the Great Words: "Turn the oil to trammed with the assignments." It puts the task of using natural gases.

"Science and industry - here are my dreams!" - wrote D. I. Mendeleev. In his youth, he became interested in mining and late agriculture and factory industry, hardworking and in detail studying the technique and the economy of these industries. In 1863, he began to study the oil affairs in Baku. Over the years, with breaks, he developed a question about the origin of oil, as a result of which he put forward the original theory of inorganic oil formation through carbides of metals. Studying the conditions for the extraction and chemical refining of oil, it has planned prospects for the development of the Caucasian Oil Industry. He passionately promoted the need for all the development of mining and chemical oil refining. Already then, D. I. Mendeleev proposed a device of oil pipelines from Baku to the Black Sea, which was implemented only after his death. For the marine and river transport of oil, he proposed the use of oil ships, now also included in practice.

D. I. Mendeleev studies the coal industry, goes to the Donetsk swimming pool, suggests urgently to build new railways, to make the iron industry in the Donetsk basin, etc. He published his works "Future strength, resting on the shores of the Donets", " The global value of stone coal in the Donetsk basin "and others in which the urgent need for energy and chemical use of the coal of the Donetsk basin and numerous other fields of Russia, including Moscow region, Kuznetsk, Altai, Yakutsk, Caucasian (Tvorbulsk) and others, is promoted.

In a few years, D. I. Mendeleev became interested in the iron ore industry of the Urals. He leaves with radio tape recorders for collecting materials "On the connection between the location of iron ore and magnetic anomalies." As a result of a business trip, the report "Ural Iron Industry in 1899" appears, in which D. I. Mendeleev puts the problem of the Kuznetsky basin and offers a number of economic events for the development of metallurgy in the East. In 1900, he put forward the task of "direct production of iron and steel from ore, bypassing the cast iron," and now there is now a sharp mind of metallurgists.

In 1887, D. I. Mendeleev first put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bunderground gasification of coal; She then drew attention to it and supported Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. "It probably will probably, with time, even such an era that the coal from the ground will not be taken out, and there they will be able to turn it into combustible gases in the ground and they will distribute them for distant distances" - wrote D. I. Mendeleev in 1897 Currently, underground gasification is studied by the USSR Academy of Sciences and a specially organized trust "underground", leading a number of major experienced work in several districts.

The initious mind D. I. Mendeleev is interested in agrochemistry, applying fertilizers, quality of agricultural products, etc.

For agricultural experiences with fertilizers, he acquired the "Boblovo" estate in the Yaroslavl province and for several years studying the effectiveness of various types of fertilizers, develops a methodology for field experiments, processes the results of other experiments and publishes them in the "War Economic Society", promoting at meetings and In the reports, the use of phosphate, nitrogen, potash, limestone and organic fertilizers. Pupils and researchers of D. I. Mendeleev in this area were then the famous Timiryazev and GobruSon. On the conduct of agriculture in his estate himself, D. I. Mendeleev, wrote: "It was introduced by a multipoly, good, even abundant fertilizer, were the cars and the correct cattle breeding were arranged to use meadows and have their fertilizers." For several years, D. I. Mendeleev increased the yield of rye almost 2.5 times. Professor of the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy brought students to watch the farm D. I. Mendeleev.

Based on agricultural and economic research, D. I. Mendeleev ridiculated Malthusianism, saying that "now a million people for their lives need the number of land many times less than it was 200 years ago, and after 200 years they still need Many less than the earth ... There should be no pessimism. "

Red thread through numerous articles and statements by D. I. Mendeleev is a thought of mutual communication and mutual beneficial effects of agriculture and industry. He said that "factory, industrial enterprises are not enemies, as many people want to assert, but the true allies or the native brothers of the agricultural industry."

Having advanced and studying new industrial and agricultural problems, D. I. Mendeleev widely used the mathematical processing of data and statistical methods, the study of the problem is comprehensive - taking into account the entire totality of scientific, technical, economic and geographical moments. From here, his deep formulation of the problems of the northern sea routes of communication (the path to the Far East through the Arctic Ocean, through the Arctic), air navigation messages, the irrigation of the soils of the Lower Volga, the search for the "center of the surface and population of Russia", etc. Based on the deep analysis of D. and . Mendeleev came to the conclusion that "the center of the population moves towards the feakful south and abundant land of the East." We are now witnesses and participants in the conquest of the Arctic, the Nordic lands, the widespread development of air communications and the movement of industrial centers to the East.

In order to characterize the original and witty approach to D. I. Mendeleev to solve some scientific tasks, it is possible to clarify the composition of the smokeless powder. Not being a specialist in the field of explosives, he nevertheless was not afraid to take the solution of this task. On behalf of the Maritime Ministry, D. I. Mendeleev was sent to France with the task to find out the composition of smokeless powder. The French authorities provided him with the opportunity to get acquainted with the plant of smokeless powder, but refused to inform him of his composition. Due to the fact that the plant had a separate railway branch, D. I. Mendeleevo comes to mind to explore the published statistical reports of railway transportation of raw materials and products on this plant and on the basis of calculations to conclude on the composition of the powder. Thus, it determined the amount of cellulose, sulfur and nitric acids, which is required for the production of pyrocolodia. Upon returning to Russia, D. I. Mendeleev checked his calculations by experiments in university laboratories. The product has undergone all the tests, and soon it began to be produced in a factory scale.

In a brief sketch, it is almost impossible to cover the exceptional diversity of the subjects and the areas of knowledge in which they worked with both D. I. Mendeleev. To the fact that it was listed above, it would be possible to add more of its research in the field of measurement and weighing techniques, its brilliant work in the field of explosives, astronomical, crystallographic and mineralogical, mathematical, pedagogical, historical, sociological and even art historical writings. As an example, the diversity of his interests can be given a number of his oral and printed speeches against classicism in gymnasium education, his passionate struggle with spiritism, his speeches about the forensic examination, its great economic work "the intelligent tariff", his critical article about the painting of Queenji and T . P.

Fascinating lecturer, D. I. Mendeleev infected his listeners to the deepest interest and love for science and technology. Recalling the last lecture D. I. Mendeleev at the University, Academician A. A. Baikov says: "... deep silence reigned in the audience, and the master's figure of Mendeleev seemed to the door, a little stubborn; long gray hair, dropped from her head to the very shoulders , gray beard bore his serious and thoughtful face. Concentrated heartfelt eyes focused. I still can't forget what happened. It seemed that the building was ready to collapse from the thunder greetings, the hands, applause, it was a thunderstorm, it was a hurricane. .. As it happened, Mendeleev frowned more and more, waved with both hands to stop greetings and calm the audience ... He didn't act on everyone and attracted the minds and the hearts of everyone who had to meet with him. "

D. I. Mendeleev was an enthusiast of science with irrepressible, everything overcoming disability, filled with optimism and courage. In the memoirs of his wife D. I. Mendeleev - Anna Ivanovna - Describes like D. I. Mendeleev, fond of work, often did not sleep for several nights in a row and was very strict for the use of his time. Along with this, D. I. Mendeleev loved painting, music, fond of fiction literature, in particular, Jul's adventure novels, and he was engaged in physical labor - glued caskets, suitcases, bought books. Despite participation in industrial work and huge services, which D. I. Mendeleev provided an industrial development of the country not only scientific assistance, but also concern for the involvement of new capital, he himself refused to personal participation in any enterprises as a shareholder or employee ( What he was repeatedly offered), wanting to preserve an independent position and the opportunity to engage in national issues of the domestic industry.

D. I. Mendeleev was a revolutionary in science. He hated scholasticism and metaphysics.

D. I. Mendeleev was the author of the most advanced discoveries and proposals in the field of science and technology, the industrialization of the country, the economy planning, a supporter of production cooperation, a fighter against routine and classicism, a hot champion of female equality, which has repeatedly provided in opposition to representatives of the royal government .

Time often erases or covers the shadow of the majestic images of the past. Creation D. I. Mendeleev over time shine to us everything brighter. His works inspire and indicate the paths of countless old and young researchers. In honor of D. I. Mendeleev, the Awards of the USSR Academy of Sciences are established for outstanding work in chemistry and physics. His name is all-Union Chemical Society. Its name is called several of the best and medium-sized chemical educational institutions. In honor of him the All-Union Congresses on Clean and Applied Chemistry.

The image of the brilliant scientist and Patriot Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev will always be called to new creative quest and jerseys.

The main works of D. I. Mendeleeva: On the connection of alcohol with water, St. Petersburg., 1865 (doctoral dissertation): Basics of chemistry, part 1-2, St. Petersburg, 1869-1871; On the resistance of liquids and the airplane, St. Petersburg, 1880; On experiments on the elasticity of gases, St. Petersburg, 1881; Study of aqueous solutions for specific weight, St. Petersburg, 1887; Exolk tariff, St. Petersburg, 1891-1892, in. 1-3; Cherished thoughts, St. Petersburg, 1903-1905 (in four issues); Attempt to chemical understanding of world ether, 1905; To the knowledge of Russia, St. Petersburg., 1906 (4th ed., 1912); Proceedings on Metrology, L.-m., 1936; Works, L., 1937, t. I [contains the following works: isomorphism due to other relations of crystalline form to the composition (candidate dissertation); Specific volumes (master's dissertation); Provisions elected to protect the chemistry master's degree; On the connection of some physical properties of bodies with their chemical reactions], L., 1934, t. II (Selected Works; Periodic Law); L., 1934, t. III (Selected Works: Study of aqueous solutions for specific weight); L., 1937, t. IV (solutions; Contains the doctoral dissertation "On the connection of alcohol with water"); L., 1939, vol. Vi (gases); Periodic system of elements, M., 1942. To the doctrine of industry, 1902. The program of agricultural experiences with fertilizers (works of a free economic society, 1866, vol. Iv. II).

About D. I. Mendeleev: Family chronicle in the letters of mother, father, brother, sisters, uncle D. I. Mendeleev, St. Petersburg., 1908; Mendeleeva A. I.,Mendeleev in life, M., 1928; Chugaev L. A.,Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev. Life and activity, L., 1924; Ozarovskaya O. 3.,D. I. Mendeleev, M., 1929; Infants M. N.,D. I. Mendeleev (Life and Work), M.-L., 1937; Infants M. N. and Tyshenko V. E.,Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev. His life and activity, t. I, part 1, M.-L., 1938; Vasetsky G. S.,The worldview D. I. Mendeleev, Soviet Science, 1938, No. 3; Danilevsky V. V.,D. I. Mendeleev and Urals, Sverdlovsk, 1944; First, M. G.,To the 75th anniversary of the Periodic Law D. I. Mendeleev, M., 1944; Kondratovich R. A.,D. I. Mendeleev (Bibliography Experience), M.-L. 1934; Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev. Index of literature under the general edition of M. N. Popova, M., 1941. Xopalopain V. G.,Transformation of elements and periodic law, "chemistry successes", № 3, 1944, Kapustinsky A. F.,Three-quarters of a century of the Periodic Law D. I. Mendeleev, "Chemical Industry", No. 2-3, 1944; Fersman A. E.,Periodic law of Mendeleev and its meaning in natural science, "Bulletin of the USSR Academy of Sciences", № 6, 1944, Ioffe A. F.,The physical meaning of the periodic system, "Bulletin of the USSR Academy of Sciences", No. 6, 1944.

Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich, a brief biography of which is familiar to any our compatriot at least in general, is one of the most prominent scientific figures. It is about the main events of the life of this person and will be discussed in the above article.

Youth

In February 1834, Dmitry Mendeleev was born in the family of a director of one of the gymnasiums in Tobolsk. The biography of the future scientist narrates that, besides him, the parents of the future creator of the periodic system also had seventeen siblings. According to the sad uscome, eight of them died at the earliest age. Own learning Dima begins in the city gymnasium. And after her end, he enters the state here he is studying at the Physics and Mathematics Faculty and at the twenty-one comes out of the university walls with

Dmitry Start Career

At the end of the university, the young man does not immediately begin to engage tightly engage in scientific activities. For some time, young Mendeleev is trying to show himself on a literary field. Actually, this step contributed to the time. His youth fell on the golden age of Russian poetry. However, soon due to problems with his health, Mendeleev was forced to move to Odessa. In that

a young chemist has worked as a teacher of the gymnasium for some time, which was held at the local Richel University. But already one year later, Mendeleev returns to St. Petersburg, where he manages to defend him the right to read lectures on organic chemistry in his native university. In 1859, a promising scientist is sent for two years to Germany to pass internship in the city of Heidelberg. Returning after this voyage to Russia, Dmitry Ivanovich becomes soon the author of the first in the domestic historiography of the textbook on organic chemistry.

Dmitry Mendeleev: biography. Recognition and flourishing of activity

Another very young scientist at that time in 1865 receives a doctoral degree in chemistry. Already in this work the foundations of the approach to the study of the chemistry of organic solutions were laid, which was the basis for the basis for specialization. After the protection of Dmitry Ivanovich, for a long time, held the position of professor in his native Alma Mater, reading lectures here and in a number of other universities of the capital. In 1869

Mendeleev publishes that the most discovery, thanks to which it is known today in the whole world: the periodic table of chemical elements was first formulated and streamlined. Two years later, it turned out later than the classical monograph "Basics of Chemistry", the author of which was Mendeleev. The biography of the scientist acquires a sharp turn when in 1890 he leaves the University of St. Petersburg. On this step, he went to protest against the oppression of student.

Last years

DI. Mendeleev, whose biography demonstrates an example of irrepressible energy, even at the order of his life continues to benefit from Fatherland. Already a recognized scientist, a certain time worked in the maritime ministry as a consultant. Later, he even organized the first in the ward of measures and scales, becoming her first director. Here he worked to his own death. Dmitry Ivanovich died in early February 1907.

Mendeleev's biography, Mendeleev's scientific activity

Information about the biography of Mendeleev, the scientific activity of Mendeleev

1. Biography Mendeleev

2. Member of the Union of Russian People

3. Scientific activities

Periodic system of chemical elements (Mendeleev Table)

Specifications. Chemistry of silicates and glass-like state

Research Gas

The doctrine of solutions

Aeronautics

Shipbuilding. Development of the Far North

Metrology

Roughwood

About electrolytic dissociation

4. Logical-thematic paradigm of scientist creativity

5. D. I. Mendeleev and Peace

6. Recognition

Awards, Academy and Society

Doctoral title

Nobel epic

Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich it (January 27 (February 8) 1834, Tobolsk - January 20 (February 2) 1907, St. Petersburg) - Russian scientist and public figure. Chemist, physicochemist, physicist, metrologist, economist, technologist, geologist, meteorologist, teacher, aeronaut, instrument-making, encyclopedist. One of the most famous discoveries is the periodic law of chemical elements.

Biography Mendeleev

Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich is a brilliant Russian chemist, a physicist and a naturalist in the broad sense of the word.

Parents Mendeleev - Pure Russian Origin. His grandfather was a priest and wore the surname of Sokolov; The name "Mendeleev" received, according to the customs of the time, in the form of a nickname, father of Mendeleev in the spiritual school. Mendeleev's mother came from an old, but impoverished merchant.

Mendeleev was born on January 27, 1834 in Tobolsk, seventeenth and last child in the family of Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev, while the position of Director of Tobolskaya Gymnasium and School of Tobolsky district. In the same year, the father of Mendeleeva Oplex and soon lost his place (died in 1847).

All the care of the family has moved to Mother Mendeleev, Mary Dmitrievna, nee Cornelieva, a woman of an outstanding mind and energy. She managed to simultaneously and lead a small glass plant that delivered (together with a scanty pension) more than modest livelihoods, and take care of the children who gave excellent education for that time.

The younger son especially addressed her attention to his extraordinary abilities; She decided to do everything possible in order to facilitate the development of its natural tissue, placing it first to Tobolsk gymnasium, then to the main pedagogical institute in St. Petersburg. She died in 1850; Mendeleev retained his grateful memory before the end of his days. This is what he writes in 1887, devoting her memory his essay "Study of aquatic solutions for specific weight." "This study is dedicated to the memory of her mother.

She could only raise his work, leading the factory case; I brought up an example, fixed love and to give to science, taken out of Siberia, spending the last tools and strength. Dying, taught: Avoid Latin self-exclusion, insist in work, and not in words and patiently look for a divine or scientific truth, for I understood how often the dialectic deceives how much more should learn, and how with the help of science, without violence, lovingly, but Prejudice and mistakes are firmly eliminated, and they are achieved: the protection of the produced truth, freedom of further development, the overall benefit and inner well-being. Mother's covenants considers D. Mendeleev's sacred. "

In the gymnasium, Mendeleev studied no matter. He did not like the gymnasic routine, in which the Latin self-priority played a prominent role. He was disagreeed only by mathematics and physics. A disgust for the classic school remained for his life.

Favorable soil for the development of his abilities of Mendeleev found only in the main pedagogical institute. Here he met outstanding teachers who skided a deep interest in science into the souls of their listeners. Among them were the best scientific forces of the time, academicians and professors of the St. Petersburg University: M.V. Ostrogradsky (Mathematics), E.H. Lenz (physics), A.A. Resurrection (Chemistry), M.S. KUTUTORGA (Mineralogy), F.F. Brandt (zoology). The very atmosphere of the institute, with all the severity of the regime of a closed educational institution, thanks to the small number of students, the extremely caring attitude towards them and the close connection of them with professors, gave a wide opportunity for the development of individual inclinations.

At the end of the course at the Mendeleev Institute, due to a shameless health, he took the place of the teacher first in Simferopol, then in Odessa, where he enjoyed the advice of Pirogov. Staying in the south corrected his health, and in 1856 he returned to St. Petersburg, where he defended his thesis on the degree of master chemistry: "On specific volumes".

23 years old, he is made by the Associate Professor of the University of St. Petersburg, where he reads first theoretical, then organic chemistry. In January 1859, Mendeleev was sent to a biennial business trip abroad. He went to Heidelberg, where the names of Bunsen, Kirchhoff and Koppa attracted him, and where he worked in his own private laboratory, mainly on the question of the capillary and surface tension of liquids, and the leisure hours spent in the circle of young Russian scientists: S.P. Botkin, I.M. Sechenova, I.A. Vyshnegradsky, A.P. Borodin et al.

In 1861, Mendeleev returns to St. Petersburg, where she resumes reading lectures on organic chemistry at the university and publishes a wonderful textbook by that time: "Organic Chemistry", in which the idea uniting the whole set of organic compounds is the theory of limits, originally and comprehensively Developed.

In 1863, the Physical and Mathematics Faculty of St. Petersburg University elects him by Professor at the Department of Technology, but he does not receive statements from the ministry, for the lack of a master of the Master of Technology (approval took place, however, in 1865).

In 1864, Mendeleev was elected professor at the St. Petersburg Technological Institute.

In 1865, he defended his thesis "On the compounds of alcohol with water" to the degree of Dr. Chemistry, and in 1867 he received at the University of the Department of Inorganic (General) Chemistry, which was held for 23 years.

With this period of time, the most complete flourishing of scientific creativity and pedagogical activities of Mendeleev coincides. He opens the Periodic Law (1869) and sets it out in a number of memoirs, produces the "Basics of Chemistry" (1869 - 71), devotes long-term work, together with several employees, first study the compressibility of gases, then the study of solutions, mainly in relation to the specific specific Weight.

The first of these works was carried out at the funds provided by Mendeleev Imperial Russian Technical Society and the Artillery Office, with the participation of M.L. Kirpicheva, N.N. Cayman, Bogussky, F.Ya. Kapustina, Hemilian and E.N. Gutkovsky, and hugs the period of time from 1872 to 1878; She was left unfinished. Its results are set forth in the composition of "on the elasticity of gases" (1875) and in several preliminary messages.

Work on solutions that are a continuation of the doctoral dissertation of Mendeleev, occupy Mendeleev and its employees (V.E. Pavlova, V.E. Tishchenko, I.F. Schröder, S.P. Vukola et al.) In the late 70s and in first half of the 80s; The results are reduced in an extensive essay: "Studies of solutions for specific weight" (1887).

In close connection with these gas work, it is engaged in issues related to the resistance of fluids, aeronautics and meteorology, and publishes two valuable monographs about this. In 1887, he rises in a balloon to the wedge to observe a complete solar eclipse. He devotes a lot of attention to our oil industry; In 1876, he takes a trip to America (on behalf of the government) to familiarize themselves with the production of the oil case there, repeatedly visits with the same purpose and our Caucasian deposits; Leads a number of curious oil research work.

In 1888, he studies the economic condition of the Donetsk Coal District, finds out its importance for Russia and offers a number of measures for the rational use of "future strength that falls on the shores of the Donets". The results of these works are set out in a number of articles and individual monographs.

In 1890, Mendeleev left the University of St. Petersburg under the following circumstances. In the spring of this year, student unrest led to the development of petitions in the name of the Minister of Folk Enlightenment, which contained an exclusively wishes of an academic nature. At the request of Mendeleev's students agreed to convey this petition to the Minister, taking the word to suspend the riots earlier from them.

The tactless response of the Minister (Count Delianova), who has refused to consider the petition, and renewed after the riot forced Mendeleev to submit a resignation. Requests of comrades could not force Mendeleev to change the decision made; From the side of the minister, no steps were taken to ride his guilt before Mendeleev and maintain his best decoration behind the St. Petersburg university. Almost forcibly torn off from science, Mendeleev devotes all its strength to practical tasks.

With its active participation, in 1890, a draft of the new customs tariff is created, in which a patronage system is consistently carried out, and in 1891 a wonderful book is published: "Exolk tariff", which represents a comment on this project and at the same time a deeply thoughtful review Our industry, indicating her needs and future prospects. The Marine and Military Ministry instruct Mendeleev (1891) to develop a question of smokeless gunpowder, and he (after a foreign business trip) in 1892 brilliantly performs this task.

The "Pyricolodius" proposed by them turned out to be an excellent type of smokeless powder, while versatile and easily adapted to any firearm. Mendeleev takes an active part in the works related to the All-Russian Exhibition (1896), with the Chicago (1893) and Paris (1900) World Exhibitions.

In 1899, he was sent to the Ural Plants; The fruit of this trip was the following year extensive and highly meaningful monograph on the state of the Ural industry. In 1893, Mendeleev was appointed manager of just transformed by its own instructions "the main chamber of measures and scales" and in this post remained until the end of his life.

The main chamber of Mendeleev organizes a number of work on metrology related to the resumption of Russian prototypes measures and weight. Particularly important works concerning the laws controlling the fluctuations of the scales and the development of precision weighing techniques; This also includes the determination of the weight of a certain volume of water and changes in the specific weight of water when the temperature changes from 0 to 30 °, the preparation of experiments to measure the absolute voltage of gravity. All these and other works are printed in a founded Mendeleev "Temperator" of the Main Chamber.

By the same period of Mendeleev's activities, his well-known article includes: "Attempt to a chemical understanding of world ester" (1903), in which he suggests that the ether is a special chemical element with a very small atomic weight relating to the zero group of the periodic system. Since 1891, Mendeleev takes an active part in the "encyclopedic dictionary" of Brockhaus - Efron, as the editor of the Chemical and Technical and Factory Factory Department and the author of many articles to decorate this publication.

In 1900 - 02 He edits the Library of Industries, where he belongs. "The Doctrine of Industry." Since 1904, the "cherished thoughts" of Mendeleev, which contains his Profession De FOI as it were, and at the same time testament to the offspring, the results of experienced and redoubled on various issues relating to the economic, state and public life of Russia. According to its maintenance to "cherished thoughts", the wonderful essay of Mendeleev: "To the knowledge of Russia", representing the analysis of the census data of 1897, and withstanding 4 publications (since 1905) during the lifetime).

By the calculation of Professor V.E. Tishchenko, the total number of books, brochures, articles and notes printed by Mendeleev, exceed 350; Of these, 2/3 are on the original work in chemistry, physics and technical issues. - Mendeleev, above all, a brilliant scientist, a first-class chemist. Worldwide fame and loud glory made him opening of a periodic law. In this discovery, he owns the main and completely exclusive merit (the work of its predecessors, Newlands and De-Charcornua, containing in themselves, so to speak, the rudiment of the periodic law was unknown to him; the claim for the priority of Lot. Meyer, on which they often refer to certainly unforgettable).

According to the periodic law, all properties of chemical elements are periodically changed, as their atomic weight increases, so that elements similar, or close to properties appear through certain intervals. Mendeleev not only the first definitely formulated this law and presented its content in the form of a table, which became classic, but also comprehensively substantiated him, showed him of tremendous scientific importance as a guiding classification principle and as a mighty tool for scientific research.

It is especially significant that he himself took advantage of the periodic law to correct the atomic weights of some elements and for predicting three new elements, Gallium, Scandia and Germany, Dotol unknown, with all their properties. All these corrections and predictions brilliantly justified. But the other scientific work of Mendeleev would be absolutely sufficient to provide him with the honorable name in science. These are his above-mentioned conditions for the capillary, which (to the endryus) led to a substantiation of such an important concept of critical temperature (the temperature of absolute boiling, according to Mendeleev); These are its research on solutions in which the hydrate theory is developing on a large number of facts, which is now full recognition in science, and, that is especially important, methods are established for locating hydrates in solution (singular points in diagrams: composition - property).

A number of other, smaller, but still important, chemistry issues - about the limits, about the chemical nature of thionic acids, on hydrates and metal-ammonia compounds, about the breakdowns and many others - the masterfully interpreted in individual articles placed in the "Russian magazine Chemical society "and in other periodicals. The same can be said about the works of Mendeleev in other areas of knowledge. Mendeleev in broadly inherent in a true genius to unite various sides of scientific and general spiritual creativity and therefore willingly worked in the border areas between chemistry and physics, between physics and meteorology, from chemistry and physics, passed to the region of hydrodynamics, astronomy, geology, even political savings. Every matter, for no matter what Mendeleev, no matter how narrowly special it was, he captured widely and sought to deeply penetrate the essence of the question. Everywhere he knew how to be original, or, as he himself said, "peculiar."

From the question of the rational mining and utilization of oil, he touched up to a purely scientific problem on the origin of oil - on the one hand, until a comprehensive analysis of the economic life of Russia - on the other; From the narrow tasks of metrology, from the reconciliation of the emergency, he sealed to the problem of worldy gravity. With such a wide sweep of thought and versatile activities of Mendeleev, everything that came out from under his pen was at the same time deeply thought out and carefully worked out.

It became possible only due to its extraordinary working capacity, which allowed him to spend all nights at work, barely devoting several hours to rest. An extensive course of organic chemistry, according to the testimony of Professor G.G. Gustavon, was written by him for two months, almost no departure from the written table. In the same afraid later, a report on the state of the Ural Industry and many other writings of Mendeleev was compiled. Working in the field of accurate sciences, especially chemistry and physics, he attached great importance to numerical data and spent a lot of effort and withered methods for the production of methods both to extract these data by experiment and for their mathematical processing.

The mass of valuable guidance on this occasion is scattered in the writings of Mendeleev, especially in his doctoral dissertation and in writings: "On the elasticity of gases" and "study of aquatic solutions". A huge amount of labor and time spent on the most process of calculating experienced data, both own and especially those produced by other authors. Persons who closely knew Mendeleev testify that every figure was reported to them - even with an educational goal, in the "bases of chemistry," - repeatedly and very carefully checked and published only after the author received confidence that it should be considered The most reliable. In addition to clean chemistry, in general clean science, Mendeleev has always been interested in the area of \u200b\u200bchemistry of applied, chemical industry. He deeply believed in the creative forces of science in a practical field; He was convinced that the time would come when "sowing scientific will go for the harvest of the people."

Being a champion of the idea of \u200b\u200bunity between science and technology, he considered such unity and closely related to the wide development of the industry are ultimately necessary for our Fatherland, and therefore, where he could, he could preach, not only in a word, but also, on his own example Showing how brilliant practical results can lead science in alliance with industry. Mendeleev's thoughts turned out to be prophetic. Something in the direction predefined to them was made (especially thanks to the late Count Witte, which more than other prominent statesmen appreciated Mendeleev and listened to his voice), but still much more left to do, and there is no doubt that the unfounded is now (1915) one of The main causes of the industrial crisis experienced by Russia and in particular "chemical hunger", which is inhibited by the successful production of our state defense.

As a teacher, Mendeleev did not create and left behind the school, like his famous contemporary A.M. Butlerov; But the whole generations of Russian chemists can be considered his students. This is, first of all, his university listeners, and then an incomparably wider range of persons who have studied chemistry on its "basics". Lects of Mendeleev did not differ in external shine, but were deeply fascinating, and he was going to listen to all university. In these lectures, Mendeleev, as it were, led by a listener, forcing it to do that difficult and tedious path, which from the raw actual material of science leads to the true knowledge of nature; He forced to feel that the generalizations in science are given only by the cost of hard work, and the ultimate conclusions appeared in front of the audience.

Its "Basics of Chemistry", written during the period between 1868 and 1870. And compiled, at least, in part in the university lectures of Mendeleev, are far from the type of chemistry ordinary textbook. This monumental essay, in which the entire philosophy of chemical science is organically woven in the ectic material, and, in particular, a detailed commentary on the periodic law. Originally written for beginners and the goal "to put into the study of chemistry as much as possible more Russian forces", it contains so many deep and original thoughts, interesting convergence, the assessment of which is not always available for a beginner, which keeps great interest and for the established chemist who , rereading the "basics", every time will find a lot of useful for themselves.

There are no such writings in Russian, it is difficult to find them in world chemical literature. - Mendeleev always strongly sympathized with higher female education and was (from the 60s) Professor of Vladimir, then Bestuzhev Women's courses, in St. Petersburg. Vividly interested in issues of popular education, especially the highest, he repeatedly returns to this topic in his writings. But not only the organization of the school was interested in Mendeleev: he vividly reacted into those community sentiment and trends that could affect the spirit and direction of the school. A convinced enemy of mystics, he could not not respond to the passion for spiritualism, which covered the part of the Russian society in the 70s of the last century.

It is devoted to the criticism of the so-called "medium phenomena", he devotes a special composition, published in 1876, setting out the results of the work of work special, on his own initiative of an organized commission. - Unparent merits of Mendeleev in front of science received recognition from the whole scientist world. He was a member of almost all academies and an honorary member of many scientists (the total number of scientists who considered Mendeleev honorary member reached 100).

Our Academy of Sciences chose him, however, in 1880. F. F. Beilstein, the author of an extensive reference book on organic chemistry - a fact that caused indignation in wide circles of Russian society. A few years later, when Mendeleev was again offered to run into the academy, he took off his candidacy. In 1904, on the day of the 70-year-old Jubilee D. I. (from the birth of birth), the Academy one of the first to welcomed him through his representative. Special honor, his name was used in England, where he was awarded the medals of Davie, Faradai and the piggyback, where he was invited (1888) as a "Faradeevsky" lecturer, the honor dropping into a share only a few scientists. Mendeleev died on January 20, 1907 from the inflammation of the lungs. His funeral adopted at the state's account was a real national mourning. The branch of the chemistry of Russian physico-chemical society has established two prizes in honor of Mendeleev for the best works in chemistry. The Mendeleev library, together with the situation of his office, was acquired by Petrograd University and is stored in a special place, once the part of his apartment. It was decided to erect a monument to Mendeleev in Petrograd, which already contains a significant amount. L. Chugaev.

Member of the Union of Russian People

The basics of the labor and economic education of Mendeleev received in childhood, when his mother managed a small glass plant, in whose courtyard there was a personal subsidiary farm, and the children helped her. In the student years he is at the request of prof. A.K. Reikhel traveled to the woodworking plant belonging to this, which brought some losses, and suggested improving the technology that ensured the high profitability of production.

By this time, the principal decision of Mendeleev, who has fallen an imprint on his subsequent life and activities. We had a need for childhood and youth and saw that he could earn decent money with his consultations in the circle of entrepreneurs, he conceived was to acquire his own factory. But, by reflection, I decided that it would connect his hands in the disinterested quest of Truth. His hands should be free to indicate the path to others. And since that time he did not accept remuneration for his advice.

Mendeleev could not accept the fact that "Russian man who has ceased to work on the landowner became a slave of Western Europe and is from her in the fortress dependence, delivering her bread conditions of life ... serfs, that is, in essence, the economic dependence of millions of Russian people from Russian landowners was destroyed , Instead, it came to the economic dependence of the entire Russian people from foreign capitalists ... Billions of rubles, who were walking for foreign goods ... Feed not their people, and others. " And he begins the struggle for the liberation of the country from these economic shacks.

Mendeleev performed on an economic and public field in difficult conditions. The landowners were the main producers of grain coming to export. And in their environment, the opinion (found, in particular, the expression in the book of a well-known economist and statistics, chairman of the tariff committee, L.V. Tengoborsky), as if "Russia - the country agricultural and in the development of the industry does not need" (others added: yes Our agricultural people are not capable of this). They believed that Russia, with an immense expanse of arable land, the fate itself is intended to be a bodice of Europe, where the population is thick, and there are few land. And therefore, efforts should be made primarily to expanding the exports of agricultural products, the necessary industrial products can be purchased on the resulting currency abroad (except that it is necessary for equipping the armed forces). The development of the industry in Russia is impossible due to the lack of capital and demand for its products.

Particularly unfavorable conditions for the development of the domestic industry have developed in the period of liberal reforms in the reign of Alexander II. Industry in Russia has developed rapidly, but with the growing participation of foreign capital. Railways were especially intensively built. But this construction began without the creation of its own industrial base, and therefore rails and rolling stock, as well as equipment for many plants, were purchased abroad. Russia's customs defense was then minimized. As a result, the foreign debt of Russia grew rapidly, the trade balance was negative. Foreign capitalists exported earnings abroad in a larger amount than gold flushed to Russia, and the country's payment balance was also reduced to a deficit.

Due to all these circumstances, the ideas of Mendeleev, who spent the hot champion of the industrial development of Russia, and the industry of domestic and supporting the widest layers of the people, met a sharp opposition both from the ruling class and from the government itself. The circle of his ideological opponents was wide: foreign capitalists, incl. heads of powerful clans of nobels, rothschilds and rockefellers; their Russian "agents of influence"; Domestic entrepreneurs, guided by self-interest, lobbying their projects and who did not want to think about the destinies of the country and the people; The landowners interested in preserving the role of suppliers for Europe for Russia.

Mendeleev refuted the idea of \u200b\u200bopponents of the industrialization of Russia, argued that the capital in the country is, it just needs to be concentrated in decisive directions that the industry itself creates a sales market for itself.

At the same time, Mendeleev invariably connected the development of the Russian industry with the destinies of the country, the entire national economic complex necessary to the modern mighty state and consisting of a number of territorial complexes. It is no less important that he emphasized: it is necessary to speak not just about the development of the industry, but about whether it will be national or foreign. " At the same time, he understood the industry not only in a narrow sense, as the production of goods and services, but also wide, including supply, sales, trade, transport, and even non-production, incl. Spiritual-intellectual sphere. And only when he spoke about the industry in a narrow sense, he understood the industry under it.

The most important principles of the economic theory of Mendeleev appeared in its first major study in the field of economics. Famous oil industry V.A. Kokorev, oilfields and an oil refining plant that brought him losses, asked Mendeleev to go to Baku to study the state of oil production and oil refining. Mendeleev carefully examined all the Baku oilfields and oil processing facilities and, making sure the primitive technologies applied there, proposed improvements that allowed sharply improve the efficiency of the work of the fishery.

However, he was not limited to this, but, continuing the study, for several years, had a whole program of integrated development of this new economy for Russia. He appreciated the needs of all Russia (which imported Kerosene from America, Dr. oil products to the invention of the diesel engine was not produced) in oil.

All then, the famous and alleged oil deposits have revealed the conditions when oil refining plants are better placed in oil production places, and when in its consumption centers, and compiled a scheme for placing new oil refineries in Central Russia, especially near Moscow and In the largest cities on the Volga (in Tsaritsyn, Saratov, Samara, N. Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Rybinsk). He also had measures to ensure the development of railways - railways, Volzhsky waterway (with the construction of special oil ships). Mendeleev first suggested to build the oil pipeline Baku - Batumi and place the oil processing factories on the Black Sea coast so that not only to save Russia from importing American kerosene, but also to export petroleum products to Europe themselves. He considered the barbarity that raw oil from which it is possible to get so much more valuable products, used as fuel: "Oil is not fuel, you can also heat up the assignments." Mendeleev opposed the deposit system, since the depositors who received crafts for a short time and are not interested in to invest in capital structures, most of all resisted deep oil processing. And the spoupe were canceled. Later, he visited the United States and, having acquainted with the practice of oil production in Pennsylvania, came to the conclusion that in Russia it can be put no worse, but even better. These of his works gave a powerful impetus to the development of theory and practice, the rational production of the entire oil affairs in the country. The cost of oil crushed 5 times, it has grown it repeatedly.

Mendeleev prophetic foresaw that the future of Russia is connected with oil.

In the same way, Mendeleev also approached the assessment of the development prospects shortly before the open deposits of coal in the Donetsk basin. At that time, local entrepreneurs each singlely tried to extract coal on their tiny mines, often at a loss, because it was possible to make bootable coal mining only with a sharp increase in production, and it was impossible to achieve it without creating a sales market and a full bandwidth market ability. The enchanted circle was obtained: there is no sales market, and coal mining remains meager; Domestic coal is mined little - you have to import coal from England.

Mendeleev calculated in which the supply of St. Petersburg and Moscow by Polish (from Silesia) and imported English coal, and determined under what conditions the Donetsk coal will be competitive with them. He developed proposals for the change in customs tariffs for coal, substantiated the need to build a special carbon railway line (the road Moscow - Donbass was built only in the 1930s), the construction of gateways and dredging works on the Donets and on Don, the development of ports on the coasts of Azov and Black Seas. Provided that Russia could not only refuse to import coal, but also to export it first to the Mediterranean countries, and then to the Baltic countries, and this task was considered not only as an economic, but also as a political as a question Prestige of Russia. In his opinion, the peoples of the Mediterranean and Baltic countries, seeing that Russia exports high-quality coal, would be convinced that it was able to produce and export, etc. High quality goods.

Without limiting the study of only the Donetsk coal basin, Mendeleev drew the attention of the public and industrial circles at the coal deposits in the East, in the Kuznetsk pool, and then, right up to Sakhalin (samples of local coals were sent to him from all over the country). He first raised the question of fundamentally new methods of mining and use of coal, in particular, about the possibility of its underground gasification.

Deeply researched Mendeleev and the path of development of the industry of the Urals, who then experienced a serious crisis. The Ural Metallurgical Plants, created by the work of serfs and workers on charcoal, using horses as the main vehicle, in the new conditions turned out to be unprofitable and coagulated production. Their difficulties took advantage of foreign capital, especially English to suffer its Russian competitor. Foreigners cheaply bought Ural plants. Under these conditions, Mendele-developed measures to expand the fuel base for the Ural Metallurgy, in particular, at the expense of the coal of the East, incl. Kizelovsky and in the perspective of Kuznetsky and Karaganda pools were the key to salvation of a whole industrial area, which later played such an important role in the economic development of the country.

It is noteworthy that inside each of these territorial Mendeleev complexes, there was no microcomplexes on the basis of cooperation and combining enterprises in such a way that the waste of one production serve as raw materials for the other. In his opinion, ideally, social production would have to approach the circuit of substances in nature, which, as is known, there is no waste. Where oil and coal are produced and processed, metal, etc., is being paid, from the waste, it is necessary to extract soda, salt, sulfur, dead and other valuable products. This will not only increase the profitability of production, but also will solve the ecological problems before Humanity. Subsequently, this idea of \u200b\u200bMendeleev served as the basis for the construction of powerful metallurgical and others. Combines.

Summarizing the collected huge material and its studies on separate territorial complexes, Mendeleev created the first industry's doctrine in the world. In fact, it was the doctrine of the national economy, because the agriculture was considered as a branch of industry, and as the most difficult, since it does not matter with a soulless metal or tree, but with alive organisms - plants and animals, and therefore the role of human factor It is especially great here. Unlike authors MN. Dr. Labor on this topic, which was available in the West, Mendeleev considers industrial activities not only as a purely economic, but also as moral. He proceeded from the fact that all human strengths appear in work - both physical and spiritual, "those natural, historical and in general outside the will are divine conditions and laws ..."

Mendeleev belongs to the first serious works on the economic rationalization of Russia. As far as Mendeleev overtook the theory of productive forces, which was based on abstract schemes that existed at the time in the West, can be judged by the following example.

At the time, when Mendeleev developed a scheme for the development of oil affairs in Russia, in Germany there already existed the theory of the National Economy of Friedrich Sheet, who spoke from the standpoint of protectionism and insisted on the state intervention in the economy in order to achieve the economic domination of this country in Europe. But on the problem of placing the productive forces, the theoretical construction was the "perfect" closed state of Tuneen in the West in the West. The German economist Johann Heinrich Tuneen (1783-1850) released a book in Hamburg (2 publications came out - in 1826 and 1863), which was transferred to the Russian language called a "secluded state in relation to public economy" and published in 1857.

Tunen came up with a fictitious state in the form of a circle, with the only city in the center surrounded by agricultural land. There are no shipping rivers in that state, it does not participate in international trade. The whole earth is equally fertile and evenly populated. The city supplies Selu industrial products in exchange for agriculture products. And for such a state, Tunenes brought mathematical dependencies that determine the cost of labor and capital, the amount of rent and wages, prices for different agricultural products, taking into account transportation costs and, consequently, the rational zoning of the territory under various agricultural crops, etc. To explain the origin of capital from The savings accumulation, Tunyneh had to place his "state" in the tropics, where nature supplies food to man for nothing. The Tunena scheme was one of the first attempts to reconcile the interests of labor and capital based on the recognition of the rights of workers on the "normal" salary. Tunen tried in his estate to implement the workers' participation system in the host profits. It is hardly necessary to explain that the practical significance of such "science" about the placement of the productive forces was zero.

Mendeleev operated on non-abstract circles, but a specific territory of Russia, and developed his proposals, combining deep theoretical elaboration of issues with pre-project research and calculations. Patriotism of Mendeleev was particularly pronounced in the consideration of ways and priorities for the industrial development of Russia. At that time, the industrialists themselves, and the economists' scientists, all the more, considered such a development to be normal, when the light industry is first created, which does not require large investments. Products of light industry - consumer goods - disagree quickly, therefore, the invested capital pays off quickly. And only when a solid capital will be accumulated due to the light industry, metallurgical and engineering factories can be built for these funds, etc.

Mendeleev strongly opposed such a formulation of the issue at which, in his opinion, Russia was condensed in the distant future to the position of the raw material appendage of the West. In his opinion, Russia needed to start the industrialization from the creation of a heavy industry, and moreover, on the basis of the most advanced technology, with the task of "catching up and overtake", or rather, "bypass without catching up." Mendeleev foresaw that Russia would not have to compete with any European power, and with the United States, in order to become the strongest and rich country in the world after 20 years. To do this, she had to invest in the development of industry 700 million rubles. Every year - 2 times the level of capital investments already achieved. At the same time, the industrial potential of the country can not be founded only at the factory of the center and few dr. The foci of the industry, a powerful shift industry is needed to the east, to Siberia, access to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, to Sakhalin.

Mendeleev, probably, was the first to realize that as in ancient times the center of the economic activity of the then world was the Mediterranean Sea, and in thek. Xih century. - Atlantic Ocean, so in the near future industry and trade will receive the greatest development from the coast of the World Ocean and first of all in the Pacific coast.

One of the most important tasks of Russia, he considered the development of the Northern Sea Route, along which the richest natural resources of the country are located. And it was not for him only as speculative schemes: Mendeleev, already being aged 67 years, sought his appointment by the head of the polar expedition on the icebreaker "Ermak" (for which he developed a project for translating oil heating and warming of cabin, and the icebreaker himself is hardly It would be built if it were not for the approval of his project with Mendeleev), and one of the route options provided for a passage through the North Pole. This was generally the principle of Mendeleev: if he made any suggestions related to the danger, then it was the first to share it. So, having put forward an idea of \u200b\u200busing balloons for the study of the stratosphere, he went to the flight to observe the solar eclipse.

Mendeleev saw the vices of the then practitioners of the country's industrialization. Peter I set the task of improving the network of communication with a view to facilitate the export of Russian wealth (especially bread) to the West. The same course was carried out and subsequently, especially under Alexander II. So, the widespread construction of the railways was deployed without creating pre-metallurgy, as a result, the rails and the rolling stock had to buy in the West for gold. Scientist, calculating how much Russia lost this, noted with bitterness that the German industry is partly built for our money, and later more than half of Russian factories belonged to foreigners, which, in his opinion, was dangerous and in peaceful, and especially in wartime .

The most favorable opportunities for the Creativity of Mendeleev came to the reign of Alexander III, when the Russian economy began to be cleaned from the bumps that were the result of the preceding liberal reforms. In particular, a commission was established to develop a new customs tariff, which was supposed to protect the Russian industry from unscrupulous competition from the West. Mendeleev's friend I.A. Vyshnegradsky, who became the Minister of Finance, asked him to see the draft customs tariffs at least for some one group of chemical goods. But Mendeleev, chanting the problem, was convinced that the work on the customs tariff was conducted unsatisfactory, without a general concept, and most importantly - without allegedly with the urgent need for the development of the domestic economy. From now on, he, in fact, took over the inslacial leadership of all the work on the development of customs tariffs. The new customs tariff was introduced in 1891.

The crown of the Economic Research of Mendeleev was the work of the "Exclarative Tariff, or a study on the development of the Russian industry in connection with its common customs tariff." This work contemporaries called the "Bible of Russian Protectionism". Before him, the customs tariff was considered as a measure purely fiscal, i.e. As a source of replenishment of treasury income at the expense of customs duties. It was reasonable to: if you install too high a duty on the imported goods, it will decrease it, and the state's income will fall, besides, it will contribute to smuggling. If the duty will be too low, even with a lot of demand for the goods, the treasury will get a little. It means that it is necessary to find such an optimal value of the duty, in which the income will be the highest. Mendeleev strongly opposed such a narrowly traded approach and proposed to establish duties for imported and exported goods, taking into account their influence on the development of the productive forces of Russia, to promote the growth of domestic production or counteracting him. If, for example, due to the high duties, some imported goods will not go into Russia at all, but his domestic production will develop, then there will be no customs income at all, but the highest way will receive much more in the form of taxes from Russian manufacturers (this is not counting much Large benefits are not for the treasury, but for society - earnings of workers and profits of entrepreneurs). Approved by King Alexander III, these proposals played an important role in the protection of the young Russian industry from unscrupulous foreign competition, when foreign capital resorted to sell goods in Russia for dumping prices for market conquest, and after achieving the goal, the price was tightened above the world. Not by chance, Mendeleev himself, understanding the meaning of this his work, joked: "What a chemist I am a political economy! What is there "Fundamentals of Chemistry", here's a "intelligent tariff" is another thing! ".

The work of Mendeleev over customs tariffs was important not only with economic, but also from a political point of view. He considered it absolutely necessary to establish protectionist duties, because humanity is still very far from turning into a single family, there are different states on the planet, and while the case is so, each country is obliged to defend its national interests. Protecting, he understood widely, not only as the establishment of duties, but also as the entire system of measures to create a favorable environment for the development of domestic production.

Mendeleev did not consider neither protectionism, not freedom of trade in universal politics. In his opinion, in different countries, depending on natural and historical conditions, various economic policies should be carried out. It is impossible for example, to take for all countries the theory of fritthing, i.e. Free trade, opening markets for goods of any state. And the majority of educated Russians - contemporaries of Mendeleev prayed to this fashionable then the theory. This will lead to the fact that the powers that have already succeeded in the path of capitalist development (eg, England) will impose their domination of other countries with huge natural and other resources, but not yet fully a full set of developed sectors of the economy. Free trade can only be resolved for those products that are not manufactured and cannot be made in Russia, for example, under climatic conditions (tropical fruits, etc.). Economic procedure, allowing countries to process raw materials, reap the fruits of labor of workers of countries - suppliers of raw materials, Mendeleev considered unfair and unacceptable for Russia: this order, in his opinion, "Intrusya gives the whole advantage over the poor."

Speaking for the protectionist measures to protect the Russian industry that became on the feet of the Russian industry, Mendeleev at the same time believed that the principle of competitiveness should act within the country for domestic production.

But there were no alien foreigners against the protectionism and the Russian Westerners, as well as the landowners who feared that, with the advent of the modern industry, the labor market is formed, and the labor price will increase, and this will undermine the basis of agriculture. It was opposed to the protectionist measures and high-ranking government officials who, as well as bureaucrats, were represented by the state of Russia as a brilliant, and under industry, as Mendeleev joked, understood the coupon haircut. To overcome this most dangerous type of resistance, Mendeleev did a great job on statistical data and showed that the common, gross economic development of the country, allegedly shiny, hides the strongest lag in Russia from developed countries in terms of production per capita and in terms of the well-being of the people.

Protection was only one of the manifestations of the state intervention in the economy, to which the classical political economy treated is sharply negative. According to her postulates, the state should only play the role of "night guard", establish laws and follow their execution, and everything else will best make the "invisible market's hand". Mendeleev indicated that in reality the formation of the industry nowhere in the world without the active participation of the state. And for Russia, retired with the creation of its own industry, the role of state regulation of the economy was particularly important. Yes, and historically the development of industry in Russia has always stimulated "from above", the government.

Not limited to academic activities, Mendeleev uses all the possibilities of influencing society in the interests of the development of the domestic industry, acts on trade and industrial congresses, writes popular articles. Works "Letters about the factories", "On the conditions for the development of the factory case in Russia" and others attracted all new supporters to him.

Mendeleev categorically rejects the possibility of the existence of some abstract, cosmopolitan, one for the whole human economic science - political economy. He was generally not a cosmopolitan-flaky, but nationally painted. She is worldwide in the already gained knowledge, but in the ways of comprehending the truth "inevitably acquires people's character." Therefore, the Russians "need to be necessary for the establishment of solid started the whole of our education," while mainly borrowed from the West. Especially this applies to the economy, to the factory case, which we have only originated: "One simple understanding of the overseas method of factory activity cannot lead us to the development of the factory case, as a simple imitation of agricultural techniques of the West, the former in our fashion has not led Agricultural success, but only ruined many people. "

According to Mendeleev, abstract political economy cannot be because the national economy (industry and trade) and statehood are in close relationships with other areas of people's life - religion, art and science. Therefore, it would be more correct to adopt the idea of \u200b\u200bthe German economist already mentioned. Friedrich Leaf and rename "political economy" in "National (folk) economy."

Mendeleev had in his library of work of Marx and Engels, making numerous marks in the fields, but "scientific socialism" did not accept, remaining faithful to his understanding of the "People's Savings" - People at once in two respects; And because it meets the conditions of Russia, and because it must first of all express the interests of the "Russian labor class". He even emphasized that he was Russian and writes for Russians, and his goal is to contribute to the "unprecedented flourishing of Russian forces" to ensure independence and prosperity of Russia, for otherwise it would be expected by the fate of the peoples that have come down from historical arena. He emphasized that he invariably defends not privately and not even stateless, but the people's interests, and therefore struggling with the wrong understanding of Russia's ways to develop.

According to Mendeleev, political economy should be national and begin with the disclosure of the concept of "Russia", with identifying the characteristics of the historical development and nature of the Russian people. Russia is located at the junction of Europe and Asia, which is important both from a geopolitical point of view, and in the sense that the Russians (under them he understood the Velikorsov, Malororsov and Belarusians) in the warehouse of their national nature are called to "smooth out the Millennium Return Asia and Europe ..." The lack of Russian tendencies to the methodically measured work, their work with the gusts of Mendeleev associated with the seasonality of agricultural work, with the incredible tension of all forces in the "Strand" and rest after it. Living on Earth with not very favorable conditions for agriculture, Russians, exhausting the soil in one place, easily passed to another. Therefore, they were able to walk to the shores of the Pacific Ocean (and even on the Kurili O-Wa earlier alongside the already living Japanese). But to the k. Xih in. Russia has reached its natural borders, it has now become nowhere to expand and there is no effort. It means that it is necessary to change the Russian national character, very attractive, but with a tendency to rely on maybe therefore and the age-old habits. Russia's development entered into such a stage when it took the creation of a powerful industry, and it is impossible to miss this chance.

Mendeleev came to the problems of the National Economic Economy. Russia has become a huge and powerful empire not due to the conquest of other peoples as England, but by peaceful distribution. Other peoples (like, for example, Georgian), they often asked them to take them into Russia. And let's say, "Mongol-Tatar peoples are very satisfied with the fact that they can undergo a peaceful life under the service of Russia ...", otherwise they would fall under such someone else's power that their very existence would be questioned. Russia will continue to lead a peaceful policy and not strive for conquests, because In the country we have already "fairly inner in the busy land area." Mendeleev believed that the territorial acquisitions were not needed, it would be contrary to all historical traditions, the image of Russia - the liberator of Europe from the hegemony of Napoleon, the Balkan countries from the Ottoman Iga. He spoke for friendship with China, which predicted great future. Russia and China are two sleeping giant, which it's time to awaken. Considering the historical task of Russia "The development of our Far East adjacent to the Great Ocean", he believed that she was intended in Asia the role of "liberation and educational".

Abstraining from conquests, Russia must remember that herself may be the subject of aggressive excuse from other countries. Mendeleev was an opponent of the wars, but he understood that Russia "a tallest piece for the neighbors of the West and the East, and therefore, which is multilyselves, and to protect its facility by all folk remedies is necessary ... We must be long and long and long, ready every minute to war, At least we did not want it ... "Wars, alas, are still inevitable, this is due to the uneven economic development of different countries (which is the first to speak about this law!) and the very nature of the" fallen "person. And if so, then you need to be ready for the defense of the country, and therefore its economy should be appropriate. The scientist never refused to perform direct orders of government bodies, incl. and military department. So, having received the task to create a smokeless powder, already existing in the Arms of the French Army, he in a short time created smokeless powder better than French. He worked on the identification of the reasons for frequently, the rupture of guns, and also successfully.

Mendeleev strongly rejects the subjectivist views on the development of the economy and approves the existence of objective laws of public life ("mandatory logic of things and people"), but these laws are not purely economic, but covering all parties to people's existence. Recognizing materialism and idealism with two extremes, little suitable for explaining and knowledge of the world, Mendeleev adheres to realism, "seeking to know reality in its fullness without one-sided hobby and achieve success or progress by exclusively evolutionary", which, in his opinion, is responsible and the natural property of Russian The people are "the people of real, with real ideas." Unlike lootless materialism (which he considered the inherent Anglo-Saxon race) and cut off from the Earth of idealism, realism takes into account all three components of a person - the body, soul and spirit, and the true discoveries "are made by the work of not one mind, and all their forces ... "Constantly emphasizing his loyalty to autocracy, Mendeleev invests special content in these concepts. He, for example, called the king and the government to break the "narrow and self-supporting" interests of breeders, opposed to genuine rationalization of production, expressed the hope that in the near future the reserves of stone coal and other minerals will be transferred to nationwide, state property, in Russia There will be super-rich people and poor "and everyone will work." At the same time, he resolutely opposed Russia's transition to the path of "bourgeois democracy", considering it by the hypocritical cover of the capital of capital. Such his thought is important: in Russia, the market must be combined with the active role of the state in the economy. Only the state, completing the market, can most accurately express national interest, become a tool of general well-being.

To create the right scientific theory, considered Mendeleev, it is necessary to rely on the facts, but by themselves they do not decide anything, especially since it is inevitably included and a subjective moment, it is necessary for a certain mineosozer, "harmony of a scientific building", especially when it comes On the creation of the theory of the National Economy. With these positions, Mendeleev subjected to the harsh criticism of the "classics" by Western "unreliable" political economy: "It is worth reading, but reading, you should already see how many erroneous resonance in them ... Only in combination of a speculative path with experienced can be found practical applications and with God's right consistent decision of the tasks in economics and in economic life. " Mendeleev compares the modern economic theories, especially Frittime (the liberal theory of "free trade"), with the former once in the course of the theory of phlogiston, in its own way, is also logical, but it turned out to be erroneous. It is logical not yet true, life has its own logic, often not coinciding with conclusions from syllogisms. In the meantime, political savings are "in the state of incompleteness and impossibility of foresight", and it must be made with an accurate science that can serve as theoretical basis for the reasonable construction of the country's national economy.

Mendeleev did not agree with the cosmopolitan jeques of the Universal Good, because it is impossible, in his opinion, to miss out the form "The addition of people in the state and only through the states in humanity. Drain, destroy the difference or mix split it is impossible - there will be chaos, a new Babylonian pussy ... "

One of the main flaws of the political economy of Mendeleev saw that it was limited to a purely economic, most often a cash assessment of the phenomena of economic life, without going into their moral assessment, and this is wrong: "Money and wealth do not justify thin cases and offense." Science should target "on the development of production, and not on speculation." In addition, the political economy was not enough for the time factor, the new role of knowledge, etc. did not suit Mendeleev and the separation of economic exercises from practice. For him, the theory and its practical embodiment was one of the whole.

Mendeleev distinguishes work and work. A man's will, like the Creator, is a work, not work, progress is that that a part of the labor, which a person produces work, to replace the work of the machines. "The work is certainly due to the usefulness of it not for one itself, but also for others ... and the same reciprocity of the general and personal use is expressed in the appearance of the economic conditions of exchanges or the real conditions of labor fees." It makes no sense to share work on productive and unproductive, once and the other is needed by society. Both the artist, and the priest, and the official, and the teacher "can or just work, or really work, depending on what they do to, whether the case is like, whether they give others." Mendeleev thought about how to create such a national economy, which will ensure not only welfare, but also the moral health of society: "The work is owned by the future, it will be given properly, they will be looped - and sad, very large mistake of many new teachings consists precisely in confusion of work With difficulty, worker and worker ... work can be given to work to work, to award, work - was free and will be, because he is in nature, consciously, spiritual ... work does not create, it is only the modification of the uniform forces of nature ... Unprecedented, Really new makes only labor; He is not in nature, he is in the free, spiritual consciousness of people living in society. "

T. about., Mendeleev continues characteristic precisely for Russian social thought. Understanding the housekeeper as one of the spheres of a single people's life, imbued with spiritual and moral principle. A person is not an abstract self-sufficient individual, but not the "screw" of the state car. He is a free conscious creature. He has a duty before the neighbor, in front of his native people, whose cell (as a historic organism) he is. Modernity is only the transition between the past and the future. And the person does not just strive for personal material well-being (individualists mistakenly consider selfishness primary and the only stimulus of all human actions), he cares about his neighbors, and his offspring.

The largest shortcomings of the modern social science of Mendeleev considered it precisely the doptop understanding of a person who did not take into account that a person, representing the highest form of living beings, "includes demands in their needs, inevitable for lower beings. He has pure mineral demands (eg, spaces), real plant departures (eg, breathing, food) and purely animal requirements (eg, movement, sexual reproduction); But there are also their own, independent, human functions, reasonable and love determined ", and the natural law of love is the law of history, human mind and divine. The economy is designed to satisfy all human needs - not only the lowest (than far exclusively and political economy is engaged), but also the highest. Here Mendeleev has already laid ideas that are in gray. Xx in. Poll out into the theory of human capital.

According to Mendeleev's teachings, the national economy should be interrelated complex, in which agriculture, industry, transport, science, culture, education, church, armed forces, etc., are proportionally developed and harmoniously combined.

Agriculture, from his point of view, should not specialize in the production of bread, mainly for export, because it leads to the depletion of the Earth and to the weakness of the state. Agriculture is a kind of industry for the production of plants and animals, and its products must be maximized to be recycled. It is much more profitable to export without grain, and cattle, grown at the grains, not grapes, but wines, etc.

In order not to divide the fate of the theoretics of agriculture, which make up recommendations for others solely on the books of predecessors, Mendeleev bought in Klinsky. Moscow lips. Boblovo estate with 400 sons. Earth, although "experts" and discouraged him from this venture, predicted inevitable ruin. However, he, without investing large capital (whom he never has never), has achieved such a yield growth (more than twice) in crop production and productivity in animal husbandry, which his farm has become a place of pilgrimage of farmers and an object where students passed Petrovskaya (Timiryazevskaya) Agricultural Academy.

Having deeply examining the fortune of milk animal husbandry in the central provinces of Russia, Mendeleev developed recommendations on the organization of peasant cheeseing and other processing industries that helped the peasants to get rid of the blowing reaches. He also outlined ways to improve the feed base of animal husbandry in different areas of zones, including herbanish, irrigation, etc. He studied the possibility of expanding grape plantations, cotton production in Russian Central Asia.

Mendeleev belongs to the championship in the practical formulation of the problems of chemicalization of agriculture and the development of the foundations of domestic agronomic science, incl. New soil processing techniques, selection work.

Practical activities and gave him a material to refute the theory of Malthus, who claimed the need to limit the birth rate from the poor on the grounds that allegedly population growth goes in geometric progression, and food production is only in arithmetic. Mendeleev showed that, on the contrary, with the development of the industry, the production of means of existence overtakes the growth of the population. Earth, in his opinion, is able to feed up to 10 billion people. He was not tired of repeating: "Industrial enterprises are not enemies, but the true allies or the native brothers of the agricultural industry," the cars will also be widely used in agriculture, and they will receive them from domestic factories.

Mendeleev clarifies the concept of political and economies of "Earth", including in it "the whole set of natural conditions, among which the lifetime of people and their entire industry can develop, is the light of the sun, surrounding heat, air, water, etc. The difference between the land from others. Goods - in its limitations. The number of any benefits can be increased by production, and the globe area remains as it is. That is why cruel wars are underway for the possession of the earth. Mendeleev recognizes the normal existence of private and state ownership to Earth and even allows the opportunity to redeem the state of the whole land in the country. Especially if the privately inhibits the development of productive forces, the state has the right to alienate its land with proper compensation.

Industry is also possible the coexistence of public and private plants - large, medium and small, with domestic and with foreign capital, provided that the latter will not play the leading role in the country. This Mendeleev especially emphasized. Russia will be able to assimilate foreign people, and foreign capital, but it should be remembered that "the capital of the fatherland does not have, and therefore ... they can not - except interest - to give any rights in the country." Contrary to the most commonly populous illusions about the possibility for Russia, to remain a country of purely agricultural, Mendeleev proves the inevitability of the rapid development of the industry and the growth of cities, finding not only purely economic, but also spiritual and moral justifications: "Neither Christ, nor Magomet nor Confucius Nor the Buddha avoided the cities, although temporarily and stayed in the deserts, and did not die against the cities, although the human flavors were loud, in the cities collected, and therefore more obvious. " At the same time, he advocated overcoming the backwardness of the residents of the village from citizens in education and access to the benefits of culture, and saw in the future to a certain extent the merger of the city and the village, because Gardens and parks will be ascending in the cities, and in the villages there will be a small and medium industry, since urbanized areas will be interrected.

Mendeleev considered the inevitable stage of the passage of Russia through capitalism, but was not a supporter of this building, he always remained a defender of the interests of the labor nation (as they understood). And he looked at capitalism as an inevitable evil, and thought a lot about how to reduce it. He also referred to the number of those who, "seeing and realizing the evil capitalism, does not see the ability to do without it and takes it not as a goal, but as the necessary historical tool." Not considering it possible to "jump through capitalism and do it completely without it, that is, directly to get into the preparing period in which capitalism will not have its current meaning," Mendeleev invariably argued that "the full triumph of labor has not yet come, but already Close, "and believed that" people ... find funds to defeat the current value of capital. "

Mendeleev repeatedly opposed monopolies, stressing that monopolists seek to enrich the progress of technology, which leads to the development of development, reproducing all economic and public life, and defended the interests of small owners, incl. And in the oil refining industry, where the dominance of monopolists was especially noticeable. Therefore, he only stated the fact when he said that he serves Russia, and not capital.

Since the development of industry in Russia was then restarted in the absence of major capital, Mendeleev specially developed technologies that would allow to create small but modern factories and gradually, as profits are made, proceed to production on a large scale. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe need for a harmonious combination of large and small enterprises was widely recognized in the West in the 3rd of the 3rd Chetven. Xx in.

Projects of reorganization of public relations Mendeleev approached strict measures of scientific and practicality. In his opinion, there are 3 ways to combat greedy on profits by capitalism, "and all of them, more or less, have an application in practice ... These three ways are called: share capital, state-monopoly enterprises and artist-cooperative ... Ideally, you can myself Submit factories and factories based on share capital, received from the same workers and consumers acting on the same or other factories and plants. "

But most of all, Mendeleev relied on those forms of the economic life of Russia, who responded to its deep historical traditions: "An armature-cooperative way to fight the evil of capitalism ... I consider the most promising in the future and very possible for the application in many cases in Russia, it is because of that reason That the Russian people, taken as a whole, is historically used to the artists and to public economic. " In the community, Mendeleev saw a finished form for the combination of industrial and agricultural labor. "For me, he wrote," the case is drawn in particular satisfactory, provided if the peasants are agriculture, occupied mainly in the summer, for the Winter will arrange suitable factory factory types of industry and will have a durable earnings in themselves, "and Zemstvo and the Government would have to fully help such progress. Wide opportunities for this, he saw in connection with the spread of electricity, when the electric motor can be installed even in the peasant hollow. He returned to the same thought many times, it was on this path that seeing the possibility of destroying the opposites between the city and the village, to ensure the uniform accommodation of the productive forces in the country's territory. Factory or plant with every community - "This is what one can make the Russian people rich, hardworking and educated."

Even those communities who were in decline by that time could, considered Mendeleev, with time to revive, especially with the development of the local industry in them, because "it is easier to make all major improvements, based on the historically strong communal principle than going from the developed individualism to the beginning of public. " He offered to develop an allegations of labor and inside individual factories and factories.

Mendeleev proposed to transfer unprofitable enterprises, "with proper control, armat and cooperative economy, and not to close them, as being done in Western Europe, condemning workers on unemployment." But it is necessary to do it "openly and on the competition." He offered the forms of participation of workers in the profit of the enterprise. He loved enterprising people, connecting the most important hope for a breakthrough of Russia to the future, and I saw the ideal in such an enterprise, where the owner would be a party in all his parties, knew every employee, and all workers would be interested in the results of the general work.

From the point of view of the people's good and economic independence of Russia, Mendeleev considers the problems of transportation of transport. He proves the need to perform maritime transport not only in small (within the same pool), but also in large bootage (for example, from the Black Sea to the Baltic) only on domestic courts, so as not to pay the freight to foreigners, indicates the places of the highest placement of shipbuilding factories, It offers the improvement scheme of railways and waterways, which should be not only exporting bread, etc.

Almost every of his major work required a huge amount of computing (without computers!), Collecting data in domestic and foreign literature in many languages. Twenty-five voluminous volumes of the collection of works filled with formulas and tables are the work of one person, besides, and who lived is not so long.

With special love and pride gathered Mendeleev materials testifying to the great dating of Russian people, their suitability for any human case. He was admired the high quality of Russian sites, causing surprise of experts at the World Exhibitions. Therefore, he believed if they give Russian to the actual freedom of production, "we could pour oil all the light, a stone coal, not only to supply ourselves in abundance for all kinds of industries, but also to exhaust many parts of Europe", etc. But they were not given such freedom, in particular, because "our top classes, like our literature, alien to understanding the highest value of industry."

To overcome such obstacles, Mendeleev proposed to create a fundamentally new government body of the economy - the Ministry of Industry, which would have been not the usual link of the bureaucratic state office, but would combine government and public starts and therefore would find solutions that ensure that the "industrial work was conducted In general, the interests of the state, capitalists, workers and consumers ... In order for the arbitrariness of the administrative persons, there was no place ... so that I could not have to get in our place ... (as it happened in Western Europe) Yazvo hostility between the interests of knowledge, capital and work ... "The ministry should have consisted as From two parts: the minister and his employees would be appointed by the government, and representatives of the people, the public was chosen on the ground - in the provinces and counties. There should also be made to create several Russian banks to encourage the development of the most important industries for the country (since the existing banks were headed by non-Russian people and did not lend real production, and they were mainly engaged in currency and other financial speculations, playing with our ruble on foreign exchanges), wider practicing partnerships And so on. The scientist called on the government "to aware of the need to become at the head of the upcoming historical development ... The government must throw a new one, he still has not been in the hands of the banner." But this appeal was not heard.

Mendeleev considered a disastrous policy when Russia all the time burns out the countries from which she lagged behind in industrial development. Continuously catching with others, one can never go to the advanced world frontiers of economic development and technology. It resembles the names of Russian scientists, engineers and inventors who have committed the largest discoveries of world importance and creating perfect samples of technology, and expresses confidence that "such a new leap of Russian historical life will come, in which their sliders, Petrov, Shilling, Apple, Lododigins will not disappear , and will be at the head of Russian and world industrial success. " And Russian children will see the Nizhny Novgorod Fair as a worldwide exhibition, which will show the entire planet power of Russian genius. To do this, you need to open Russian people from all classes and classes the road to the vertices of education. And Mendeleev writes popular work on the economy (sometimes in the form of letters), develops a project of a fundamentally new educational institution, constitutes estimates for its construction and content.

Mendeleev belongs to the prophetic prediction of the path of the future development of economic science. He was one of the first to realize that not only value, cash, but also natural indicators and ratios (for example, in agriculture, it is necessary to maintain the optimal ratio of Pashnya area, meadows and forest plantations, as well as livestock and feeding productivity) "And therefore, only the" political economy ", which will be out of natural science, can hope to reach the subject of it with due completeness and understand how the" people's riches "are formed or disappear. With this approach, political savings can no longer be reduced to the set of combinations of 3 letters (like C + V + M - the formula for the cost of Marx), and you will have to resort to a specific analysis of specific situations that economists will need to be required, understanding the main problems of the people. Life and capable of solving them correctly.

The outstanding works of Russian economy science are the last major essays of Mendeleev - "cherished thoughts" and "to know Russia".

The book "To Knowledge of Russia" is a historical and philosophical and socio-economic treatise, written on the materials of the first planned all-Russian census of the population of 1897, immediately after entering the press (in 1905) of the report on it. The work of "cherished thoughts" could generally be called the "Minor Russian Encyclopedia", in which the convincing actual material about all the most important areas of people's existence is combined with deep reflections on the past, present and the future of the country.

Mendeleev was inherent in the sobriety of a life look at all and on science in particular, hot and effective patriotism, the National Occupation. And he was convinced that "all the old gradually little, indirectly rebuilds on a new, best, Christian way" that "people need to work for themselves and for other people gathering God's gifts" that "God installed in the sweat of the face and in Labor for others find bread "that the whole of modern science is the Christian concepts lie, and outside this treasury there can be no success in the knowledge of nature, society and man. In addition, he, unlike many figures, intelligent, but not owning the situation, adhered to the rules: "At the moment, choose what is the most important thing." Mendeleev makes fun of ideas according to which "in political events and in the struggle of parties and peoples - the whole history of mankind," and emphasizes that "Christianity indicated another attitude to the case ..."

Being an Orthodox Christian, Mendeleev at the same time did not consider it possible to impose his understanding of things to persons other religions: "There is still no world religion yet, and its world will wait only after the expiration of new tests ... Truth, of course, one and eternal, but ... Recognizes and gets to people only in parts, little, little, and not at once, in general, and that the paths for finding parts of truth are diverse. " Only on the way of atheism, it is unlikely that you can find truth, "in any case, our people understood the benefit of the spread of true education" since the introduction of Christianity ", and the empirical study of nature only strengthens scientists in confidence" in the existence of unshakable divine laws. "

In the period of the University, 1905-07 Mendeleev, among the first, entered into the ranks of the Union of the Russian People.

Scientific activity

Periodic system of chemical elements (Mendeleev Table) - Classification of chemical elements, which establishes the dependence of the various properties of the elements from the charge of the atomic nucleus. The system is a graphic expression of a periodic law established by the Russian chemist D.I. Mendeleev in 1869. Its initial version was developed by D. I. Mendeleev in 1869-1871 and established the dependence of the properties of elements on the mass number of atoms (or their atomic mass). A total of several hundred variants of the image of the periodic system (analytical curves, tables, geometric shapes, etc.) were proposed. In the modern version of the system, it is assumed to form elements in a two-dimensional table, in which each column (group) defines the basic physicochemical properties, and the lines are periods to a certain extent similar to each other.

History opening

By the middle of the XIX century, almost 60 chemical elements were opened, and attempts to find regularities in this set were undertaken repeatedly. In 1829, Debereer published the "Law Triad" found by him: the atomic weight of many elements is close to the average arithmetic two other elements close to the original chemical properties (strontium, calcium and barium, chlorine, bromine and iodine, etc.). The first attempt to position the elements in the order of increasing atomic weights took Alexander Emile Chacocourto (1862), which posted elements along the screw line and noted the frequent cyclic repetition of chemical properties vertically. Both specified models did not attract the attention of the scientific community.

In 1866, his version of the Periodic System was offered a chemist and musician John Alexander Newlends, the model of which ("Oktav's law") externally resembled Mendeleevskaya, but was compromised by the author's persistent attempts to find a mystical musical harmony in the table. In the same decade, several more attempts to systematize chemical elements appeared; Julius Lothar Meyer (1864) approached the final version. D. I. Mendeleev published his first scheme of the periodic table in 1869 in the article "The ratio of properties with the atomic weight of elements" (in the magazine of the Russian Chemical Society); Even earlier (February 1869), the scientific notice of the opening was sent to them by leading chemicals of the world.

According to the legend, the thought of the system of chemical elements came to Mendeleev in a dream, but it is known that one day the question of how he opened the periodic system, the scientist answered: "I thought about it, maybe twenty years old, and you think: sat and suddenly ... Ready. "

I wrote on cards the basic properties of each element (they were known at that time 63, of which one - didim di - it turned out to be a mixture of two newly open elements, praseodymma and neodymium), Mendeleev begins to rearrange these cards repeatedly, to make rows of similar The properties of the elements, compare the ranks one with the other. The result of the work was sent in 1869 to the scientific institutions of Russia and other countries, the first version of the system ("The experience of a system of elements based on their atomic weight and chemical similarity"), in which elements were arranged on nineteen horizontal rows (rows of similar elements that became prototypes groups of the modern system) and six vertical columns (prototypes of future periods). In 1870, Mendeleev in the "Fundamentals of Chemistry" publishes a second version of the system ("Natural Element System"), which has a more familiar look: The horizontal columns of elements-analogs have become eight vertically located groups; The six vertical columns of the first option turned into periods that started with an alkaline metal and ending with halogen. Each period was broken into two rows; Elements of different rows included in the group form subgroups.

The essence of the opening of Mendeleev was that with the growth of the atomic mass of the chemical elements of their properties, it is not changed monotonously, but periodically. After a certain amount of different in the properties of elements located in an increase in atomic weight, the properties begin to repeat. For example, sodium looks like potassium, the fluorine is similar to chlorine, and gold is like silver and copper. Of course, the properties are not repeated exactly, changes are added to them. The honors from the work of Mendeleev from the works of its predecessors was that the foundations for the classification of elements in Mendeleev were not alone, but two - atomic weight and chemical resemblance. In order for the frequency to be fully respected, Mendeleev was taken by very bold steps: he corrected the atomic masses of some elements, several elements posted in their system, contrary to those adopted at that time, the ideas about their similarity with others (for example, thallium, who considered alkaline metal, was placed In the third group according to its actual maximum valence), left in the table empty cells, where not open elements should be accommodated yet. In 1871, on the basis of these works, Mendeleev formulated a periodic law, the form that over time was somewhat improved.

The scientific reliability of the periodic law was received by the confirmation very soon: in 1875-1886 gallium (ekaluminum), Scandium (Ekabor) and Germany (ECASILITIONS) were opened, for which Mendeleev, using the periodic system, predicted not only the possibility of their existence, but also A striking accuracy, a number of physical and chemical properties.

At the beginning of the 20th century, with the discovery of the structure of the atom, it was found that the frequency of changes in the properties of the elements was not determined by the atomic weight, and the charge of the nucleus equal to the atomic number and the number of electrons whose distribution by electronic shells of the element atom determines its chemical properties.

The further development of the periodic system is associated with the filling of empty cells of the table, in which all new and new elements were placed: noble gases, natural and artificially obtained radioactive elements. The seventh period of the periodic system has not yet been completed, the problem of the lower boundary of the Mendeleev table remains one of the most important in modern theoretical chemistry.

Communication of the periodic law and the periodic system with the structure of atoms.

So, the main characteristic of the atom is not atomic mass, but the value of the positive charge of the kernel. This is a more general accurate characteristics of the atom, which means it is the element. From the magnitude of the positive charge of the nucleus of the atom, all properties of the element and its position in the periodic system are dependent. Thus, the sequence number of the chemical element is numerically coincided with the charge of the kernel of its atom. The periodic system of elements is a graphic image of a periodic law and reflects the structure of the atoms of the elements.

The theory of the buildings of the atom explains the periodic change in the properties of the elements. Increasing the positive charge of atomic nuclei from 1 to 110 leads to a periodic repetition of the atoms of the elements of the external energy level. And since the number of electrons at the external level, the properties of the elements are mainly dependent; then they are periodically repeated. This is the physical meaning of the periodic law.

Structure of the periodic system D. I. Mendeleev.

The Periodic System D. I. Mendeleev is divided into seven periods - horizontal sequences of elements located in an increase in the sequence number, and eight groups of sequences of elements with the same type of electronic configuration of atoms and similar chemical properties.

The first three periods are called small, the rest - large. The first period includes two elements, the second and third periods - for eight, the fourth and fifth - to eighteen, the sixth - thirty-two, the seventh (unfinished) - twenty-one element.

Each period (excluding the first) begins alkaline metal and ends with noble gas.

Elements 2 and 3 periods are called typical.

Small periods consist of one row, large - of two rows: even (top) and odd (lower). In these rows of larger periods there are metals, and the properties of the elements from left to right change weakly. In odd rows of large periods, the properties of the elements change from left to right, like elements 2 and 3 periods.

In the periodic system, its symbol and the sequence number, the name of the element and its relative atomic mass is indicated for each element. The coordinates of the position of the element in the system is the period number and number of the group.

Elements with sequence numbers 58-71, called lanthanoids, and elements with numbers 90-103 - actinoids - are placed separately at the bottom of the table.

Groups of elements denoted by Roman numbers are divided into main and side subgroups. The main subgroups contain 5 elements (or more). Side subgroups include elements of periods, starting from the fourth.

The chemical properties of the elements are caused by the structure of their atom, or rather the structure of the electronic shell of atoms. Comparison of the structure of electronic shells with the position of elements in the periodic system allows you to establish a number of important patterns:

1. The number of the period is equal to the total number of energy levels filled with electrons, at the atoms of this element.

2. In small periods and odd rows of large periods with an increase in positive charge, the number of electrons in the external energy level increases. It is connected with the weakening of metallic and strengthening the non-metallic properties of the elements from left to right.

The group number indicates the number of electrons that can participate in the formation of chemical bonds (valence electrons).

In subgroups, with an increase in the positive charge, the nuclei of the atoms of the elements increase their metallic and non-metallic properties weakened.

Specifications. Chemistry of silicates and glass-like state

The real section of creativity D. I. Mendeleev, not expressed by the results of natural science in general, however, as all in his research practice, being an integral part and milestone on the way to them, and in some cases - their foundation, extremely important and To understand the development of these studies. As it becomes seen from further, it is closely associated with the fundamental components of the scientist's worldview, covering spheres from isomorphism and the "bases of chemistry" to the basis of the periodic law, from comprehending the nature of solutions to views concerning the issues of the structure of substances.

The first works of D. I. Mendeleev in 1854 are chemical analyzes of silicates. These were the studies of "Ortitis from Finland" and "Pyroxen from Ruskala in Finland", about the third analysis of the mineral clay breed - Umbra - there are information only in the message S. S. Kutorgi in Russian geographical society. To the questions of analytical chemistry of silicates, D. I. Mendeleev returned in connection with the master's exams - a written answer concerns the analysis of a silicate containing lithium. This small cycle of work was the emergence of interest from the researcher to isomorphism: the composition of the orthodie compares with the compositions of other similar minerals and concludes that such a comparison allows you to construct a chemical composition of isomorphic row.

In May 1856, D. I. Mendeleev, returned to St. Petersburg from Odessa, prepared the dissertation work under the generalized name "specific volumes" - a multifaceted study, a kind of trilogy devoted to the current issues of chemistry of the middle of the XIX century. A large amount of work (about 20 printed sheets) did not allow it to be completely out. It was published only the first part, entitled, as the whole dissertation "Specific volumes"; From the second part, it was later printed only a fragment in the form of an article "On the connection of some physical properties of bodies with chemical reactions"; The third part of the life of DI Mendeleev was not fully published - in the abbreviated form it was presented in 1864 in the fourth issue of the "technical encyclopedia" dedicated to glass production. Through the relationship of the issues covered in the work of D. I. Mendeleev consistently approached the formulation and solving the most significant problems in his scientific creativity: identifying patterns in the classification of elements, the construction of a system that characterizes the compound through their composition, structure and properties, the creation of the formation of mature solutions theory .

In the first part of this work, D. I. Mendeleev - a detailed critical analysis of the literature devoted to the issue, they expressed the original idea of \u200b\u200bthe connection of the molecular weight and volume of gaseous bodies. The scientist brought the formula for calculating the molecular weight of the gas, that is, the formulation of the Avogadro-Geraré law was given for the first time. Later, the outstanding Russian physicochemist E. V. Birone will write: "As far as I know, D. I. Mendeleev first began to assume that it was already possible to talk about the law of Avogadro, since the hypothesis, in the form of which the law was first formulated, was justified with experimental check ... "

Relying on the colossal actual material in the section "Specific volumes and the composition of silica compounds", D. I. Mendeleev comes to a wide generalization. Without adhering to many researchers (Kopp, I. Schröder, etc.), the mechanistic interpretation of the volumes of compounds, as the amount of the volume of the elements forming them, but giving the results obtained by these scientists, D. I. Mendeleev is not looking for formal Quantitative patterns in volumes, and trying to establish a link between the quantitative ratios of the volume and the combination of the qualitative characteristics of the substance. Thus, it comes to the conclusion that the volume, like crystalline form, is the criterion of similarity and differences in the elements and the compounds formed, - takes a step towards creating a system of elements, directly indicating that the study of volumes "can serve as a natural classification of mineral and organic bodies. "

Of particular interest is the part, referred to as the composition of the silica compounds. With an exceptional depth and circumstance, D. I. Mendeleev first described a look at the nature of silicates as compounds like alloys of oxide systems. The scientist establishes a link between silicates as compounds of type (MEO) X (SiO) X and "uncertain" compounds of other types, in particular, solutions, which was expressed by the correct interpretation of the glass-like state.

It should be remembered that it was from observation of the glasswater processes that D. I. Mendeleev in science began. Perhaps it was this fact that played a decisive role in its choice, in any case, this topic directly related to the chemistry of silicates, in one form or another, is naturally in contact with many other surveys.

Studying glass helped D. I. Mendeleev deeper to understand the nature of silicone compounds and on this peculiar substance see some important features of the chemical compound at all.

The topics of glassowels, the chemistry of silicates and the glass-like state of DI Mendeleev are devoted to about 30 works.

Research Gas

This topic in the work of D. I. Mendeleev is primarily connected with the search for scientists of physical reasons for frequency. Since the properties of the elements were in periodic dependence on atomic weights, the mass, the researcher thought the opportunity to shed light on this problem, finding out the causes of the forces of gravity and through the study of the properties of their transmitting medium.

The concept of "world ether" had a large influence in the XIX century on a possible solution to this problem. It was assumed that the "ether" filling the interplanetary space is a medium transmitting light, heat and gravity. The study of highly rarefied gases was represented by a possible means to proof of the existence of the substance named substance, when the properties of the "ordinary" substance would no longer be able to hide the properties of "ether".

One of the hypotheses of D. I. Mendeleev was reduced to the fact that the specific state of air gases with a large resolution and could be "ether" or some kind of gas with a very low weight. D. I. Mendeleev is written on the print from the "Fundamentals of Chemistry", on the periodic system of 1871: "Easy to all ether, in millions of times"; And in the working notebook of 1874, the scientist expresses even more clearly the course of thought: "With zero pressure, the air has some density, this is the ether!". Nevertheless, among its publications of this time, such certain considerations were not expressed.

With all the hypothetical orientation of the initial prerequisites of these studies, the main and most important result in the field of physics obtained by DI Mendeleev, was the conclusion of an ideal gas equation containing a universal gas constant. Also very important, but somewhat premature, the introduction of a thermodynamic scale of temperatures was proposed by D. I. Mendeleev.

Scientists also elected the right direction to describe the properties of real gases. The virial decompositions used by them correspond to the first approximations in real gases known now.

In the section, the relationship with gases and liquids, D. I. Mendeleev made 54 works.

The doctrine of solutions

Throughout his scientific life, D. I. Mendeleev did not weaken his interest in the "mortar" subject. The most significant studies in this area belong to the mid-1860s, and the most important - by the 1880s. Nevertheless, the publications of the scientist show that in other periods of their scientific creativity, he did not interrupt the surveys who contributed to the creation of the foundations of his teachings about solutions. The concept of D. I. Mendeleev evolved from very contradictory and imperfect initial ideas about the nature of this phenomenon in an inseparable connection with the development of his ideas in other areas, first of all, with the teachings on chemical compounds.

D. I. Mendeleev showed that the correct understanding of the solutions is impossible without taking into account their chemicalism, their relations to certain compounds (the absence of the face between those such and solutions) and complex chemical equilibrium in solutions - in the development of these three inextricably linked aspects is its main value. However, D. I. Mendeleev himself never called his scientific provisions in the field of solutions of the theory - not himself, and his opponents and followers were called what he called "understanding" and "presentation", and the works of the present direction - "an attempt to highlight hypothetical views of the entire set of data on solutions, "" ... to the theory of solutions is still far away. " The main obstacle in its formation scientist saw "on the part of the theory of the liquid state of the substance".

It will not be noted that, by developing this direction, D. I. Mendeleev, at first a priori nominating the idea of \u200b\u200bthe temperature at which the height of the meniscus will be zero, in May 1860 spent a series of experiments. At a certain temperature, which the experimenter called the "absolute boiling point", heated in a paraffin bath in the sealed volume, liquid silicon chloride (SIC6) "disappears" by passing into steam. In an article on the study, D. I. Mendeleev reports that at the absolute boiling point, the full transition of fluid into steam is accompanied by a decrease in surface tension and heat of evaporation to zero. This work is the first major achievement of the scientist.

The fact that the theory of electrolyte solutions has acquired a satisfactory focus, only perceiving the ideas of D. I. Mendeleev, when the synthesis of hypothesis took place on the existence of ions in the solutions of electrolytes with Mendeleevian teachings about solutions.

44 labor devoted to the solutions and hydrates of D. I. Mendeleev.

Aeronautics

Learning by the aeronautics, D. and Mendeleev, firstly, continues its research in the field of gases and meteorology, and secondly, develops the topics of their works that come into contact with the themes of the resistance of the environment and shipbuilding.

In 1875, he developed a project of a stratostat with a volume of about 3,600 m³ with a hermetic gondola, which implies the possibility of lifting into the upper layers of the atmosphere (the first such flight to the stratosphere was carried out by O. Picara only in 1924). D. I. Mendeleev also designed a controlled aerostat with engines. In 1878, a scientist, being in France, made a rise at the Binded Aerostate A. Zhiffera (on Fr. - Henri Giffard).

In the summer of 1887, D. I. Mendeleev carried out his famous flight. It was possible, and thanks to the intention of Russian technical society in issues of equipment. V.I. Szrenevsky also played an important role in the preparation of this event and in a particularly inventor and Aeronaut S. K. Jvetsky.

D. I. Mendeleev, telling about this flight, explains why RTO appealed to him with such an initiative: "Technical society, offering me to perform observations from the balloon during a complete solar eclipse, I wanted, of course, to serve knowledge and see that this It corresponds to the concepts and role of aerostats, which previously developed by me. "

The circumstances of the preparation for the flight once again speak about D. I. Mendeleev, as a brilliant experimentator (here you can recall that he considered: "Professor who only reads the course, and he does not work in science and does not move forward - not Only is useless, but directly harmful. He is uniting in beginners of the dead spirit of classicism, scholastics, kill their living striving "). D. I. Mendeleev was very passionate about the opportunity from the balloon for the first time to observe the Sunny Corn during the complete eclipse. He proposed to use not a light gas for filling the ball, and hydrogen, which allowed to climb to a large height, which expanded the possibilities of observation. And here again, cooperation with D. A. Lachinov, approximately at the same time, developed an electrolytic method for obtaining hydrogen, on the wide possibilities of using D. I. Mendeleev indicated in the "Fundamentals of Chemistry".

The scientist assumed that the study of the solar crown should give the key to understanding issues related to the origin of the worlds. From cosmogonic hypotheses, his attention attracted the idea of \u200b\u200bthe origin of bodies from cosmic dust at that time: "Then the sun with his entire force itself turns out to be dependent on the invisible small bodies, wearing in space, and all the power of the solar system is drawn from this endless source and depends only From the organization, from the addition of these smallest units into a complex individual system. Then the "crown", perhaps, there is a condensed mass of these small cosmic bodies, the sun forming and its strength supporting. " In comparison with another hypothesis - about the origin of the bodies of the solar system from the substance of the Sun, - it expresses such considerations: "Oh, neither the opposite at first glance it seems these concepts, they will somehow be laid, they will confuse - such is the property of science, which contains the conclusions of thought tested and proven. It is only necessary not to be content with one already installed and recognized, it is necessary not to become in it, everything is further and deeper, more precisely and more study all the phenomena, mighty to promote the clarification of these indigenous issues. "Corona" of this study, of course, will help in many ways. "

This flight is attributed to the attention of the general public. The military ministry provided the Russian balloon "Russian" with a volume of 700 m³. On March 6, I. E. Repin arrives in Boblovo, and after D. I. Mendeleev and K. D. Kraevich goes to the wedge. These days they made sketches.

On August 7, at the place of the start - the specter in the north-west of the city, near the Yamsk Sloboda, despite the early hour, there are huge crowds of the audience. With D. I. Mendeleev, Pilot-Aeronaut A. M. Kovanko was to fly, but because of the rain on the eve of the rain, the Humidity Bowl was not able to raise two people. At the insistence of D. I. Mendeleev, his satellite left the basket, and the scientist went to the flight alone.

Aerostat could not climb so high as required the terms of the alleged experiments - the sun partially overshadowed the clouds. In the Diary of the researcher, the first record falls on 6 h 55 m - after 20 minutes after takeoff. Scientist notes the testimony of aneroid - 525 mm and air temperature - 1.2 °: "It smells of gas. Top of the clouds. Clearly circle (that is, in the level of the aerostat). The cloud hid the sun. Already three versts. Wait for self-disconstruction. " At 7 h 10-12 m: height 3.5 versts, pressure 510-508 mm by aneroid. The ball covered the distance of about 100 km, rising to height at the maximum - to 3.8 km; Flying over Taldom at 8 h 45 m, approximately 9 hours began to decline. Between Kalyazin and Pereslavl-Zalessky, near the village of Savior-angle (the estate of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin) has occurred successful landing. Already on Earth, at 9 am 20 m, D. I. Mendeleev enters the readings of the aneroid - 750 mm in the notebook, the air temperature is 16.2 °. During the flight, the scientist eliminated the control of the main valve of the balloon, which showed good knowledge of the practical side of the aeronautics.

The opinion was expressed that a successful flight was a coincidence of happy random circumstances - the Aeronaut could not agree with this - repeating the famous words A. V. Suvorov "Happiness, gods, happiness," he adds: "Yes, it is necessary for something and except Him. It seems to me that everything is more important than the weapons of descent - valve, hydron, ballast and anchors, a calm and conscious attitude to the case. As beauty is responsible, if not always, then most often the highest extent, so luck is calm and to the end of a reasonable attitude towards goal and means. "

The International Aeronautics Committee in Paris for this flight was honored by D. I. Mendeleev Medals of the French Academy of Aerostatic Meteorology.

Scientist assesses this experience as follows: "If my flight from the wedge, which did not add anything to the knowledge of the" crown ", would serve as an initiation of the interest of meteorological observations from the aerostats within Russia, if it were, in addition, increased overall confidence in It is possible to fly at balloons with the convenience of even a newcomer, then I would not fly in vain in the air on August 7, 1887. "

D. I. Mendeleev showed great interest in aircraft heavier than air, he was interested in one of the first aircraft with air screws, invented by A. F. Mozhaisk. In the fundamental monograph D. I. Mendeleev, dedicated to the resistance issues, there is a section on aeronautics; In general, scientists on this topic, combining in his work, the specified direction of research with the development of studies in the field of meteorology, 23 articles are written.

Shipbuilding. Development of the Far North

Being the development of gas and liquids research, the works of D. I. Mendeleev on the resistance of the medium and the aeronautics are a continuation of the works on shipbuilding and the development of the Arctic navigation.

This part of the scientific creativity of DI Mendeleev is mostly determined by his cooperation with Admiral S. O. Makarov - the consideration of scientific information obtained by the last in oceanological expeditions, their joint works related to the creation of the exploded basin, the idea of \u200b\u200bwhich belongs to Dmitry Ivanovich, which took In this case, at all stages of its implementation, from solving design, technical and organizational measures - to construction, and related directs of vessel models, after in 1894 the pool finally was built; - D. I. Mendeleev with enthusiasm supported the efforts of S. O. Makarov, aimed at creating a large Arctic icebreaker.

When at the end of the 1870s, D. I. Mendeleev was engaged in the study of the resistance of the medium, they were made the idea of \u200b\u200bbuilding the exploded basin for the trial of ships. But only in 1893, at the request of the manager of the Maritime Ministry N. M. Chihacheva, the scientist is a note "On the basin for testing ship models" and "Project Regulations on the Basin," where the prospect of creating a pool as part of a scientific and technological program that implies not only the decision The tasks of the shipbuilding of a military-technical and trade profile, but also gives the possibility of research.

Conduring the study of solutions, D. I. Mendeleev in the late 1880s - early 1890s shows a great interest in the results of seawater density studies, which were obtained by S. O. Makarov in the world swimming on Korvette "Vityaz" in 1887-1889 years. These most valuable data was extremely highly appreciated by D. I. Mendeleev, which included them in the consolidated table of water density at different temperatures, which he leads in his article "Changes in water density during heating."

Continuing interaction with S. O. Makarov, started in the development of powder for marine artillery, D. I. Mendeleev is included in the organization of icebreaking expedition to the Northern Arctic Ocean.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthis expedition was nominated by S. O. Makarov I found a response from D. I. Mendeleev, who saw in such a beginnings a real way to solve many of the most important economic problems: Communication of the Bering Strait with other Russian seas would put the beginning of the development of the Northern Sea Route, which made accessible areas of Siberia and the Far North.

Initiatives were supported by S. Yu. Witte and in the fall of 1897 the government decides on the allocation of an icebreaker construction. D. I. Mendeleev was included in the commission engaged in issues related to the construction of an icebreaker, from several projects of which was preferred proposed by the British firm. The first Arctic icebreaker, built on the shipyard Armstrong Whitworth, was given the name of the legendary conqueror of Siberia - Ermak, and on October 29, 1898, he was launched on the water on the river Tyne in England.

In 1898, D. I. Mendeleev and S. O. Makarov appealed to S. Yu. Witte with a memorandum of note "On the study of the Northern Polar Ocean during the trial swimming of the icebreaker" Yermak ", which posted the program of the expedition planned to be held in the summer of 1899 , in the implementation of astronomical, magnetic, meteorological, hydrological, chemical and biological research.

The model of the icebreaker under the Experienced Shipbuilding Basin of the Marine Ministries was subjected to testing, in addition to determining the speed and power, the hydrodynamic assessment of the screws and the study of stability, resistance to the transverse swing loads, to weaken the impact of which a valuable technical improvement was made, proposed by DI Mendeleev, and for the first time Applied in a new ship.

In 1901-1902, D. I. Mendeleev created a project of the Arctic Expeditional Iceolator. A high-tech "industrial" seawater has been developed, which implied the passage of ships near the North Pole.

The topic of development of the Far North D. I. Mendeleev is devoted to 36 works.

Metrology

Mendeleev was the forerunner of modern metrology, in particular - chemical metrology. He is the author of a number of work on metrology. Created an accurate theory of scales, developed the best designs of the rocker and arrethir, offered the exact weighing techniques.

Roughwood

Contrary to the existing contradictory descriptions of research by D. I. Mendeleev, dedicated to smokeless powder, on documentary information chronologically they developed as follows.

On May 20, 1890, the US Department of State, Vice-Admiral N. M. Chikhachev, proposed "to serve the scientific formulation of the Russian powder case", to which D. I. Mendeleev, shortly before the university who left the university, answered the letter in which, expressing consent, pointed to The need for inclusion in the work and a foreign business trip of prominent specialists in the field of explosives - professors of mine officers I. M. Cheltzova, and the manager of Pyroxilina L. G. Fedotov, and the organization of the laboratory for studying explosives; On June 9, I visited N. M. Chikhacheva for advice on the upcoming business trip.

On June 7, the students were departed from Kronstadt to a steamer to London, during the month of D. I. Mendeleev met with many English scientists, with whom he was well acquainted, and who used a huge authority: with F. Abel (Chairman of the Explosive Committee, which opened Corgit), J. Dewar (member of this committee, co-author Cordita), W. Ramzay, U. Anderson, A. Tillan and L. Monda, R. Jung, J. Stokes and E. Frankland. I visited the laboratory W. Ramzaya and the rapid weapon plant and the porch of Nordefeld Maxim, where he himself produced a test of gunpowder, Wolvich Arsenal, where he observed the combustion of various explosives. These visits he did when one, and when - with satellites (after visiting Polygon D. I. Mendeleev, notes in the notebook: "Smokeless powder: Pyroxilin + nitroglycerin + castor oil; pull, cut scales and wire columns. Dalited samples ...") ]

On June 27, D. I. Mendeleev sent the message N. M. Chihachev on the production of explosives, and on the same day at 11 pm arrived in Paris. The French pyroxiline powder was carefully classified (the technology was published only in the 1930s). In Paris, he also met with familiar scientists: L. Paster, P. Lekkom De Baabodran, A. M. Moissan, A. Le Chateel, M. Bertle (one of the heads of work on the production of powder), and with experts in explosive substances A. Gautier And E. Sarro (director of the Central Powder Laboratory of France) and others. On July 6, Louvre visited, after which he turned to the Military Minister of France S. L. Freisinje for permission to visit the plants of explosives - after two days, E. Sarro D.I. Mendeleev's consent to visiting his laboratory, where he was present at the test of gunpowder. On July 12, Dmitry Ivanovich received "for personal use" a sample (2 g) of gunpowder from Arna and E. Sarro. This turned out to be enough in order to establish its composition and properties - this gunpowder was not applicable for large-caliber artillery.

July 17 returned to St. Petersburg. July 19 wrote a report for the Maritime Ministry of the business trip, which stressed the need for independent research - creating a laboratory. D. I. Mendeleev thoroughly thought out its device, implied the ability to conduct a wide class of explosives, vapors and liquefied gases. The laboratory was opened only in the summer of 1891. Without waiting for that, D. I. Mendeleev began experiments in the university laboratory. To this work, he also attracted well-known powder affairs and well-known works in the field of organic chemistry of nitrogenous compounds N. A. Menshutkina, N. P. Fyodorova, L. N. Shishkova, A. R. Shulachenko and the others on June 3 on the Okhtinsky factory He was present at the test of smokeless powder on different types of weapons. On November 6, there was a request, regarding the technology of smokeless powder. On November 27, he turned to a letter to the military minister P. S. Vannovsky, offering to include in the work of the Organization related to the inclination and chemists - explosive specialists - L. N. Shishkova, N. P. Fedorova and G. A. Zoodle.

Of great importance to D. I. Mendeleev attached the industrial and economic side of the gunpath. By setting the task of using raw materials exclusively domestic production, he studied the possibility of obtaining sulfuric acid from local creeks at the plant P. K. Ushakov in Elabuga and the use of cotton "ends" with Russian enterprises. The production of gunpowder in a minor volume was established at the plant of P. K. Ushakov in the city of Elabuga Vyatka province and at the Shlisselburg plant near St. Petersburg. In the fall of 1892, tests were carried out, including Admiral S. O. Makarov, PyroCollodium Porosha, who received high assessment of military specialists. For a year and a half, under the leadership of D. I. Mendeleev, a pyrocolody technology has been developed, which has become the basis of smokeless domestic powder, and superior foreign characteristics.

D. I. Mendeleev paid considerable attention to incorrect issues until 1898. The Bondyuzhinsky plant turned out to be unprofitable because of its remoteness from other powder production, including - from Okhtinsky, moreover, he was not classified. The transformation of the sea pyroxiline plant in St. Petersburg under the new technology proposed by DI Mendeleev, resulted in the confrontation of departmental interests: The Commission of the Okhtinsky factory unreasonably refuses the Pyricolotine technology in originality in relation to Pyroxylsin, - S. O. Makarov a memorable note ads . I. Mendeleeva, notes his "major services to address the question of the type of smokeless powder" for the maritime ministry, in which, in the current situation, the scientist in 1895 refuses the position of consultant. He seeks to remove the secrecy - the "Marine Collection" prints his articles of the general heading "On PyroCollodian smokeless powder" (1895, 1896), particularly concentrating on the chemism of technology, with the reaction of the formation of pyrocolodia, - estimates of the volume of gases during its combustion, raw material analysis. D. I. Mendeleev, comparing various powder with pyrocolodium in 12 parameters, states its obvious advantages expressed by the constancy of the composition, homogeneity, the exception of "tracks of detonation".

In general, these studies - in the university laboratory, at the factories, in the Scientific and Technical Laboratory of the Maritime Ministry, continued two scientific directions - solutions and hydrates, as well as forms of compounds, Dmitry Ivanovich dedicated 68 articles.

And the story was over with a pyrocollody powder because, thanks to the efforts of the French engineer, Messen, who was none otherwise, as an expert of the Okhtinsky Powder factory, interested in the use of Pyroxilina's technology, was identified by the latest results of developments by D. I. Mendeleev.

For that hour, as, however, and always in Russia, there were little importance to domestic research, and, instead of developing them, they preferred and prefer to buy foreign privileges and patents - the right to "authorship" and the production of Porosha D. I. Mendeleev was bravely assigned to himself At that time, the Jr. Lieutenant Navy Sassh D. Bernadou (Eng. John Baptiste Bernadou), "part-time" who was an ONI officer (English Office of Naval Intelligence - the Office of Naval Intelligence), who had a prompt recipe, and never Previously, not engaged in this, sinceilly since 1898, "fightered development" of smokeless powder, and in 1900, a patent for "colloid explosives and its production" (English Colloid Explosive and Process of Making Same) is a pyrocolloid powder ... in his publications he Reproduces the conclusions of D. I. Mendeleev. And Russia, "on the eternal tradition," in the first world war in a huge number bought it, this powder, in America, and the inventors are still indicated by sailors - Lieutenant D. Bernada and Captain J. Converse (English George Albert Converse) .

About electrolytic dissociation

It is believed that D. I. Mendeleev "did not accept" the concept of electrolytic dissociation, that he was supposedly incorrectly interpreted, or did not even understand it at all ...

To the development of the theory of solutions, D. I. Mendeleev continued to show interest in the late 1880s - 1890s. This topic has gained particular importance and topionary after the design and start of successful use of the theory of electrolytic dissociation (S. Arrhenius, V. Ostvald, Ya. Vant-Hoff). D. I. Mendeleev intently watched the development of this new theory, but refrained from any categorical assessment.

D. I. Mendeleev thoroughly considers some arguments to which supporters of the theory of electrolytic dissociation are treated with the proof of the very fact of the decomposition of salts per ions, including lowering the freezing temperature and other factors defined by the properties of solutions. This and other issues related to the understanding of this theory is devoted to its "note on dissociation of dissolved substances".

It speaks about the possibility of solvent compounds with solvents and the effects of them on the properties of solutions. Without claiming Bezeparelia, D. I. Mendeleev, at the same time points to the need to not discount the possibility of multilateral consideration of processes: "Before recognizing in a solution of MX salt dissociation to M + X ions, it follows in the spirit of all information about solutions. Search for aqueous solutions of MX salts of exposure with H2O-giving particles MOH + HX, or dissociation of MX hydrates (n + 1) H2O to hydrates MOHMH2O + HX (N - M) H2O or even straight MXNH2O hydrates on separate molecules. "

From this it follows that D. I. Mendeleev did not deny the theory as much as possible, and to a greater extent indicated the need for its development and understanding, taking into account the successively developed theory of the interaction of the solvent and the dissolved substance. In the notes of the section "Fundamentals of Chemistry", dedicated to the topic, he writes: "... For persons who want to explore Chemistry, it is very instructive to perfectly delve into a set of information here related, which can be found in" Zeitschrift Für Physikaliscһe Chemie "since 1888.

In the late 1880s, intensive discussions unfold between supporters and opponents of the theory of electrolytic dissociation. The greatest sharpness was acquired by controversy in England, and it was connected with the works of D. I. Mendeleev. Data on dilute solutions were the basis of the arguments of supporters of theory, and opponents appealed to the results of studies of solutions in wide areas of concentrations. The greatest attention was given to solutions of sulfuric acid, well-studied D. and Mendeleev. Many English chemists have consistently developed a view of D. I. Mendeleev to the presence in the "composition-property" diagrams of important points. These information was used in the criticism of the theory of electrolytic dissociation of H. Krompton, E. Pickering, G. E. Armstrong and other scientists. Their indication of the point of view D. I. Mendeleev and data on solutions of sulfuric acid in the form of major arguments of their rightness were regarded by many scientists, including German, as opposition to the "Hydrate theory of Mendeleev" the theory of electrolytic dissociation. This led to the prejudiced and acutely critical perception of the positions of D. I. Mendeleev, for example, by the same V. Nernst.

While these data relate to very complex cases of equilibrium in solutions, when, in addition to dissociation, sulfuric acid and water molecules form complex polymer ions. In concentrated solutions of sulfuric acid, there is a parallel leakage of the processes of electrolytic dissociation and the association of molecules. Detect the justice of the theory of electrolytic dissociation does not give the base even detectable due to the electrical conductivity (at the jumps of the line "Composition-conductivity") The presence of a variety of hydrates in the H2O - H2SO4 system. Requireness of the fact of the simultaneous flow of the association of molecules and dissociation of ions is required.

Logic-thematic paradigm of scientist creativity

All scientific, philosophical and publicistic creativity D. I. Mendeleev is invited to consider integrally - in comparison of the sections of this big heritage, both from the point of view of "weight" in it separate disciplines, directions and themes and in the interaction of the main and private components.

Director of the Museum-archive D. I. Mendeleev (LSU) Professor R. B. Votrotin was developed in the 1970s, the method implying such a holistic approach to the assessment of creativity D. I. Mendeleev, taking into account the specific historical conditions in which it developed. For many years, studying and consistently comparing the sections of this huge Code, R. B. Vodotin, a step by step revealed an internal logical connection of all its small and large parts; This was also facilitated by the opportunity to work directly with the materials of a unique archive, and communication with many recognized specialists from different disciplines. The untimely end of a talented researcher did not allow him to fully develop this interesting undertaking, in many signs anticipating the possibilities of both the modern methodology of science and new information technologies.

Built like a pedigree tree, the scheme structurally reflects the thematic classification and allows you to trace the logic-morphological links between various directions of creativity D. I. Mendeleev.

Analysis of numerous logical relationships allows you to distinguish 7 of the main activities of the scientist - 7 sectors:

1. Periodic law, pedagogy, enlightenment.

2. Organic chemistry, doctrine of limit forms of compounds.

3. Solutions, oil technology and oil industry economy.

4. Physics of liquids and gases, meteorology, aeronautics, resistance of the environment, shipbuilding, the development of the Far North

5. Standards, metrology issues.

6. The chemistry of solid body, solid fuel and glass technology.

7. Biology, medical chemistry, agrochemistry, agriculture.

Each sector corresponds not to one topic, and the logical chain of related topics is the "stream of scientific activity" having a certain focus; The chains are not fully isolated - numerous connections (lines crossing the boundaries of sectors) are traced between them.

Thematic headings are presented in the form of circles (31). The number inside the circle corresponds to the number of works on the topic. Central - meets the group of early works by D. I. Mendeleev, from where they start the study in various fields. Lines connecting mugs show connections between themes.

Circles are distributed in three concentric rings, corresponding to the three parties: internal - theoretical works; Average - technology, machinery and applied questions; External - articles, books and speeches on the issues of economics, industry and enlightenment. A block located behind an external ring, and uniting 73 work on the general issues of socio-economic and philosophical, closes the scheme. Such a construction makes it possible to observe how scientist in his work from a particular scientific idea proceeds to its technical development (line from the inner ring), and from it - to solving economic problems (lines from the middle rings).

The lack of conventional designations in the publication of the "Chronicles of the Life and Activity D. I. Mendeleev" ("Science". 1984), on the creation of which at the first stage, the R. B. Koblotin († 1980) was also due to the absence of semantic and semiotic relations with proposed by the scientist system. However, in the preface of this meaningful book, it is noted that the real "work can be considered as a sketch of scientific biography."

D. I. Mendeleev and Peace

Scientific interests and contacts D. I. Mendeleev were so wide, and the needs of his worldview are so diverse that multiple business trips, private trips and journeys of a scientist finally, his whole life - in this angle is a separate topic, of course, who is in an inseparable connection With all his work and views is a background and "spatial situation" of its multidimensional world.

He rose to the transcendental cast and went down to the mine, visited hundreds of factories and factories, universities, institutes and scientific societies, met, half alarmed, collaborated and just talked, shared his thoughts with hundreds of scientists, artists, peasants, entrepreneurs, workers and masters, writers, writers , government leaders and politicians. Made a lot of photos, acquired a lot of books and reproductions. The preserved almost completely library includes about 20 thousand publications, and a partially surviving a huge archive and a collection of visual and reproductive materials contain a lot of breeding printing units, diaries, workbooks, notebooks, manuscripts and extensive correspondence with Russian and foreign scientists, public figures and other correspondents.

Foreign trips and travel

Visiting in some years many times - 32 times was in Germany, 33 - in France, in Switzerland - 10 times, 6 times - in Italy, three times in Holland, and twice - in Belgium, in Austria-Hungary - 8 times, 11 times - In England, was in Spain, Sweden and the USA. Regularly driving through Poland (at that time, part of the Russian Empire) to Western Europe, twice visited there with special visits.

Here are the cities in these countries, which are in one way or another related to the life and activities of D. I. Mendeleev:

Austria-Hungary (1864, 1873, 1898, 1900, 1902, 1905): Salzburg, Linz, Vienna, Innsbruck, Gmünden, Bad Ishl, Budapest

Bohemia (Czech Republic, part of cisleting - Austria-Hungary) (1864, 1900): Prague

United Kingdom (1862, 1884, 1887, 1889, 1890, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1898, 1905): Edinburgh, Manchester, Oxford, Cambridge, London, Wolvich, Quinborough, Dover

Germany (1859-1862, 1864, 1867, 1871, 1872, 1874, 1875, 1879, 1894-1898, 1900-1905): Hamburg, Bremen, Hannover, Braunschweig, Berlin, Magdeburg, Kassel, Cologne, Leipzig, Görlitz, Aachen , Bonn, Marburg, Erfurt, Dresden, Koblenz, Gomburg, Gissen, Erfurt, Yena, Wiesbaden, Frankfurt, Friedrichsgafen, Bingen, Mainz, Worms, Darmstadt, Speyer, Mannheim, Heidelberg, Nuremberg, Carlsruhe, Baden, Stuttgart, Lindau, Ulm , Augsburg, Freyburg, Munich

Holland (1862, 1875, 1887) and Belgium (1862, 1897): Amsterdam, Leiden, Delft, Rotterdam, Flissingen, Ostend, Brussels

Spain (1881): Madrid, Seville, Toledo

Italy (1860, 1864, 1879, 1881, 1904): Aosta, Kiavenn, Menajio, Porlezzha, Ivreya, Arona, Como, Bellagio, Turin, Novara, Bergamo, Padova, Brescia, Verona, Milan, Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Florence , Civita-Vecchika, Rome, Albano, Naples, Anakapri, Castellamar, Sorrento, Messina, Palermo, Catania, Kannaytti, Caltionetta, Jergenti, Most

Poland (Russian Empire) (1900, 1902): Warsaw, Breslavl, Krakow, Velia

North American United States: Niagara, Buffalo, Parker, New York, Karn City, Millerstone, Freeport, Harrisburg, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Washington

Finland (Russian Empire) (1857): Ikati

France (1859, 1860, 1862, 1867, 1874-1876, 1878, 1879, 1881, 1887, 1890, 1894-1897, 1890, 1894-1897, 1899-1906): Biarritz, Montpellier, Nam, Tarascon, Arles, Marseille, Cannes, Ex, Lyon , Gavr, Paris, Metz, Dijon, Strasbourg, Dol, Sho de-background

Croatia (part of translastation - in Austria-Hungary) (1900): Abbey

Switzerland (1859, 1860, 1862, 1864, 1871, 1872, 1897, 1898): Basel, Aargaau, Shafgauzen, Neuchatel, Olten, Zurich, Romance, Iverdon, Bern, Lucerne, Zug, Eyziden, Rorshah, Brienz, Lausanne, Tun , Mairingen, Brunnen, Interlaken, Altdorf, Hur, Schilon, Vevey, Flueln, Grindelwald, Villenev, Andermatt, Symphen, flying, Zion, Brig, Zermat, Locarno, Bellinzona, Lugano, Geneva

Confession

Awards, Academy and Society

Order of St. Vladimir I degree

Order of St. Vladimir II degree

Order of St. Alexander Nevsky

Order of white eagle

Order of St. Anne I degree

The Order of St. Anne II

Order of St. Stanislav I degree

Legion of Honor

Scientific authority D. I. Mendeleev was huge. The list of titles and titles includes more than one hundred names. Almost all the Russian and most of the most respected foreign academies, universities, and scientific societies, he was elected his honorary member. Nevertheless, he signed their own works, private and official appeals without specifying involvement in them: "D. Mendeleev "or" Professor Mendeleev ", extremely rarely mentioning any honorary titles assigned to him.

Medal H. Davy, which London Royal Society awarded in 1882 by D. I. Mendeleev and L. Meira.

The medal of Kolpi, which D. I. Mendeleev awarded the London Royal Society in 1905.

Doctoral title

D. and Mendeleev - Dr. Touris Academy of Sciences (1893) and Cambridge University (1894); Doctor of Chemistry of St. Petersburg University (1865), Doctor of the Rights of the Edinburgh (1884) and Princeton (1896) Universities, University of Glasgow (1904); Doctor of Civil Law of Oxford University (1894); Doctor of Philosophy and Master of Free Arts of Gottingen University (1887); - Member of the Royal Societies (Royal Society): London (Royal Society for Promoting Natural Sciences, 1892), Edinburgh (1888), Dublin (1886); - Member of Academy of Sciences: Roman (Accademia Dei Lincei, 1893), Royal Academy of Sciences of Sweden (1905), American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1889), National Academy of Sciences of United States of America (Boston, 1903), Royal Academy of Sciences (Copenhagen, 1889 ), Irish Royal Academy (1889), South Slavyanskaya (Zagreb), Czech Academy of Sciences, Literature and Art (1891), Krakowska (1891), Irish (R. Irish Academy, Dublin), Belgian Academy of Sciences, Literature and Fine Arts (Accocié, 1896), Academy of Arts (St. Petersburg, 1893); Honorary Member of the Royal Institute (Royal Insnitution of Great Britain, London) (1891); Corresponding Member of St. Petersburg (1876), Paris (1899), Prussian (1900), Hungarian (1900), Bologna (1901), Serbian (1904) Academy of Sciences; Member of Moscow (1880), Kiev (1880), Kazan (1880), Kharkov (1880), Novorossiysk (1880), Yuryevsky (1902), St. Petersburg (1903), Tomsk (1904) universities, as well as - the institute of rural households and forestry in New Alexandria (1895), St. Petersburg Technological (1904) and St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institutions, St. Petersburg Medical Surgical (1869) and Petrovskaya Agricultural and Forest (1881) Academies, Moscow Technical School (1880).

D. I. Mendeleeva elected Russian physico-chemical (1880), Russian technical (1881), Russian Astronomical (1900), St. Petersburg mineralogical (1890) of society; and more - about 30 agricultural, medical, pharmaceutical and other Russian societies - independent and university; - Biological Chemistry Society (International Association for Research Promotion, 1899), Society of Natural Resistors in Braunschweig (1888), English (1883), American (1889), German (1894) Chemical societies, physical society in Frankfurt am Main (1875) and society of physical sciences in Bucharest (1899), the pharmaceutical society of the United Kingdom (1888), Philadelphic Pharmaceutical College (1893), the Royal Society of Sciences and Literature in Gothenburg (1886), Manchester Literary and Philosophical (1897) and Cambridge Philosophical (1897) society, Royal Philosophical Society in Glasgow (1904), Antonio Altzate Scientific Society (Mexico City, 1904), International Committee of Measures and Scales (1901) and many other domestic and foreign scientific institutions.

The scientist was awarded to Davy Medal of the Royal Society (1882), the Medals of the Academy of Meteorological Aerostatics (Paris, 1884), the Faraday Medal of the English Chemical Society (1889), Copli's Medals of the London Royal Society (1905) and many other awards.

Nobel epic

A vulture of secrecy that allows the publicity of the circumstances of the nomination and consideration of candidates, implies half a century, that is, what happened in the first decade of the XX century in the Nobel Committee was known in the 1960s.

Foreign scientists have advanced Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev to the Nobel Prize in 1905, 1906 and 1907 (compatriots - never). The status of the award implied the values: opening the opening - not more than 30 years. But the fundamental meaning of the periodic law was confirmed at the beginning of the 20th century, with the discovery of inert gases. In 1905, the candidacy D. I. Mendeleev was in the "small list" - with the German chemist-organizing Adolf Bayer, who became a laureate. In 1906 he was put forward even more foreign scientists. The Nobel Committee has awarded D. I. Mendeleev Prize, but the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences refused to approve this decision, which the influence of S. Arrhenius, the winner of 1903 for the theory of electrolytic dissociation - as described above, was erroring about the rejection of this theory of D. I. Mendeleev; The French scientist A. Moissan became the laureate - for the opening of Fluorce. In 1907, it was proposed to "divide" a prize between the Italian S. Kannizaro and D. I. Mendeleev (Russian scientists again did not participate in his nomination). However, on February 2, the scientist went away.

In general, I should not forget about the conflict of D. I. Mendeleev with the nobel brothers (for the 1880s), which, using the crisis of the oil industry, and seeking a monopoly on Baku oil, on its prey and distillation, for this purpose They were speculated by "breathable intrigue rumors" about its exhaustion. D. I. Mendeleev at the same time, conducting studies of the composition of oil from different deposits, developed a new way of fractional distillation, which allowed to achieve the separation of mixtures of volatile substances. He led a long controversy with L. E. Nobel and his associates, struggling with the predatory consumption of hydrocarbons, with ideas and methods that contributed to this; Among other things, to preleal displeasure of his opponent, who was unlikely to approve his interests, not quite favorable receptions, proved the unreasonable opinion on the decoupling of Caspian sources. By the way, D. I. Mendeleev presented in the 1860s, the construction of oil pipelines was presented in the 1860s, with the success of introduced from 1880s, which nevertheless were extremely negatively reacted to its own sentence of delivery in such other ways of crude oil to Central Russia, Since, well-recognized benefits in this for the state as a whole, they saw in the damage to their own monopolism. Oil (the study of the composition and properties, distillation and other issues, related to this topic) D. I. Mendeleev devoted about 150 works.

Sources

ru.Wikipedia.org Wikipedia - Free Encyclopedia

rulex.ru Rusky Biographical Dictionary

The Great Russian scientist was born in a small town in Siberia in a large family. Thanks to the mother, who has always supported his aspirations, he managed to turn out of the dual to turn into a professor and express himself in various fields of activity: geology, physics, chemistry and even aeronautics.

Family and childhood

Dmitry Mendeleev was born in the family of the director responsible for the local gymnasium and the college of the Tobolsky district. Dmitry was the last, seventeenth child. Out of all children managed to survive only eight, the rest died either in infancy or in adolescence.

In childhood and youth, Mendeleev was not interested in learning - he brought low marks from the gymnasium all the time, it was especially difficult for him Latin.

Special place in the life of Dmitry Mendeleev occupied his mother. She herself did not finish any educational institutions, but independently passed the entire course of the gymnasium in which her senior brothers studied. After the sickness of her husband, all the burden lay on her shoulders. And after his death, she contained the whole family by driving a brother factory.

Over time, realizing that her younger son needed a good education, she gathered him and the youngest daughter and left his native Siberia to Moscow, so that Dmitry was able to join the university. When Dmitry was enrolled in the University of St. Petersburg to the Physics and Mathematics, she unexpectedly died.

Study and scientific activities

Despite the dislike for study in childhood, the Pedagogical Institute of Mendeleev finished with a gold medal.

In 1855, he found tuberculosis of lungs. Without postponing the treatment in a long box, Mendeleev leaves for the Crimea, where the famous Pirogov Doctor stayed. Despite pessimistic forecasts of St. Petersburg doctors, pies after inspection advised Mendeleev preparing for long life and just take care of health. Whatever it is surprising, but soon the future scientist has completely cured from a difficult illness at that time.

But in Simferopol, he not only passes the course of treatment, and also works in a local men's gymnasium - teaches natural sciences. After treatment in Simferopol, he moved to Odessa, where one academic year teaches in the Richelian lyceum again, after returning to the then capital - Petersburg and protects his master's thesis.

Soon his work "isomorphism due to other relations of crystalline form to the composition" is published separately in St. Petersburg, and Mendeleev receives a master's degree.

In early 1857, he was taken to the post of Privat-Association to the Imperial University of St. Petersburg at the Department of Chemistry. The next 33 years he will lecture in this school, from 1865 already as a professor.

Experiments and discovery

For high merit in the science of Mendeleev, for two years, sent to Germany - on a business trip and to exchange experience with local scientists. He was determined to Heidelberg University.

Despite the other level of equipment, in Germany, Mendeleev simply was not where to conduct his capillary experiences. Therefore, in a removable apartment, it equips the laboratory, carries out gas there, orders the necessary devices from European masters and begins to conduct its experiments. In those years, he worked on molecular mechanics.

In 1859, he managed to construct a picnometer - a device that allows to determine which density in a liquid.

In 1860, he discovered such a phenomenon as a "critical temperature".

Returning to Russia, Mendeleev understands that his students simply have no good textbooks, so it sits down to write it. And in the same 1861 publishes its "organic chemistry", for which the Demidov Prize is honored.

In 1869, he publishes his work "The experience of a system of elements based on their atomic weight and chemical similarity", during the writing of which he opened the periodic law of chemical elements. This work immediately began to translate into other languages. During the life of the scientist, the book was reissued only in Russia eight times, and five - abroad.

After the release of the book, Mendeleev continued to develop his theory that each chemical element has its place in the table, depending on how its properties are compared with the properties of other elements. Therefore, he made some amendments to the table - changed the atomic masses of nine elements.

Airpact, metallurgist and economist

In 1874, he developed the equation of the state of the ideal gas, 40 years before this basis began to study the other scientist - Klapairon. Now this equation is the name of both chemists.

In 1875, he created an amazing mechanism at that time - a stratostat, which could be used to fly to the lower layers of the atmosphere. Three years later, in Paris, Mendeleev himself rose to a similar unit - the aerostat of the French scientist Henri Zhiffera.

In 1887, he rose alone in a balloon to a height of several hundred meters to watch the sunny eclipse. Observation of the sunny crown, in his opinion, would have to answer the question of how our world appeared. And he was fond of this topic for a long time. For this flight, Mendeleev received a medal from the French Academy of Aerostatic Meteorology.

In 1890, Mendeleev had to go to the university - being always on the side of the students, he brought from their behalf of the Petition to the Minister of Education. He did not accept her, and Mendeleev had to leave the teaching office.

It helps the next two years in the development of smokeless powder.

In addition, Mendeleev is actively developing precisely economic strategies for the development of the country. He insists on the injection into the economy of foreign investment, but also speaks on the side of the nationalization of the most important industrial points that affect the economic indicators. So, for example, he suggested to give out government metallurgia plants to the Marine and Military Ministries, and the rest - in private property to develop competition. As a result, he is appointed by the head of the Ural Expedition on the Private Mountain Plac of the region.

In 1893, he participates in the creation of the Main Chamber of Measures and Libra, in the new position of the keeper's scientist in this institution, he created the most accurate weighing methods at that time.

Mendeleev also actively participated in the project of the icebreaker "Ermak". The scientist believed that this would help to explore the Arctic, which would positively affect the development of the Russian economy.

Last years of life and death

In 1901, with his light hand in Kharkov, a calibration chamber was created to measure the accuracy of weights and measures.

Mendeleev also participated in the chemicalization of agriculture, was interested in oil and gas refining issues.

Since 1905, Mendeleev has made three times to receive the Nobel Prize. What was done by foreign colleagues. In 1906, the Committee of the Prize was awarded to Mendeleev's victory, but the Academy of Sciences Sweden did not approve this decision.

In 1907, the award decided to divide between the Mendeleev and his French counterpart Mussan, who opened Fluoro. But before the delivery of Dmitry Mendeleev did not live.

The scientist died of inflammation of the lungs on February 2, 1907 in St. Petersburg. He was buried on the Volkovsky cemetery on literary walkways.

• Mendeleev loved to twist the books, glue the frames for portraits, as well as make suitcases. In St. Petersburg and in Moscow, he knew him as the best in Russia of the masters of the master.
• Mendeleev came up with the use of pipeline for pumping oil.
• In fact, Mendeleev is not the first one who created a periodic table of elements, and not the first who suggested the frequency of chemical properties of elements. The achievement of Mendeleev was the definition of periodicity and on its basis the compilation of the element table. The scientist left empty cells for not yet open elements.
• The name of Mendeleev is called the chemical element - Mendelev. The resulting artificially in 1955, the element was named after the chemist.
• Mendeleev loved music. Friends even nicknamed his "Leonor" for the fact that he often fished an overture from the opera Beethoven "Leonor".
• In the 90s of the 19th century, D.I. Mendeleev was elected a member of the Council of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. He loved painting, even published the references to the paintings.
• In 1894, Mendeleev received an invitation from Cambridge and Oxford, where he was awarded a doctoral degree / in Edinburgh, he received it before /. The doctoral degree in Cambridge and Oxford gives as an exception - these are universities of opposite directions. I received a doctoral degree in Cambridge, it does not get it in Oxford, and vice versa. Mendeleev got both. D.I. Inendeleev The first Russian scientist who received a doctoral degree in Cambridge.

Titles and awards

• Order of St. Vladimir I degree
• Order of St. Vladimir II degree
• Order of St. Alexander Nevsky
• Order of white eagle
• Order of St. Anne I degree
• The Order of St. Anne II
• Order of St. Stanislav I degree
• Legion of Honor