Characteristic features of the society of the Neolithic era. Western and central Siberia. Formation of fortified settlements

NEOLITHIC

Basic events and inventions:

o Spreading ceramic dishes;
o invention of the method of producing tissues;
o Neolithic revolution of the transition to agriculture and cattle breeding - the greatest event in the history of mankind;
o new stone processing techniques, stone ax, tough;
o Stone and bone hoes, grains.

The main features and achievements of the Neolithic Epoch

Neolith became the last period of the Stone Age. Its beginning in Eurasia refers to the 6th millennium BC, it is usually associated with the advent of ceramic dishes. This date is sufficiently conditional, and the transition itself was not instantaneous. The rest of the Stone Inventory of Early Powered Neolithic is not different from the mesolitical.

In Neolithic in the northern hemisphere, nature acquires more stable than in the mesolite, character and appearance close to the modern one. Along the shores Arctic Ocean Tundra stretched, south - Latstone, from Baltic and to the Pacific Ocean stretched a strip of forests, the southerners lay a forest-steppe and steppes. In each plant zone Developed its corresponding animal world.

Indigenous changes are associated with the neolitis in the production method, which received the name of the Neolithic Revolution, and whole line innovations that have become the property of humanity.

In the south of Russia, partly in Central Asia, Transcaucasia, Ukraine and Moldova in the era of Neolith in a number of places, people moved to the producing forms of farm - agriculture and animal husbandry. However, for the most part of the territory of Eurasia in Neolithic, the farm remained assigned, its foundation was hunting, fishing and gathering.

In neolitis, all previous achievements in the processing of stone (a plate technique, and in a number of places and microlithic, chick technique and squeeze retouch) were used. New stone processing techniques appeared: grinding, drilling, sawing, polishing.

Fig. nineteen.

1 - Orange vessel; 2, 3 - retouted arrow tips; 4 - Stone ax

Using the squeezing retouching, arms tips, darts, seas and knuckle plates were created. The technique of manufacturing inserts of labor inserts - knives, daggers. In neolithic wide applicationEspecially in the forest area, polished axes, Tesla and other tools from the stone were obtained. Initially, with the help of chips, the billet of the ax, giving it the main features of the future tool.

The topore was then polished completely or only its work part using special grinding plates. An experimental way was established that the manufacture of grinding axes was not a long process, as previously thought.

Working on an ax from a siliceous slate required only 2.5-3 hours, and from solid rocks - from 10 to 35 hours. The sawmill was made in various ways: flint saws, rope and bone guns. The drill of the sleeves for the arms in the stone axes was produced using a tubular bone, which was rotated, constantly damping the sand under it. For this, obviously used special features. The workpiece was necessary to firmly clamp, the tubular bone was inserted into the sleeve and rotated with the help of the robe, sandpaper sanded. There is a fundamental technological and functional difference between the Neolithic Ax and Toll. The ax is always symmetrical in shape, and the tough, intended for the protesting, the manufacture of boats, is trough - asymmetrically, has a beveling Tulovo. Grinded axes and teslas planted on wooden handles were quite perfect working tools. With their help, it became possible to master the forest territories of Eurasia, the construction of more advanced wooden dwellings, boats, the manufacture of various adaptations from the tree.

Fig. twenty.

I - the area of \u200b\u200bcomb ceramics; II - Neolithic of the Middle Russian Plain (the area of \u200b\u200bnon-combustion ceramics); III - Karelian Neolithic Culture; IV - Kargopol culture; V is the area of \u200b\u200bthe Belomorsk culture of the North; VI - neolithic south; VII - the area of \u200b\u200bthe Kamsko-Ural Neolithic; VIII - the area of \u200b\u200bKeltemsor Neolithic; IX - Jeitun culture; X - Woster Siberian Neolithic area; Xi - neolithic southern Siberia; XII - Baikal Neolithic region; XIII - the Amur Neolithic region; XIV - the Multile Light Neolithic area; XV - Neolith North East Asia and the priarctic zone

It is not by chance that the needs of silica increased in Neolithic, the first mining stones extraction arise. Neolithic silica mines were opened on the upper Volga, Belarus and Bulgaria.

People Neolithic created new, not characteristic of nature materials - ceramics and textiles.

The invention in the neolithic of clay dishes was extremely important. Although in some places, ceramic products have appeared much earlier (for example, in Japan, ceramics is known from the 9th millennium BC), but the ceramic dishes received widespread dissemination only in Neolithic. Long before that, probably since the time of the middle Paleolithic, people enjoyed in the farm products from bark, wood, baskets from rods for storing food supplies. Clay dishes allowed cooking food. Easy in shape, she had a conical, slightly pointed bottom and expanding to the top Tulovo. Such vessels look like an egg that has a part of a stupid end. Therefore, they are called ovoid. The most ancient clay vessels were made on a woven of the Basels. Along with this, another method of manufacture was used - by overlapping on each other rolled into the ring of raw clay harnesses. Cleaning utensils were blinded by hand, poorly and unevenly burned. Neolithic vessels for the most part were decorated with a simple ornament in the form of recesses, pits or christmas trees.

The acquisition of mankind of dishes had an impact on the subsequent history, changed the domestic culture and human physiology. It is from neolithic food that began to boil. It also had archaeological importance: the number of archaeological sources increased with the advent of ceramics. Ceramics, fragments of vessels (shards) becomes a mass archaeological material. In this case, the ornament on ceramics as a source of research was obtained.

Another achievement of neolithic is the invention of the methods of obtaining tissues. Fiber suitable for spinning threads was produced from plants and wool. Fabric production - complex and multistage process.

First you need to get fiber from animal or nettle, wild cannabis, etc., make a thread from it that dried with spindle. For the manufacture of fabric, in addition to threads, a bed was required and a shuttle. The bed is a horizontal or vertical frame, which stretched the bases of the base. So that they are not confused, tied flat, stone weights with holes. They are often found in the places of settlements. With the help of shuttle through the threads of the base, transverse filaments were passed from left to right and vice versa. Using the ridge, the threads were tamed. This was the fabric of simple interlacing. Such were all ancient fabrics. Of them sewed clothes, bags, bags, made fishing gear. Archaeologists as evidence of the process of manufacturing fabric find only straight tricks, ceramic or stone, round or conical with a hole in the center, which were put on the spindle, sometimes minor pieces of fabric. It is important that the fabric and clothing from it are made by the person himself, in this their fundamental difference from the clothes from the skin of animals.

In Neolithic, two large zones of archaeological crops were developed - the zones of producing and assigning farms. Inside, there were various types of comprehensive farms, firmly related to specific natural geographical conditions. Each areas have their own traits of development and relationships of human teams with a natural environment, their traditions in the development of technology, the features of ceramics and ornaments.

Neolithic, or new stone Age (from Greek. NEOS - but-new + Lithos) is conditionally divided into early (7-4 thousand years BC) and late (4-3 thousand years before n. e.). But it is difficult to speak about the exact chronological framework, because with the WHO rash unevenness of the historical development of the neo-lititic period, various primitive tribes took place in different time.

In contrast to the preceding stages of the stone century, the least differed from the modern epoch in its climatic conditions, the flora and the fauna, and the neolithic person on its anthropological data is no longer possible to distinguish from modern.

In the time of neolithic, further expansion of the region labor activity Human and his change, consisting in the transition from collective and assigning the forms of farming, the collection of fruits and hunting, to producing agriculture and animal husbandry. In 5-4, the smacheles are BC. e. The ftifiers of huge and repair agriculture appeared, the farmers moved to the cultivation of the soil. And although the work of the first farmers was unstuckly heavy and completely depended on the weather whims the most important step Primitive man from full impotence over nature to mastering power over it.

The hunting and development of agriculture became the basis for the ODO-Mashenization of wild animals. A sheep, goats, pigs, and then large cattle joined the already tamed sob-ke. Later man domesticated horse and camel. The cattle breeding compared to the hunt gave not only more meat, fat, skin and bones, but also milk and wool. In turn, the development of cattle-formation contributed to the progress in agriculture, since the animals began to use as a cooch and gu-chewing transport, and then as a major force in Plumery agriculture.

Following the natural sexual and age-related features, the first great section of labor occurred - separation of cattle breeding from agriculture. The division of labor and the transition from the assignment farming to the producing marked the offensive of the Neolithic Economic Revolution.

New forms of farms, which have crossed some tribes, fundamentally changed the conditions for their creature and advanced far ahead compared to Sobi-raiders, hunters and fishermen. This was Tol-chomk to a lot of other progressive changes, caused deep changes in the lifestyle of a person, his worldview and psyche, in the development of social relations. However, a significant part of the neolithic tribes, who lived in less favorable conditions, continued to engage in fishing and hunting pro-thought, which was preserved from the northern peoples to this day. The final statement of tribal associations occurred.

As a result of a significant increase in the productive forces in the era of Neolithic, the old generic society (Matriar-Hut) was given by the Patriarchal-Generic Rod (Patriarchate), and the latter led to the emergence of class society. At the same time, the primitive community in some areas of the globe still continued to coexist with a new, class, slave-owned society, and in some places I was maintained to this day.

By the end of the Neolithic, the development of primitive techniques was over and a craft-based, based on the use of ordinary tools was completed. Long-term history of primitive equipment does not know exact dates from-roots and inventions - it is unknown who opened fire, invented an ax, onions, wheel, boat, etc. Many of them were repeatedly invented and forgotten until they ended in practice, There are those who still remain unclaimed.

The birth of mining and improving stone processing methods

The sharply increased needs of builders, agriculture, cereal, cattle breeders and hunters in the stone weapons of stimuli-littered a sharp increase in its production and the expansion of the range of stone materials. Along with the silicon, they began to use new types of stone materials, jade, diorit, jaspets, etc., and together with the open source-bams of development - underground with the help of mines (schacht). Initially, it was just deep pits (up to ιο-ι 5 m), then vertical trunks with short horizontal workings (shrewd).

To develop stone, kirk, kayl and hammers made of horns and stone were used, bone intercelaces, blades and rakes, wooden stakes. The recess of the breed was made in leather bags and wicker baskets on the ropes, and ladders were used to lift and descend. Artificial lighting was provided with the help of fat lamps, resten and barking torches, and the radiusca water was trapped or created drainage devices. Thus, you can already talk about the birth of a mining.

For neolithic, a higher and complex technique of stone processing is characteristic. Speed \u200b\u200boperations, sawing and grinding operations were mastered, and the spinning re-carcass technique was brought to the degree of real art. The development of the sawing operation, which appeared in Paleoli and Neolithic, made it possible to give products the necessary form depending on their functional purpose. For its intensification, sand (emery) and water began to be supplied to the propyl - so for the first time, the processes of the reference materials with the use of cooling liquid-stones appeared. A similar method of "wet", abrasive sawing has been maintained for many hundreds of years in the processing of super-solid materials, in particular diamond.

Grinding, like a sawing, which originated in the previous era, also underwent significant co-impact. Along with the "dry" method there was a method of "wet" grinding, in which the use of water provided not only cooling, but also self-collecting abrasive tool and increasing the intensification of the cutting process "for decoration of decorations and the argument-ki cutting blades of woodworking instrument The polishing operation is used.

Dyatichin N.I.

From the book "History of Development of Engineering", 2001

Neolithic is a special era in the history of mankind, it completes the period of the Stone Age, during which people used to make equipment tools only by stone, bone and wood. The time when copper began to be used, and later her alloys for the production of guns, weapons and decorations, marks the end of the neolithic and the entire stone century and the onset of the century of metals.

Due to differences in the pace and nature of the development, which were still in mesolite, the chronological framework of neolithic in various climatic zones is determined in different ways. So, on the "fertile crescent", which includes the Middle East and North Africa, we can talk about the beginning of the neolithic era already in the VIII-VII millennium BC. In Central Asia, Southern Europe And in the Northern Black Sea region, the neathist stands out from the beginning or middle of the VII and lasts to IV thousand BC. In the forest zone, Eurasia, starting mainly at the turn of VI and V or V thousand BC, this era lasted before the turn of III-II, and in some areas, especially in the extreme north, perhaps lasted and longer.

Neolithic - the era of the heyday of the technique of processing traditional materials - stone, bones and wood, with the wide distribution and improvement of such progressive treatment techniques, like grinding, drilling, sawing. Initially, he was neat and stand out as the "era of ground stone." In addition, at this time it gets very widespread the ceramics used for various purposes - mainly for the manufacture of vessels, as well as various utensils - straight trunks, loaded, shallow plastics. Often it is precisely the presence of ceramics is considered to be the decisive sign of the neolithic era.

In neolith, the formation and widespread the extensive farming (farming and cattle breeding) occurred - one of the most important achievements in the history of mankind. Arriving in the early forms in the Middle East in the Mesolite, in Neolithic, it covered the broad spaces of Eurasia, causing significant changes in all spheres of socio-economic activity - material culture, social structure of the lifestyle, ideological ideas. This phenomenon in the history of mankind is called the Neolithic Revolution.

Neolithic monuments and cultures of Northern Eurasia:
1 - Bougu-Dniester culture; 2 - Dnepro-Donetsk culture; 3 - Narva-Neman culture; 4 - Llanovsk culture; 5 - Neolithic Kola P-Ova; 6 - Jeitun culture; 7 - China Culture; 8 - Isakovskaya and serovskaya culture; 9-aparticle-comb cultural and historical
community

Thus, when determining the Neolithic era, two different approaches are often used - instrument and economic. The gun takes into account the qualitative changes in material culture, first of all the spread of ceramic dishes, the widespread use of grinding when processing the stone, the emergence of new groups of guns; Economic - the presence of producing farm forms. It should be noted that the use of the second approach is not always possible, since in the extensive regions, the transition to the producing economy has accomplished significantly later or did not occur at all. At the same time, it should be said that the spread of ceramics is far from being not always connected with this or another type of farming: the culture of "doctor neolith" is well known, the supports of which were early farmers and herders. Apparently, it was time to develop new criteria for the characteristics of the neolithic combining both of these approaches.

Natural climatic conditions in Neolithic time for the most part Determined by the Atlantic climatic optimum of Golochene and, to a much lesser extent, the subborneal period. In the Atlantic period (6000-2600 years BC), there was a largest shift of physical and geographic zones to the north. For this period, a predominantly warm and wet climate is characterized, although different climatic phases are distinguished with greater and less moisturizes. According to spore-pollen analysis, it is possible to reconstruct in the main features of vegetation, which was significantly higher than thermal-loving than in later times. In the forest zone, mixed, mostly broad-sized forests with coniferous breeds, only in the north replaced with a dark-conifer taiga. Most of the Western and Central Europe was covered with broad-sized forests, steppe spaces were characterized by a rich dispersion.

At the beginning of the Atlantic period in the southern regions, black-earth soils are formed, and in more northern - podzolic and marsh. The animal world was diverse and richer than modern, which corresponded to the vegetation cover. Even in the northern areas, a tour, noble deer, a boar, not counting such traditionally forest animals, like Eloc, Bear, Beaver, Sable, Cute, Squirrel and many others. Among the feathers there were a lot of waterfowl, rivers and lakes were abounded by fish. The sea coast served as an excellent base for sea gathering, fisheries and hunting for the marine beast.

At the beginning of the subboral period (2600-1200 years BC) there was some cooling, which led to the subsequent stages to climate auricization, which caused the appropriate changes ambient.

Household and life. Neolithic revolution

Man led assigning farming, i.e. Provided itself with the products that nature gave itself, for the most part of its history - about three million years. Producing farming, i.e. The production system of the main news resources obtained by agriculture and cattle breeding was relatively recently - no more than 11-10 thousand years ago.

According to modern ideas, the process of the "neolithic revolution" was long and very uneven in different geographical zones. The start of the transition to the production of the economy refers in a number of regions to the era of mesolite, and this process ends sometimes only in the iron era. In some regions, the economy is still assigned in nature.

Studies of Neolithic and Mesolitical Monuments of the Middle East, Balkans and Central Asia have shown that the manufacturing farm may arise in some cases even before the invention of ceramics, then it is called "doctoramic neolith." Although the process of occurrence and development of the manufacturing farm in different parts of the Okumen was extremely diverse, a number of determining points can be distinguished:

1. Natural prerequisites played a huge role, namely, in some few areas, wild ancestors of future household plants and animals were presented in much larger quantities and diversity than elsewhere. That is why there were only a few centers of domestic and selection of plants and animals. In the study and solving this problem - the prerequisites of agriculture - great value Have works N.I. Vavilov, who made a number of scientific expeditions and revealed several such centers: these are "fertile crescent land" (North Africa, the front East and Northern Iran), where wheat and barley were doctern; Miscellaneous Yangtze and Juanhe and the Indus Valley - the birthplace of legumes and rice; And Mesoameric - Mais's Motherland (Corn), Potatoes (Batata).

The centers of the domestic animals were significantly larger than plant selection centers, discussions about where, exactly the first time, various types of animals were domesticated, they are still underway. Area where it was derived (domesticated) small and cattle, as well as a pig, general Specialists, is a small Asia and Iranian highlands. However, there are significant differences in the matter of time and place of dignification of other species. So, for example, in recent years, new data appeared, saying that the Neolithic tribes, inhabited in the lower and middle of the Tip - Volga region, bred horses already at the beginning of the VI thousand BC, although earlier the horse domestic referred to IV thousand . BC. An animals that help preserve the harvest from numerous rodents were occupied by a special place in the life of early farmers. They were a cat and, in some areas, chorus. It is clear why the cat is often deified in the early-siselalectric civilizations, for example, the goddess of Bastete in ancient Egypt was depicted with a cat head.

2. Gathering created a complex of empirical ideas about nutritional qualities of fruits and grains of wild plants of all kinds. With intensive collecting, a person began to primitively take care of the areas of plants from which the "harvest" collected and where he even carried out primitive selection - the so-called "patronizing gathering".

3. Knowledge of the possibility of taming wild animals was obtained as a result of a long experience of the content in captivity of the wounded animals or their cubs as a "stock of writing".

4. A certain crisis of assigning farm led to the fact that a person could not produce a sufficient amount of food with old ways. Such crisis situations could occur due to changes in the natural environment, such as climate change, could be also provoked by a person. Thus, at the end of the Mesolithic in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region there was a specific crisis of hunting economy, due to too active hunting activities of the population. This circumstance led to the intensification of gathering and created prerequisites for the rapid transition to the producing forms of farm in Neolith.

In the formation of a producing economy, two main directions occurred: plant selection containing carbohydrates and proteins, first of all legumes and cereals, and domestic animals, meat and milk of which also contains the necessary proteins. As a rule, in the Neolithic, the farm was complex - it was combined in different proportions, depending on environmental conditions, agriculture, cattle breeding, gathering, fisheries and hunting.

In Neolithic, the unevenness of the development of societies living in different landscape-climatic conditions was especially clear.

Along with the societies of farmers and cattle breeders, society existed, the economy of which was based entirely in traditional areas of activity - hunting, collecting and fisheries. It would be wrong to call the society of these hunters, gatherers, fishermen backwards: the transition to a producing farm in these regions was not a vital necessity at that time. On the contrary, in many cases, the level of their livelihoods was not lower, and sometimes higher than those of the teams, passing or hacked to the manufacturing farm.

For the whole of the era, the general is characterized by much greater settlement of the population than in the preceding mesolithic time, which is reflected in the house-building. On the settlements of the Neolithic of different regions, there are many of the most diverse dwellings built from those materials that a person could get in the nearest environment. So, in the southern regions there were buildings of raw bricks, in mountainous settlements - from stone, in the forest zone - dugouts and semi-wood with wood structures, in the steppes and in the south of the forest-steppe - dwellings with a wicker frame, asked clay, which In constructive terms, they practically did not change to the present day (huts, mazanka, etc.). Forms and sizes of residential buildings vary widely depending on the climatic conditions and cultural traditions of one or another region.

Starting from Neolithic Time in the Middle East, the first fortified settlements appear, which is associated with the advent of producing farming forms, the possibility of accumulating food reserves and the need to maintain and protect them. As a rule, these are settlements of farmers who have become, by virtue of the specifics of their economic activity, settled. They were engaged in the commanding cattle breeding, which is characterized by a complex economy system, providing a balanced food diet from plant and animal proteins and carbohydrates. If the settlement occupied a favorable position in relation to others, it could become the center of a small agricultural district and take a fairly important administrative and economic situation: there could be stable exchange places, concentrate crafts, the cult buildings could be concentrated; Such villages could turn into protogue over time. In any case, the emergence of fortified neolithic settlements indicates complication social organization And the whole life of the Neolithic tribes. The most striking settlements of this type should be considered to be Jericho located nearby Dead Sea (Israel), and Chatal-Guyuk in Anatolia (Turkey).

Jericho (VII thousand BC), surrounded by the walls of the seventhome height and having a defensive towers, stood, judging by the findings of stone arrows that stuck in these walls from the outside, a lot of Opija and attacks. The first Jerichon was destroyed much later, already in the era of the metal, but almost immediately was rebuilt and, having survived many of the infancy of fate, exists so far.

Chatal-Gueuk (VI thousand BC) is one of the most interesting settlements of the Late Neolithic - early Eneolya. This village, consisting of large global buildings, plastered and decorated with multicolored painting, represented by zoomorphic and ornamental motifs. The buildings that were not residential, and clearly public or cult character are distinguished.

In Europe, the fortified neolithic settlements are extremely rare, they are mainly known in the southern regions and in the Balkans.

A variety of economic activity of people in neolithic determined the need for various labor instruments. The main categories of stone products, known in the era of Paleolithic and Mesolithic, are widely represented in all natural zones and, despite new processing techniques, are easily recognizable. Categories of guns such as scrapers, cutters, seas, ripenes, gear and lavetled guns needed for various operations associated with stretching leather, skins, sewing clothing and other economic needs are widespread.

Among the technical techniques of stone processing continue to exist and develop traditional methods - the most common technique of bilateral intestinal, jet retouching, grinding, sawing, drilling. Intensively developed in the neolitis of sawing technique, which was previously used quite rarely.

In the development zones of producing farms, guns associated with agriculture predominate: the liners of the rumped knives and rarely persist bases for them, sickles, hoes and kirks. Where hunter-gatherers lived, there are usually a variety of hunting weapons, fishing gear, woodworking guns - axes, tesla, chisel.

With the increasing population, the development and complication of the economy increased the need for stone weapons and, accordingly, much more raw materials were required for its manufacture. The main breed for this was still flint, although quartzite, obsidian, slate, jasper, jade, rhinestone and other rocks were used very widely used. The degree of population of individual districts was often directly dependent on the availability of available and high-quality stone raw materials. Often, near his outputs there were workshops - prey places and, often, primary processing. The raw material of good quality served as a subject of exchange between the population quite removed from each other, which can be traced on materials of different archaeologically cultures of Neolithic.

Stone tools of Neolithic:
1-6 - arrows; 7 - knife; 8 - sharing tools; 9-11 - tips; 12-14 - non-geometric microlith (plates with retouching); 15-18 - geometric microliths; 19-21 - scrapers; 22, 23, 27 - polished axes from slate; 24 - flint ax; 25, 26 - Nucleus

The source to satisfy the increased needs of a person in the silica became its mining development - one of the first types of specialized activities - mining. To mining a silica in large volumes, people built real mines, for which they punched deep pits - wells, and when such a well reached a silicone layer, he was expanded by side gallery. On the walls of the mines, traces are preserved from backups and overlaps, horn tools, soot from rauchin and fat lamps. The guns themselves are found: Horn Kyle and Kirk, whole horns of deer and their large fragments that served in mines in the rocks for separating pieces of rock. The discovery of the remains of the "miners" of the Neolithic, died during the collaps of the gallery. As a rule, with people find Kirk and Kayel, baskets with stone raw materials, lamps, ceramic vessels, in which water or food reserves took with them. Huge mines longer mines have been investigated near Red Sela in Belarus, wide development mountain breeds Open on the upper Volga and in the Novgorod region, in Poland, Slovakia. By the end of the Neolithic era, the extraction of high-quality raw materials and its exchange was widespread in many areas.

In more northern, forest areas appear large flint tips of copies, bone daggers are continued, equipped with flint liners. The flint tips of the arrows are extremely diverse, leaf-shaped defectious forms are especially widespread.

Hunting, judging by the abundance of bone residues of wild animals on neolithic settlements, was very productive. The main hunting weapons were bows of different sizes, arrows and spears. About the bows of neolithus give the representation of their find in the burials. In their manufacture, horny linings could be used, which were attached to the bows additional elasticity and increased the drum force of the boom. In the developed and later neolithic, many large stone sheets of copies appear, as well as tips from the bone, which may indicate that the spears were very diverse. In addition, there were a variety of bone arrows, among which special forms with a blunt end are known for hunting on a small fur beast. Undoubtedly, there were various traps, cabps, slices.

Neolithic bone and animal teeth:
1-harpoon; 2 - awl; 3, 4 - arrow tips; 5 - fishing hooks; 6 - pendants of animal teeth; 7 - carved suspensions; 8 - Kaban fang pendant; 9 - comb; 10 - Flute

The value of fisheries in neolithic increases. This is evidenced by mass finds of guns related to this type of economic activity. It should be noted unusually skilled manufacture of fishing tackle - these are networks, a variety of hooks and harpunas, tops, complex structures for fishing (stenters). When excavations, numerous wicker and wooden traps applied during fishing, remains of fishing networks and bone needles for knitting were found in the excavations of the Baltic States and Neolithic North. Administrative fishermen used large stone loads in the form of fish with two heads (so-called Janusovoid).

Weaving gets wide distribution in the areas of producing economy. There are numerous finds of weights for weaving mills and spicy. Sanitary - small round (ring-shaped) products made of soft rocks, clay or other materials that sat on the spindle to give it the stability and uniformity of rotation. The spindle was used to spinning and winding the threads, which were made of vegetable fibers, obtained first from wild plant plants - nettle, cannabis, etc., and then from cultivated - moleclavin, cotton, in Late Neolithic - and flax. The threads were tightened to primitive weaving mill and fastened with the help of weights, transverse threads stretched the simplest shuttle. The transition to the creation of a more dense material - textiles was prepared by the whole of the previous practice, since since the time of Paleolithic people used a variety of vegetable materials for weaving and knitting.

Ceramic tableware, one of the most important inventions of an ancient person, appears and is widely distributed in the Neolithic era. The origin of ceramics cannot be associated with some one center, apparently, it happened independently in some places. Its appearance meant for neolithic chance the coup in the methods of cooking and storing its stocks.

Ceramics everywhere was made of ceramic test, the basis of which local clays served. Different impurities were added to it, which prevented products from cracking during firing. The composition of such impurities was different: it could be a talc, asbestos, sand, a crushing shell, dressing, various vegetable remnants. Different impurities were characteristic of certain territories and time periods. The use of certain impurities became with a local cultural tradition. It should be emphasized that the agricultural tribes such an impurity usually served the straw of domestic cereals. After cooking ceramic test (clay +
Holder) The manual manufacture of the vessel began, mainly in two ways - knocking or using a nappe (tape method). The latter method consisted in a consistent attachment to each other, rings or spirals, ribbons or flood harnesses that raised the height of the product. When the desired form is reached, the product burned, ornamed and burned. The ornament was applied using a variety of comb, blades, sticks, tubes, etc. In addition, painted with mineral paints was used. The ornament, as a rule, was covered by the outer surface of the vessel entirely or partially, zones, but sometimes its elements were switched to the inner surface. As a rule, the ornament emphasizes the upper and most convex parts of the vessel, as well as the bottom.

The firing problem is one of the most important in the manufacture of ceramics, since it is required for hiring high quality. high temperatures And uniform heating, which is quite difficult to achieve with the help of a conventional fire. However, the whole early ceramics burned on the fire, and only in the developed and later neolithic, primitive pottery mines appear. Ceramics made on a pottery circle appears very lately, when moving to Eneolyt, and only in the Protogrobod civilizations of the Front East or Egypt.

The ornamentation of ceramic dishes is one of the most important signs that the archaeological cultures of Neolithic is distinguished by the development of the cultural affiliation of a complex. Form, manufacturing and ornamentation technology Neolithic vessels northern regions Differently different from the vessels of the southern zone, populated by farmers and cattle. For the ornamentation of the ceramics of the forest zone, the embossed - the battered, the stuffed, depressed - ornaments. In the settlements of early farmers, as a rule, painted ceramics are present. However, these differences are not so rosary in border areas - due to cultural contacts or mixtures of the ancient population.

Ceramic ornamental motifs and compositions are a valuable source to study the spiritual representations of neolithic time.

Spiritual performances. Burials.
ART

Changes in the economic life of society in the Neolithic era led to a change in ideological, spiritual ideas that are reflected in religious rites and beliefs, funeral practices and in art. For the neolithic era, as for the entire stone age, are characterized by presentations associated with totemism and animism. They were expressed in various cults of the forces of nature, which personified in the images of all sorts of animal spirits and vegetable world, heaven and earthly elements.

Burials

Interesting data for studying the spiritual culture of neolithic communities give the burial grounds and individual burials, which are known for this time a lot. For the entire era, but especially for the developed and late Neolithic, it should be noted a noticeable, compared with previous epochs, "standardization" of the funeral rite, which is also expressed in the sustainable forms of burial structures, and in the scenes of the buried, and in the sets of their accompanying inventory. Apparently, this may indicate the presence of a sufficiently stable system of ideas of ideological order. Naturally, they were different in societies leading a different economic life.

The burials of farmers are usually confined to residential sites, often accomplished under the housing floors, which indicates the presence of a cult of patron ancestors, community defenders. Due to the small size of the housing, such burials are never massive. Such burials are known to almost all ancient farmers - in Mesopotamia and Anatolia, in the Balkans and in Central Asia, in Central and Southeast Europe. Poses of the buried most often can be described as the position of sleeping on the side of a person. The degree of speed of the skeleton and the position of the hands, as well as the composition of the concomitant inventory, which almost always consists of ceramic vessels and decorations, can vary slightly. Analysis of a large number of burials does not allow to talk about the existence of property inequality, only in the late Neolithic rare burials with "rich" inventory appear. It can be assumed that this phenomenon is associated with the allocation of some socially significant members of the team - leaders, servants of cults, etc.

The burial monuments of the steppe and forest-steppe zone of Eastern Europe are represented by the Mogilers of the Dnieper-Donetsk culture (see below), the so-called Mariupol Type Mogilniki (although the Mariupol Mogynimer itself applies to Eneolyt). These large, apparently, the generic grains are structures in the form of long trenches, in which, sometimes in several layers, it was buried to hundreds of people lying stretched on his back. The buried were covered with bright red okra. In the accompanying inventory there are many decorations in the form of beads made of pearl plates, bone jewelry, polished toporists and tesla. It is possible that there were magnificent structures from wood, cane or other plant materials over such funeral complexes.

The burials of the fishermen-gatherers of the forest zone are divided into two groups: these are individual burials committed in the parking lots, and the burial grounds made beyond their limits. The most famous grainnesses are Sachtish, Tamula, Zvieniki in the forest area. Much more often and everywhere in this zone there are separate burials. The burial rite of forest hunters-fishermen, who left different archaeological cultures, are sufficiently similar - it is corpecakes in soil pits, where the pose of the buried vary from straightened to the rates. The funerary inventory is not a few, these are stone and bone tools of labor and hunting weapons, decorations from shells or drilled beasts, occasionally there are small zoomorphic figures from various materials. Weapons and decorations were placed in men, and in female burials. Finding ceramics are extremely rare. It should be noted that the study of a large number of neolithic burial zones allows you to say that a more numerous inventory is found in the burials of middle-aged people, both men and women, the burial of other age groups are poille. Apparently, it was this age group that was the most important in the life of the society, which was reflected in the funeral rite.

Art Neolithic

Numerous monuments of the art of the neolithic era allow us to trace certain features in the worldview ideas of the population of various geographic areas and regions.

In the southern regions, where the tribes that have already passed to the producing farms have lived, fertility cults that have a genetic relationship with mother-generating reverence of hosts and guardians of a homemade focus, ancestral mothers, famous in Palayolitis. True, in the Neolithic shallow plastic, the image of a woman underwent strong changes, becoming increasingly schematic and even abstract. Women's figurines of South European agricultural crops are extremely simplified and often look like rods, which are inflicted by symbolic signs of the floor.

Cults-related fertility should be considered and solar (solar) cults, which were especially important for farmers, as the economic and calendar cycle of their work was timed to the annual cycle of the sun movement. There are numerous solar signs, images of solar turbine, traveling by sea, stories, famous for later myths, about the struggle of the sun with monsters. Many of these images and symbols are found at the foreigners of the art forest area. Researchers believe that this is the result of intercultural exchanges and influences.

Some mythological motives, known to us in ancient written and ethnographic sources, are based on their own to the primitive era, which is confirmed by the similarity and repeatability of some plots and images.

The art of neolithic agricultural tribes is represented by a small number of samples, among which monumental painting is distinguished, small plastic and applied art.

Images of man (1-8) and animals (9-17) in neolithic (1, 2, 11, 13, 15, 16-bone; 4, 5, 10, 14- flint; 3, 12- wood; 6, 7 , 9-images on ceramic vessels;
17- stone)

Among the monuments skatal painting Murals are well known in the Bared-Sai gorge in the south of Uzbekistan. Drawings of Broat-Say are made of okra. On large stone blocks in small depresses, scenes of hunting with dogs on bulls, Jeyranov, Kozlov, Kabanov are depicted. Hunters are armed with bows, axes and boomerangs. One of the most interesting plots are images of people, apparently, also hunters, in unusual clothes - wide cone-shaped capes and "ostrich" masks. Images of people in animal or bird masks are also available in other areas of Central Asia (see Fig. On p. 101).

Thousands of images cut on the stone and stained with ocra are found in the mountains of the hill stone grave in the opposite. On the ceilings of the grotto, many images of bulls, deer, predators, occasionally of people and traces of human legs are preserved. They are adjacent to geometric patterns and solar signs. Like ina-Sai, the stone grave was an ancient sanctuary that existed for many millennia from Mesolite to Bronze.

The small plastic of farmers is presented on a number of settlements of the Front East, in the Balkans, in Central Asia. The clay statuettes of the Jaceuna culture, which are made from both undetented and unconditioned clay are very significant in this sense. Main figures of animals and people are quite sketchy. Frequently find only fragments - heads or tors of statuettes. Often they have holes and deepeners made by the acute subject - it is possible that these are traces of magical rites.

The worldview representations of fisherman hunters and collectors of the forest zone, judging by the monuments of art, were different. Numerous and varied animal images were apparently related to hunting magic rites. Samples of monumental art were probably confined to particularly revered places, the objects of shallow plastics could serve as amulets-overave. Judging by the images, the most revered were the largest animals - Elk and the Bear, as well as the waterfowl.

The rock painting and the engraving of the Neolithic tribes of Northern Eurasia are represented by numerous groups of images, often referred to as Pisaccines or Petroglyphs, which were located on the rocky surfaces of the banks of rivers and reservoirs. There are widely known monuments on the coasts of Scandinavia, Karelia, White Sea, Onega Lake, in the valley of the river Lena, Angara, Tom (the oldest form of images), in the Amur region (see Fig. on p. 101). Sometimes, together with animals, fantastic creatures were depicted, apparently, perfume - patrons of hunting or the hosts of animals.

Angarsky and Lensky Scriptures represent wonderful images of the moose. Tomsk Scriptures are knocked out or cut out on smooth stones near the shore r. Tom More ancient part of images, originally embossed in a point in the point (Picket), was later strengthened and re-stuck with lines. Among the ancient images, the figures of the "dancing" men are distinguished: people with widespread and bent in their knees of their legs as they would squat in dance. Along with the figures of people on the stones, the contours of human feet and geometric shapes are visible.

The brilliant sample of the monumental rock art of neolithic can be considered the Petroglyphs of the White Sea and Onega Lake, giving an idea of \u200b\u200bthe complex mental world of their creators. They are located on coastal plates and boulders, sometimes grouped in the composition.

Petroglyphs, including hundreds of images, represent the scenes of land and sea hunting, images of real animals, waterfowl, fish, as well as fantastic creatures and abstract symbols. Very expressive figures of skiers pursuing prey, or hunters floating in a large boat and drowned large fish. The images of the moose, waterfowl (swan), fish made in a concise realistic manner are known. Fantastic creatures Anthropomorphic, perhaps they depict some deities or spirits - patrons and animal owners. An expressive example of such images can serve as a two-meter figure "Besa" with Besov of Cape on the Lake Onega.

Small plastic is represented in the entire forest zone of Eurasia zoomorphic and anthropomorphic images made of silica, clay, bones, horns, wood, amber.
Zoomorphic images are more numerous, among them - images of moose, bear, beobra, cunits, foxes, fish, and snakes, but a variety of birds are significantly dominated, both boring and waterfowl. The figures of waterfowl birds are especially common, which may be reflected in their important commercial importance for the population of the forest zone. Known wooden scales with a handle that is a picture of a bird. The image of the waterfowl was becoming a plot not only in small plastics, in the late stages of cultures with a comb-stern ceramics, there are vessels decorated with a frieze from the clarification by a vintage.

The images of the moose head are one of the common design motifs, which is screwed. Images of a bear relatively rare. Surprisingly artistic and expressive stone (sandstone) Figurine of the Bear from the West Siberian Ladynelytic Samsky Mogilnik. The bear is standing by folding the front paws on the chest, the muzzle is embossed.

Anthropomorphic images are usually very sketchy, face features, the figures details are indicated very conditionally.

The small plastic is also detected in the cultural layers of settlements, and in the burials, which probably indicates its diverse use and as religious objects, and as decorations and amulets.
The applied art of neolithic is represented by the richest array of ornaments applied mainly on ceramics, as well as bone and wooden products.

Archaeological cultures of Neolithic Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Siberia and the Far East

In the era of neolithic, the natural features of the environment of each region were determined by the structure of the economy and indirectly influenced the material and spiritual culture of the population.

General chronological framework of the Neolithic Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Siberia and Far East Defined in different ways: in the southern steppes and forest-steppes - from the end of VII-VI according to IV thousand BC, in some areas of Central Asia - from VII to IV thousand BC, in the forest area - from the turn VI-V on III thousand BC, and in some regions of the Far North of Russia - from IV to II thousand BC.

Early, developed and late stages of neolithic. The material culture of the early neolithic is generally close to the culture of the mesolite, and the lateneolithic is largely close to the epoch of the early metal. Often, the same cultures of different researchers belong to the late Neolithic, then to Eneolyt, and sometimes even to early bronze.

Archaeological cultures in the neolithic are allocated everywhere and are often combined due to similar traits into cultural community or areas. Some researchers suggest the development of autochthonic archaeological crops within one region for several eras - from mesolite to bronze. Other scientists in solving issues of ethnogenesis in neolithic attach more importance to migration processes.

In the neolithic era, two large economic zones were developed in the territory under consideration: the area of \u200b\u200bcultures, which, in one degree or another, mastered the methods of producing farms, and the extensive area of \u200b\u200bthe forest zone cultures with exclusively assigning farms.

The zone of the producing economy was located in Central Asia, as well as in the steppe, forest-steppe and foothill areas on an extensive territory from the valley of the river. Bug to the Volga region and east - to the steppes of the priaral. Areas, whose population already in Neolithic was mainly engaged in agriculture, were very small - they all belong to the northern periphery of the centers of the producing farm, which have developed in the Middle East and in Southern Europe. The most striking agricultural crops are Jeitun and culture of linear belt ceramics. The area of \u200b\u200bthese crops is timed to the districts most suitable for farming on climatic, hydrological and soil characteristics.

The tribes that knew cattle breeding are much wider than the extensive zone of steppes and the forest-steppes provided ample opportunities for this. The carriers of the Bogo-Dnestrovskaya, Gorno-Crimean, Seruogiovskaya, Dnepro-Donetsk, the Middle-Done, Rakushchennoyarskaya, Gissar, Kelmtemar cultures were engaged in cattle breeding to one degree or another.

Southwest Eastern Europe

The tribes who lived in the south-west of Eastern Europe (Moldova, part of the Right Bank of Ukraine) and already mastered agriculture and animal husbandry in the Neolithic Epoch, were the periphery of the bright agricultural cultures of South and Central Europe, which were there in VI-V thousand BC. These tribes, in turn, had a certain influence on their northern neighbors who inhabited the territory of modern Russia. Two cultures are distinguished in the Bogo-Dniester interference: the Bogo-Dniester and culture of linear belt ceramics.

Ceramics of neolithic cultures of the south of the European part of Russia:
1-4- Bogo-Dniester Kulaur; 5-8- culture of linear belt ceramics; 9-12 - Dnipro-Donetsk Culture

Materials of both crops reflect a gradual transition to producing industries - agriculture and cattle breeding, while maintaining the value of hunting and fisheries.

Culture of linear belt ceramics, end of VL-V thousand BC. The economy of this culture was based on primitive agriculture and commodity cattle breeding. Sowed two types of wheat, millet and peas. The harvest was made by sickles: they had a curved handle from a tree or horns, in
Which fastened flint plates. Divorced predominantly cattle, pigs. In addition, there was a hunt for major hoofs, apparently there was gathering.

Learning large territories The carriers of this culture seems to be associated with primitive honey farming. Such a method of growing cereals led to a rapid depletion of land and the need to move to new territories. It is possible that settlements existed only 10-12 years. The buildings consisted of a wooden frame, an incelaved clay with straw. On the earth's floor there are remnants of foci and small household pits.

The culture of linear belt ceramics received its name due to the method of ornamentation of vessels. At the early stage, ceramics is largely similar to the early Obserolic dishes of Central Europe. Tolstosen vessels are often decorated with stroken spirals from one, two or three parallel lines. The next stage of the development of the culture is characterized by the spread of ceramics with the so-called "musical" ornament formed by a combination of thin parallel lines and membranes reminding a note record. Vegetable impurities are abundant in the ceramic dough.

The tools of labor were made from silica, horns, bones, wood, they were done in almost every home. Most of the guns are represented by sickle scrapers and liners, less knife, cutters and drilled, there are chopped guns.

Mogilnikov found a bit. Known individual burials on settlements. The dead were buried in a raft position on the side, sometimes escaping Ohru, put the dishes with sacrificial food, put guns from silica, decorations of shells and animal teeth.

Bogo-Dnestrovskaya culture, VI-V thousand BC. This culture has developed on a local basis and has been distributed in the territory of the entire Bogo-Dniester interfluve. She adjacent to the Surie and Dnieper-Donetsk cultures in the north and culture of linear belt ceramics in the West.

In the early stages of its development in a complex economy, hunting and fisheries prevail, agriculture and cattle breeding appear on the following. The proportion of agriculture was small, animal husbandry was in the initial stage of development. The role of hunting and fisheries throughout the existence of this culture was significant - a noble deer, roe, Kaban, was mined; The abundance of fish is recorded by numerous bone residues in the cultural layers of settlements. At home, apparently, were ground or slightly in-depth, with inner foci, their area - from 12 to 30 square meters. m.

The tools of labor made mainly of flint are represented by scrapers, cutters, inserts for hunting weapons.

Ceramics are quite diverse, there are flat-bottom and round bottom forms. For ceramic test, the grasses, sand and pushed shells are characterized. The vessels are almost completely covered with an ornament of embedded lines, inspisted stamps or finger stamps.

South of Eastern Europe

In the steppe and forest-steppe zone between the Dnieper and the Volga on the local mesolithic basis, a number of crops were developed, characterized by great similarity in the economy and the pace of development. The main occupation of the population in Neolithic here was hunting and fisheries, agriculture was developed very weakly, and cattle breeding in some areas was developed only by the end of Neolith. In addition, they are all united by the microlic character of a flint inventory and some common features In the design of ceramics.

The archaeological cultures of this region can be divided into two groups: the first includes surfactant and mining cultures, in the second - Dnieper-Donetsk cultural community, Rakushchennaya, Middle-Indian, Seruogovskaya, Samara, Volga-Ural culture. All of them can be dated VII / VI-V / IV thousand BC, but the first group is more archaic.

The main occupation of the population of the first group of cultures was hunting and fisheries, although there are rare data on the presence of cattle breeding. Ceramics is represented by rampant vessels with an S-prominent profile, which are decorated poorly or not at all ornament. Flove guns are made on the plates and have a microlic look. The burial grounds of these crops are not found.

The carriers of the second group of cultures also engaged in hunting, fishing and cattle breeding, but the proportion of cattle breeding in their farm, especially in some cultures, was significantly higher.

Vascular forms are more diverse, flat-bottomed forms appear, there are no vessels with an S-prominent profile, the vessels are richly ornamed with a variety of [child fingerprints and schools. Each of the cultures has a peculiar ornament. Great ornamentation (stamp - scallop, line is continuous) is generally more characteristic of the districts of the Dnieper, Seversky Donets, and the stamped (stamp is a pointed wand, the line of the intermittent) is for the regions of the Caspian region, Don and the Lower Volga.

The flint inventory in the early stages has a microlic appearance, small plates are used as a workpiece for guns. In the later stages there are already a lot of larger tools made on the eats.
The funeral monuments of these crops were well studied: the burial ground of the village of Eats, Nikolsky, Alexandria, and others. Basically, the funeral rite is represented by corpecakes, stretched on the back and abundantly painted okra. There are collective burials.

Both groups of cultures reflect the gradual transition of neolithic tribes to livestock in the conditions of steppes and forest-steppes. The most significant for this region is the Dnieper-Donetsk cultural community VII-IV thousand BC.

She replaced the tribes of carriers of surfactant culture in the forest-steppe areas of the subnet and Tipiona. The similarity of local options and types of monuments included in this generality was due to the similarity of natural environment, farms and origin. At an early stage of the existence of the Dnieper-Donetsk cultural community, this internal similarity is expressed much more than in late when contacts with the population of adjacent territories have become numerous and diverse. Such contacts, as a rule, lead to a number of cultural borrowing, which is reflected in the emergence of new features in stone and ceramic complexes.

Dnipro-Donetsk Ceramics early period With an admixture of organic, the test is characterized by poor firing. Ostrodnaya vessel shape, weakfolded. The vessels are ornaments with rows of comb of combs and the battered lines. At the later stages of the development of the culture, the vascular profiling is complicated, flat-bottomed forms appear, dressing is added to the clay dough, the ornamentation of the vessels is complicated.

The flint tools at an early stage were made on the plates, and in the later stages - on the eats. A set of guns is characteristic of hunters and fishermen are scrapers, cutters, knives, rubbing guns and arms tips and copies, a variety of hunting armaments.

More than 20 mariupol type grains are known, which a number of researchers are associated with carriers of the Dnieper-Donetsk cultural community. An early group of these gravestones is dated to the end of VII-VI thousand BC, Late - V thousand BC. The funeral rite is similar - these are corpecakes, elongated on the back, accompanied by numerous decorations and covered with red ocher. Often, collective tips were a long trench, which lay dozens of buried.

The economy of the Dnieper-Donetsk tribes was based on hunting and fisheries, but a primitive cattle breeding was known. In the late stages of dice of domestic animals, they are already dominated.
On the monuments of the Rakushchennoyarsk, Middle-old and Sergolovsky cultures are presented bone residues of domestic animals - large and small cattle, pigs, horses.

The appearance of the ancient cultures of the ancient cultures in this region in the region of the second half of the VI thousand BC.; Then, for a long time, neolithic and earlynelyolitic cultures coexist here, developing in parallel, until the appearance of the ancient cultures of the bronze era at the turn of the IV and III thousand BC.

Central Asia and Kazakhstan

Unevenness cultural Development Distinctly expressed in the Neolithic of Central Asia. Typically, three main areas are distinguished: the Jeytun culture in southwestern Turkmenistan, Gissar culture in Tajikistan and Keltemernar cultural community in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and in part of Kazakhstan. The most accurates are the Jaceuna culture and Keltemsor's cultural community.

Jeitun culture, the second half of the VII-VI thousand BC. In the second half of VII thousand BC. In the south-western Turkmenistan, in the foothills of Kopot-Dag, agricultural culture, which received the name of the Name of Jateunsk on the most fully investigated monument. Being one of the most ancient cultures of Neolithic in the territory under consideration, it occupies the northeast outskirts of the extensive zone of the elderly elementary cultures of the Middle East. The similarity of the monuments of the Jitecan culture with settlements of Malaya Asia and the Middle East is explained by the generality of genesis, the forms of farming, the natural environment, and possibly the presence of cultural contacts.

The economic structure of the Jaituns combined such progressive phenomena, like agriculture and cattle breeding, and traditional hunt. The development of irrigation agriculture (and it requires the creation of at least the simplest irrigation system) was the cause of durable settling of nonsense. The basis of the economy was the cultivation of cereals - barley and different species Wheat. In the early stages of the Jeitun Culture, the main source of meat food was hunting for a rayful goat, Jeyrana and Kaban. Occasionally there are dice of a homey goat. However, in the late settlements of the dice of dosti, domestic animals prevail, and a large horned cattle is among the herd.

Small villages consisted of houses built from clay blocks. The houses had a rectangular shape, the doorways were narrow. The floor was covered with thick clay coating, sometimes the traces of reddish or black paint are found on it. Each house had a hearth, and a small niche was made in the wall in the wall. Near houses were household buildings and courtyards, surrounded by global (frame coating with liquid clay) by fences. It is to the Jeytun time that the tradition of construction of a raw (unconditional) brick is ascebated in Central Asia.

In the excavations of Jeitun, remnants of 29 houses were found, in which about 180 people could allegedly could live. No more than 70 people lived on other, less large settlements (Chagyll-Depth, Chopan-Depth).

At the locations of the Jeitun settlements found burials performed under the floors of houses or in the courtyards, which is typically for early sedentary farmers. For the funeral rite, both the raft and the elongated position of the deceased are characteristic.

Ceramics of Jeituna is one of the oldest ceramic complexes of Central Asia. The vessels are molded by hand, in the technique of a tape carriage, they are diverse in shape, the walls are thoroughly knewed, the firing is a strong, produced in primitive mountains or furnaces. A small part of the dishes make up products with painting. Its motifs are vertical jet lines, sometimes intertwined with horizontal, or horizontal belts composed of vertical rows of brackets or triangles. Probably painted tableware was used by Jacents in special cases - solemn or ritual.

At the monuments there are zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figurines from the burnt and unreasonable Tina.

The tools of labor were made from flint plates. Main categories of guns - liners of ripped knives and sickles, scrapers, dries, arms tips, geometric microliths. There are polished toporists and tesla from other rock breeds.

Keltemernar cultural and historical community, VII-IV thousand BC. The tribes of this cultural and historical community occupied the enormous territory of the now deserted plains of Central Asia in the interfold of Amudarya and Syrdarya, in Western Kazakhstan and Eastern Caspiani. Naturally, there is no complete uniformity of culture on such a wide space, but all its options demonstrate the similarity of stone guns, forms and ornamentation of ceramics and decorations.

It should be emphasized that during this period, all these spaces were flooded, covered with rich vegetation and provided excellent conditions for the life of the neolithic person. In woody thickets along the banks of rivers and in the dispensing steppes, a numerous and diverse game was found, the river was abused by fish.

Hunting and fisheries played a huge role in the complex economy, which are talking about the numerous finds of bone bones, noble deer, Kabana, Kulana, Jeyran and a variety of fish. Finding shells and egg shells indicate the presence of gathering. However, in the early stages of the existence of culture there are cattle breeding, as evidenced by the discovery of dings of pets.

Kelteminarian parking represents in most cases short-term overhead. The dwellings studied in Kavat and Janbas-Cala IV parking are rounded terrestrial or slightly in-depth chaolase buildings with foci in the center, sometimes very large sizes (about 200 square meters). Glaibed construction is absent.

In Keltemsor's community, ceramics appears at the turn of VII and VI thousand BC. Along with Jaceunskaya, it is ancient in Central Asia burned dishes. All Keltemernar vessels are sealed from hand and burned on a fire. Ceramic vessels are different in shape - these are hemispherical bowls, spherical or egg-shaped with a high cylindrical throat, occasionally there are flat-bottomed forms. Ceramics was decorated with rugged and stamped ornaments, painted rack.

For the manufacture of stone weapons, Keltemernarts used flint extracted in mines. In addition, Keltemernians have mastered the extraction of turquoise, the development of which was in the mountains of Sultanuzdag.

Fline guns are made on small plates, basic types - scrapers, knives on plates, a variety of geometric microliths, at the later stage there are arrowheads of bilateral processes. From thick sandstone, graters were made and loaded for networks. There are also Tesla axes from grillged stone and bone tips.

Ceramics of Neolithic Central Asia:
1 - CITUN CULTURE; 2 - Celtems Culture

In the steppe areas of Kazakhstan in Neolithic, processes were similar to those who went to the Caspiani and on Don. For the neolithic cultures of this area, a combination of assigning and producing economy is characterized. Huge territories are investigated extremely unevenly, and most Kazakhstani steppes are examined enough.

Researchers celebrate a wide variety of neolithic monuments of Kazakhstan. So, if more similarities are traced in the southern regions, then in Northern - with the cultures of Zauralye and Western Siberia.. This is expressed both in the ornamentation of vessels and in the nature of the stone inventory.

Caucasus. Materials on the Neolithic of the Caucasus are very fragmentary, despite the long-term surveys of this territory and the abundance of monuments of preceding and subsequent eras. Despite the proximity to the centers of the ancient civilizations, there were no formation of developed neolithic cultures. The small number of reliably dated monuments greatly complicates the comparison of the existing materials.

A series of cave parking lots and long-term settlements was identified on the territory of the Caucasus, for which the combination of flint and obsidian tools of microlithic types is characterized, very close to mesolitical. In addition, polished wedge-shaped axes were met and very primitive ceramics. Some of these settlements indicate the acquaintance of their inhabitants with cattle breeding and farming already at the beginning of the VI thousand BC, even before the emergence of an anterior-type anolytic culture in the Transcaucasus with globbit architecture and developed producing economy.

Forest zone of Eastern Europe

For almost the entire territory of the forest area, the farm has been maintained during the Neolithic Epo. This is partly due to the specifics of natural conditions, which in excessively provided a few population of food, without stimulating the transition to new form of farm.

With favorable natural conditions, even in early neolithic, there were quite large settlements on which up to 100 people could live. In later neolithic, certain changes in social structure Society, which can be traced mainly on the materials of the funeral rite. In the forest zone of Eastern Europe and Eastern Siberia, great necropolis are known.

The basis of the economy throughout the almost entire era of the Neolithic in the territory of Northern Eurasia was hunting, fishing and gathering, sea fishing, which was of great importance for the inhabitants of the coasts of the seas and large lakes. Folds on the shores of the White Sea in Zavarge give ideas about the nature of the hunting of the marine beast - Petroglyphs depict hunters standing and sitting in a boat, in their hands at one of them Harpoon, who has already stipped into the body of a large marine beast (see fig. On with. 101).

The first signs of the emergence of a producing farm in the forest zone are traced only in the developed neolithic. Studies of recent years allow us to talk about the existence of domesticated animals in the population on the southern outskirts of the forest zone, on the border with the forest-steppe. However, the only reliably domesticated animal of the era of neolithic in the forest zone is a dog.

Neolithic cultures of different regions northern Eurasia It was studied very unevenly - the most complete ideas are about the center of the European part of Russia and some regions of Siberia. In some territories, especially in the north, the archaeological material of the Neolithic is difficult to relieve the material of the monuments of early metal, with the exception of the actual metal objects, therefore the issues of cultural chronology are often debatable.

European part of the forest zone. Early Neolithic in the territory of the European part of Russia includes cultures: early Valdai, Verkhnevolzhskaya, Sprurnings, Narva, Nemnyskaya, Seryan, Rudnyan, Middle-old, early stage of Desninsky culture, early stages of Volga-Kama culture. The most ancient are the Verineal, Middle-old and Desnin monuments, the emergence of which is likely to refer to the frontier of VI-V thousand BC, the time of their distribution - V-IV thousand BC. BC.

In the material culture of carriers of early rally organic crops, there was a lot of total: small parkingians were located along the shores of lakes and small rivers. As a rule, there were several dwellings on the settlement, but there were short-term fishing cables with light chaolase structures. The dwellings of this period are represented by terrestrial forms and twilights, with a frame of jerdomy, covered with skins, in terms of rounded or quadrangular.

Ceramics is widely found on the settlements of the forest neolith. The most common types of vessels were round-bottom and rampant, the entire outer surface or its upper part was ornamed. Ornamentation Castled, meal, comb. According to early typological schemes, widely accepted in archaeological science, round bottom dishes preceded flat-bottomed. However, modern studies show that this is fairly not for all archaeological crops; So, in a number of the earliest crops, such as Narva, there are flat-bottom forms of vessels.

The main types of hunting weapons are represented by numerous and diverse small flint and bone tips of arrows that had a least, triangular or rhombic form. Copy tips most often repeat the shapes of arrows of arrows, although sheets are dominated.

Stone inventory is often close to mesolitical, however, when it is manufactured in a larger volume, a jet retouching, sawing and grinding was used. Scrapers are widespread, among which new forms appear - the scrapers of quadrangular outlines, processed retouche in three, and sometimes in four sides, rounded or very round, processed around the perimeter. Often there are a variety of knives, seas, cutters. The cutters are distributed on a relatively narrow territory, including the top of the Volga region, the top and secondary subnparce, South Ural. Mogilniki is extremely rare.

Ranneneolytic cultures of the forest zone are very slightly different from the mesolitical. The only significant difference is the findings of ceramic vessels of different sizes in which they cooked food and stored stocks. The proximity to the Mesolithic in the material culture of the early Olyolithic population is explained in some cases by the continuity of traditions (many researchers point to the relationship of Uppervolzh Culture with Butovo), the lack of jump-like changes in the economy and the similarity of the natural environment.

North-Western regions (Estonia, Latvia, part of Lithuania and Leningrad region) It was occupied by the tribes of Narva and Nemny cultures (V-IV thousand BC). As mentioned above, the lack of deposits of high-quality silica contributed to the widespread use of bone guns and the development of standard methods of their manufacture. Good flint imported from more southern regions, and, on the contrary, the excellent Baltic amber was exported to other areas.

Standards of developed and late neolithic differ from a ranelyolitic big prevocate, a more powerful cultural layer, an abundance of ceramic vessels, the remnants of large dwellings and a significant number of burial grounds. All this indicates the stability of the assigning farm and its effectiveness - the population is increasing and its settlement.

A significant role in the formation of a developed and late forest neolithic was played by tribes that decorated their ceramics with a stretch-grained ornament. They are presented by a number of archaeological crops and their local options. However, so far many of the issues related to their origin, the definition of criteria for the allocation of local variants, chronology, remain debated.

Neolithic cultures with stretching ceramics, the line of VI- III thousand BC. The main territory of the formation of these cultures was, in the opinion of most researchers, the Volga-Okrug interfluve and the upper Volga region, from where they later began their widespread north, northeast, east and to a lesser extent to the West. Almost all cultures included in the circle of crops of stretching ceramics (Llanovskaya, Balakhninskaya, Karelian, Kargopol, Pecherso-Dvinskaya, Baltic), as well as those that experienced their significant impact at the second stage of their development (Desninskaya, Verkhnedneprovskaya, MSGINSKAYA, VALDAY ), have a number of general features.

They are characterized by fairly large settlements near the water. Area dwelling - from 20 to 50 square meters. m. At this settlement, depending on the season, approximately 15-40 people could live. Stone inventory is characteristic of the time of developed and late Neolithic. On settlements there are many guns - scrapers, knives, cutters, bilateral processed arrows and copies of sheets and other forms, drills, axes, Tesla, there are guns from the bone and horns. There are many ceramic dishes, these are large and medium sized vessels, rounded, with straight walls. The ornament covers the entire surface of the vessels, it is always zonal and consists of combinations of conical pits made by Bellemnitis, and the prints of the comb. There are also other types of ornaments - semi-short and nail pressure. Local variants of these cultures often stand out according to the features of ornamentation.

In III thousand BC. The culture of the so-called comb-hole ceramics appears, close to the cultures of stretching ceramics and spreading it in the northern part of its range.

Ceramics of neolithic crops of the forest zone:
1.2 - Uppervolzh Culture; 3, 4 - culture Sprurnings; 5, 6 - Llanovsky culture; 7-9 - Narva culture; 10-13 - Volosovskaya culture

Found a number of burial grounds - Karavaiha, Sakhtysh grains, lingules. All of them are characterized by a similar funeral rite - as a rule, these are corpecakes, elongated on the back, sometimes accompanied by decorations (shale pendants, drilled teeth of fishing animals) and a few instruments of labor, weapons. Sometimes in the cultural layer of settlements, especially in the northern regions of the spread of the daisy-comb and comb-foam cultural communities, find embryonic clay anthropomorphic figures, a variety of zoomorphic images and figures of waterfowl and their images on ceramics.

Most of the scientists believe that the tribes are carriers of these cultures belonged to the ancient Finno-Ugric population of the Forest Zone of Eastern Europe.

At the end of the late Neolithic in the Volga-Okom Mezhdrechye, hair culture arises (the second quarter of the III is the first quarter of the II thousand BC), which subsequently applies to the extensive territory from the Baltic states to the Middle Volga region and replaces a number of crops of non-combustion communion. Materials of Volosovsky culture are very brightly characterized by the late neatite, its final and the transition to Eneolyt, as copper products appear at its later monuments.

For hairstop culture, long-term settlements are characterized by the water itself. Residents - rectangular, deepened to the ground were built of wood and had a cutting or pillars design. The area of \u200b\u200bdwelling varies from 60 to 120 sq. M. The middle parts were located in the middle of the clay. On the settlements are known to the find from 5 to 17 of such dwellings, which were associated with indoor transitions.

The assigning farming of Volosovsky tribes is characterized by a very high degree of organization of hunting, fisheries, gathering. Powerful strata of shells of mollusks, animal and fish bones indicate the presence of billets of food reserves, which allowed to function quite large settlements all year round for a long time. Hunting weapons and fishing tackle reflect specialization depending on the objects of production and methods of fishing. An individual hunt with a bow and arrow on forest animals and birds prevailed. The main fishing species were famous forest animals, but the main objects of hunting almost everywhere were elk and duck. A dog is present from domesticated animals, about the special status of which is evidenced by individual burials (Parking Black Mountain, Shagar II).

The role of fisheries increases. In addition to the usual ways to catch fish (routing on a hook, hitting the harpoon and ostrich), the networking was widely used, which gave the main amount of catch. The use of networks is evidenced by their numerous prints on ceramics.

The maintenance of a rather complex stationary economy and settlement implies the development of the production of stone and bone guns. Volosovskaya products are characterized by a variety of forms reflecting specialization. Especially high quality processing marked tips, rubbing tools and art objects. In the manufacture of flint objects, a wide use of a flat covering surface of retouching, and stone and bone guns - grinding.

Volosovskaya ceramics is represented by large stucco vessels of semi-day and whitewhat. Organic impurities were added to ceramic dough. The vessels are richly ornaments along the entire surface of the prints of a variety of stamps, instruments of different forms, the battered lines that constitute certain ornamental motifs.

The existence of inter-barded bonds in the hairs of intergovernmental ties and possible exchanges, finds of jewelry from the Baltic amber on the parking lots of the top Volga and the middle eye are said.

Certain social and ideological changes in society, characteristic of late Neolithic, are reflected in the complication of the funeral rite traced on the materials of the Volosovsky culture. Special burials are characterized on the fades of settlements - in the dwellings and between them. In addition, large burials are also known next to the settlements (Sachtysh II, VIII, Konchansk, Language I). Most of the burials are single, however, both collective (Sachtysh II. Black Mountain, Shagara I). The funeral inventory is not good, usually these are sets of ornaments from bone, stone or amber sublinks located in the chest area or belt buried. Often the grave pit stained with okra. An interesting feature of the Volosovsky funeral rite is the creation of peculiar ritual complexes known on some parking lots. One or more burials on special venues were accompanied by fireflys, lots of ocher, animal turtles, "clasts" of products and blanks.

A special feature of the Volosovsky culture, brightly distinguished by the background of other cultures of the neolithic forest zone, are art objects - these are sculptural images of people and animals (birds, moose, bear, snakes) made of bone, silica, clay, occasionally from a tree or amber. Such objects could be used to ritual purposes or serve amulets. Anthropomorphic and zoomorphic images are sometimes found on ceramic vessels.
In the eastern regions of the forest zone of Europe from IV to the end of the III millennium BC. Neolithic tribes have lived related to the Volga-Kama cultural community. It was formed on a local mesolithic basis and is characterized by ceramics with a comb ornament. Specific flint tools and dishes are alnamed by a special pattern - the "walking comb." The vessels are diverse, there are flat and amphonic forms.

The flint inventory is numerous, especially in early monuments. It is characterized by sheet and rhombic arrowheads, slightly curved knives and scrapers treated on both sides.

In the settlements there were ground dwellings and twilight big Squarewho had corridor outputs and duplex roofs. They probably served to stay a few families.

Siberia and Far East

Eastern Zauralye and Western Siberia is not fully understood, but it is possible to distinguish some of its common features, first of all, it is a long experience of mesolitic traditions in stone processing. In the first half of the Neolithic era, most of the Zaral-West Siberian region occupied a single gigantic ethnocultural array, the most characteristic feature of its material culture was ceramics, ornamed by combinations of lines and wavy lines, batter or made by the retreating spatula, and various ointments.

In the late Neolithic inside of this massif, apparently, under the influence of the influx of the new population, two new ornamentation options were formed - the comb and comb-wasometric. The first originally appeared and spread in the areas of Eastern Zauralya, and the second is predominantly in the middle ass. In the Zauralale and Western Siberia, the chronological sequence of these three ornamental traditions is not clear enough, although a number of researchers believe that the first (retreating blade and the battered lines) decorative complex arose before combing and combed-butter. However, the fact of their long-term coexistence is undoubted.

In the South and Western Abauraly, Tashbulatovskaya and Sabelskaya cultures were allocated, the dating of which is sufficiently discusional and fluctuates from VI to IV thousand BC. Their material culture has many similar traits.

Ceramic vessels are small, rampant and roundly, having elongated proportions, the curly will bent. The ornament, the battered or printed, is located in the form of belts from direct and inclined prints, often in the form of a "walking ridge". The flint inventory is lamellar, close to the mesolitical, especially at an early stage. The main occupation of the population was hunting and fisheries, although there are evidence that in the later stages a cattle appears. The burial and dwellings have not yet been found.

In the lower course of p. Tobol has two cultures - Koshkinskaya and Boborakinskaya, the farm of which was purely assigning.

The range of Koshkinsky culture is seized by the lower tritobol and part of the middle auction, it dates back to V thousand BC. Ceramic vessels are represented by ravenly and flat-bottomed forms with a beveled wedge. Ornamented vessels with horizontal wavy or zigzag lines, completed or retreating chopstick.

Stone tools are made mainly on the plates. A set of guns is characteristic of the tribes of forest hunters and fishermen are a variety of arrows, scrapers, knives, fishing tackle, rubbing tools. Residents are represented by dugouts depth to 1.5 m or terrestrial buildings, the area of \u200b\u200bresidential facilities ranges from 40 to 60 sq.m.

Monuments of Boborakinsky culture occupy the territory from Western Kazakhstan to the lower tritobol and dating from the middle IV to the beginning of the III milk. BC. Ceramic vessels are represented by rampant and junny forms. The ornament is a paper, retreating blades and meal pressure. It is located only in the upper and bottom parts of the vessels in the form of horizontal strips.

The guns from silica, quartzite, shale are made mainly on the plates, but there are grinding chopping guns. There are geometric microliths, most often a trapezium. Residents - rectangular semi-mining area from 25 to 56 square meters. m. Mogilniks have not yet been detected.

Eastern Siberia Neolithic studied is extremely unevenly studied. The most complete characteristics of this era are obtained for the areas of Baikalia, the Amur region and Primorye, the rest of the huge spaces are clearly not clear enough.

Baikal can not be divided into three chronological stages. The stone industry of early stages, Kitaitsky and Ivanovsky is characterized by the presence of a large amount of grinding testers and axes, large insertion tips and knives. Many products, mostly hunting weapons, made from fossil mammoth bone and beaw.

At the later stages of the development of the Neolithic Culture (Serovsky), the guns are becoming less, large grinding forms are relatively rare, but numerous tools from green jade appear. This stone served as a exchange with other tribes.

The ceramic vessels of the Neolithic Baikalian are small and thin-walled. The latter circumstance is associated with a special technique of their manufacturer - knocking, in which the walls were dying away with a special beater on a massive blank, placed inside the vessel. Cutting vessels, on the outer surface of the walls are visible traces of a beater, in addition, they are decorated with nappes and presses in the top.

The materials of early grains are talking about the property equality of all groups of the population. The funeral inventory is usually not well represented and is mainly decorated with pearl or white jade. Sometimes there are objects of hunting weapons - flint of arrows, bone daggers with flint liners; It was in the burials that composite bows with bone plates were found.

The last stage of the Pribaikalsky Neolithic refers to the beginning of the II thousand BC, the line with the Eneolyt here is inevitable, as they say rare finds of metal objects. In some burials of this period, a rich funeral inventory was found, in other burials it is practically absent. Judging by these data, we can talk about the emergence of property inequality or the emergence of some socially significant members of the team.
On a few neolithic sites, traces of long-term residential buildings were found, the only housing traces are small foci, indulgeted or paved with a large river pebbles. On settlements, near the foci find vessels, rare stone and bone products, wild animal bones, mostly roasted and moose, small pits for fish storage. All this together allows most researchers to consider the Neolithic population of Baikalia and the Upper Lena by semi-bed hunters and fishermen combined into small groups.

Yakutia and northeastern Asia - the area of \u200b\u200bresettlement of the hunters on the reindeer, which carried an even more movable lifestyle than the population of the Baikal. For these areas, archaeological monuments of two types are characteristic: these are parking-workshops located at the outputs of stone raw materials, and ceremonial overwhelming nordic deer Through rivers. It was there that there was a massive bottom of these animals and the main stocks of writing were made. Near these settlements there are burials and sacrificial places associated with hunting magic. Similar monuments left and tribes of nomadic hunters and river fishermen who lived on remote from the sea coasts of the expanses of Chukotka, Sakhalin, Kamchatka. The most complete idea of \u200b\u200bthe material culture of these people is given by the monuments of the Ushkkin culture of Kamchatka.

Neolithic tribes, settled on the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk and Next to the North, for 1000 km of the Sea coast, lived in the sea beast, creating a special world of naval beasts, which changed very little for the next millennium. Related neolithic cultures are also known on the coast of Alaska.

The population of the Amur region and South Primorye in the Neolithic era experienced a strong influence of neighboring cultures of North Korea, China and Japan. A feature of the development of this region of Southeast and East Asia was the early appearance of ceramics and a quick transition from intensive gathering to producing farm forms. The Mesolithic Stage is also very short and originally, as in the Middle East (see the section "Mesolith"). Neighboring areas developed in a similar way, which was largely determined by a mild climate, rich animals and a floral world.

The early Neolithic of the Amur region is represented by Novopetrovsk (V thousand BC) and Gromotukhinskaya (V-IV thousand BC) cultures. The most archaic for the appearance of the inventory is Gromatukhinskaya: there are many large rude pebble guns, leaf-shaped clink lugs, but the correct prismatic and conical nucleuses are also presented. Textile ornament on ceramics relates it to ceramics inherent in the forest hunters of Yakutia.

In the material culture of Novopetrovsk culture, both archaic features are traced - the mesolitic character of the flint inventory, and neolithic - among the guns are grinding teslas, hoes, axes, quite a lot of ceramics. The flat-bottom vessels are usually unnecessary, have a buffaceous form.
Osino-Azero - the most ancient agricultural culture in the Far East, apparently, is related to its origin with Novopetrovsk. In the parking lots in the residues of the twilight, the grains of millet and vessels with holes in Tulia were found, designed to break the grain. In stone inventory there are hoes and grains. Stone tools were made from Chalacedone and Jasma. Arm tips and liners are processed by the finest retouch.

Late neatite is represented by the Zasinovskaya culture of the Southern Primorye and the Nizhneamur culture, which are dated iii - the beginning of the II milk. BC. In the inventory of the Nizhneamur culture, many polished testers and axes. Ceramics flat-bottom, richly ornamed by spiral curls and vertical zigzags, so called. "Amur wicker." There are clay figures of turtles and fish. The farm specializing in fishing and sea gathering has led to a sustainable settling, and favorable climatic conditions contributed later to the development of agriculture.

The farm and the material culture of the Neolithic tribes of Primorye:
1 - options for painting and ornament of dishes; 2 - forms of ceramic vessels; 3 - guns from
stone and bone

In the inventory of the Zaisanovsky culture there are terekniks and a racking, axes and teslas, triangular knives. Ceramics is decorated with a fixed ornament, the finishes of the cord in the form of triangles. Judging by the materials of the parking lots, the population was engaged in hunting, fisheries, agriculture, diluted pigs.

At the end of neolithic, the population of the Far East is divided into farmers and traditional gathet-gatherers-fishermen.

German archaeologist, antique archeology specialist.

1851 Born Alexey Parfinovich Sap Sap - historian, archaeologist and local history, professor, one of the initiators of the creation of the Vitebsk scientist Archival Commission, Vitebsk branch of the Moscow Archaeological Institute, Vitebsk Church Archaeological Museum.

Days of death

1882 Died Viktor Konstantinovich Savelyev - Russian archaeologist and numismat, which gathered a significant collection of coins.

Among technical techniques, traditional methods continue to exist and develop traditional methods - most common:

- Bilateral Cross Technique,
- jet retouch,
- grinding,
- sawing,
- drilling.

Intensively developed in the neolitis of sawing technique, which was previously used quite rarely. In the development zones of producing farms, guns associated with agriculture predominate: the liners of the rumped knives and rarely persist bases for them, sickles, hoes and kirks. Where hunters lived - gatherers - fishermen, usually there are a variety of hunting weapons, remnants of fishing gear, woodworking guns - axes, tesla, chisel.

Stone mining.

As a rule, with people find Kirk and Kayel, baskets with stone raw materials, lamps, ceramic vessels, in which water or food reserves took with them. Huge mines more than a kilometer long have been studied near Red Sela in Belarus, wide development of rocks are open on the upper Volga and in the Novgorod region, in Poland, Slovakia. By the end of the Neolithic era, the extraction of high-quality raw materials and its exchange was widespread in many areas.

Improving guns.

In Neolithic, especially in the developed and later, the improvement of hunting weapons, fishing gear and other guns continues. The increased volume of woodworking and mining, demanded the creation of large guns - axes, tesla, bits, stops, kirks, kayl, hammers are very widely spread. Microlithic technician is further developed in the southern regions: the liners were used for the manufacture of hunting weapons, and for sickle and harvested knives. In more northern, forest areas appear large flint tips of copies, bone daggers are continued, equipped with flint liners. The flint tips of the arrows are extremely diverse, leaf-shaped defectious forms are especially widespread.

In addition to the stone raw materials, other materials, especially bone and horn, were widely used for the manufacture of necessary things. Bone tools are numerous and diverse, represented by stable types of products manufactured using sufficiently standard processing techniques. These are the objects of hunting weapons, fishing tackle, utensils, small plastic and decorations. Hunting, judging by the abundance of bone residues of wild animals on neolithic settlements, was very productive. The main hunting weapons were bows of different sizes, arrows and spears. About the bows of neolithus give the representation of their find in the burials. In their manufacture, horny linings could be used, which were attached to the bows additional elasticity and increased the drum force of the boom.

In the developed and later neolithic, many large stone sheets of copies appear, as well as tips from the bone, which may indicate that the spears were very diverse. In addition, there were a variety of bone arrows, among which special forms with a blunt end are known for hunting on a small fur beast. Undoubtedly, there were various traps, cabps, slices. The value of fisheries in neolithic increases. This is evidenced by mass finds of guns related to this type of economic activity. It should be noted unusually skilled manufacture of fishing tackle - these are networks, a variety of hooks and harpunas, tops, complex structures for fishing (stenters). When excavations, numerous wicker and wooden traps applied during fishing, remains of fishing networks and bone needles for knitting were found in the excavations of the Baltic States and Neolithic North. Administrative fishermen used large stone loads in the form of fish with two heads (so-called Janusovoid).

Neolithic was the highest and last stage of the Motherwise Stone Age. Neolithic time is characterized primarily by a significant improvement in the technique of manufacturing stone tools of labor. The most important feature of the new technique is the final finish of the stone weapons by grinding or polishing, as well as in the sawing and drilling of the stone. Using this technique, the man of neolithic time could with great success than to give the storm to the desired form. The guns were made from a variety of rock breeds, including softer than flint, layered and fine-grained, but also flint, as well as hard rocks such as jade or jade, were also treated with new methods. However, the process of polishing the stone was very laborious and relatively lowered the productive qualities of the tools1. Therefore, for the most part, the guns were not polished, and the flint still prevailed in the industry. Old ways of processing stone were widely used by prohibiting, rocking and pressing, while the squeezing retouching technique reached the limit flourishing2. Europe in the era of Neolithic (VI - IV Millennium BC) To obtain high-quality stone rocks, people moved to underground mining of stone. In Neolith, the flint mines, famous in the territory of modern England, France, etc., are known and huge workshops of flint guns, whose products spread very far from their place of production. The onions and arrows were significantly improved. The tips of arrows were given a variety of form depending on the kind of game, for which they were intended. There are new tools for wood processing. Particularly characteristic of the neolithic axes. Neolithic ax facilitated for cutting, neolithic ax facilitated cutting down of forest areas during litter agriculture, and later - treatment of trunks for pile and other buildings, hollowing out boat-monophrys and other works. Many-related assembly were made from the stone, and later with the agriculture of the gun: weightlifiers for stick-diggers in the form of massive discs with a hole in the middle, penda, mortars, grains, hoes, sickles. The hoes were made of bone and horns, and sickles are from a horn with rude flints. One of the most important innovations of the era of Neolithic was the invention of ceramics. The invention of molding and firing of clay dishes allowed man to improve ways of cooking and expand the range food products. The most common in primitive society was the manufacture of vessels by the method of a nappe (the so-called tape, or shroud, technique). From clay, harnessed harnesses with a thickness of about 3-4 cm, which were superimposed on the shape of the spiral and were squeezed when applied and burned, as a result, a coarse clay vessel was obtained. The opening of the firing clay was the discovery of a method for obtaining a fundamentally new, not occurring material - anhydrous silicate, which turns the clay when firing. It is difficult to overestimate not only the economic, but also the historical and cultural significance of this discovery: the man of the stone century realized that the soft clay by firing could turn into a solid, close to the stone, from which the most important tools of labor was still fabricated. The presence of the people of that time of ceramics is so characteristic of Neolithic, that it was even different called the "ceramic age." However, it was found that this name is also inaccurate and cannot characterize the neathist, as well as the name of its "century grinding and polished stone." They were opened (first in the Middle East, and then in Europe) cultures, which, according to other signs, can be called neolithic, but not kneading ceramics. It was introduced quite a regular term "irresisumical neath". Sometimes, along with it, the term "addiction neolithic" is used, less accurate, since there are no clay dishes on some neolithic monuments due to specific local conditions, although in the period of their existence the ceramics has already been invented3. Thus, grinding stone guns and ceramics were characteristic of neolithic signs, but optional, and to determine Neolithic as historical era The most important economic signs were nominated: changes in the methods of mining of nonolithic tribes - the spread of agriculture and cattle breeding. It was a fracture in economic activity, the transition from the farm consumed to the producing. G. Child proposed to determine this fracture The term "Neolithic Revolution" 4, and as his opinion was strengthened, the presence of agricultural and cattle breeding began to be considered the most important sign of Neolithic. It is unlikely that you can recognize the most term "Neolithic Revolution". The process of the transition from the hunting-gathering agricultural economy was stretched for thousands of years, he consisted of many searches, retreats, and from this point of view the word "revolution" is not applicable. As for Europe, here in the neolithic farming and cattle breeding did not become ubiquitous by the main branches of the economy, and many tribes remained hunting and fishing, not knowing agriculture even as an auxiliary industry. We also call such tribes, and not only because their existence is synchronously spreading agriculture and cattle breeding among other tribes. They also had peculiar qualitative differences in the economy: improvement of labor instruments and the use of new techniques in their manufacture, the appearance of ceramics, the differentiation of hunting weapons, the development of an inter-barded metabolism, etc. Thus, the economic criterion for determining neolithic as a historical epoch is also not universal. Recognizing that new phenomena in production life, the transition from consuming to producing farm played a huge (in their consequences - is really a revolutionary) role in the further development of humanity, we must establish the definition of neolithic on the complex of signs, which cannot be eliminated by the appearance of ceramics or New ways of processing stone. At the same time, there is no need to require the presence of all these signs to recognize one or another neolithic culture. The invention of spinning and weaving is a major achievement of the late neolithic. The fiber for the spinning of the threads was first produced from wild plants - nettle, wild cannabis and trees scroll. Then they began to spin the thread from the wool sheep and wild flax. The textile for a long time was produced without a weaving machine, i.e. actually remained weaving. Neolithic fabrics are especially well known for their remnants on pile settlements and fingerprints on the vessels. The invention of the strands of the thread was of great importance for the fishing economy, as it made it possible to produce networks. Significant progress in the neolithic era occurs in the development of means of movement. This era includes numerous finds of dolbed chelny, cheerful, skis and sled. For the era of neolithic, the occurrence of durable settling and significant in the size of settlements is characterized. Types of dwellings are different: long houses are known to the Danube to the Danube, which served, probably housing and big family. Along with them are known in Central Europe And in the Balkans (Caravanovo, Ospsca Magula, Neo Niccoming) Neolithic dwellings of an individual one-room structure. These are rectangular houses (9, 5 m in length and 5 m wide) with the isows made of massive, strengthened posts in the land, supported walls woven from a slotian or made from split trunks of trees and shrouded clay with manure. Such houses were often divided into a porch or senia and one room. In Switzerland and the southern part of Germany, the houses were put on piles, towering over small waters along the shores of the lakes. We have little data for the reconstruction of the social system of the neolithic era. Large collective dwellings or small dwellings (for paired families), closely connected with each other, testify to community management. Ethnographic analogies are forced to assume the existence of a matriarchal-generic building at the tribes of the Neolithic era. Changes in economic life led to changes in ideology, a different attitude of a person to nature in general arose. Primitive mankind began to believe less due to magical actions. The cult of nature begins to develop, personified in the images of various spirits of the animal and plant world, earthly and heavenly Silts. Further development was obtained by the mother-generic cult of hostesses and guardians of a homely hearth. Maybe the cult of female ancestors of the ancestors began to emerge and known for some more developed peoples. Until now, the meaning of neolithic clay figures is not found. It is possible that they still served for various magic rituals, why many of them are found broken. The complication of religious ideas was expressed, in particular, in the development of the funeral cult. In the neolithic, burials prevail in the raid position, sometimes sprinkled with red ocra, occasionally accompanied by pots with food, stone weapons or decorations from shells. Late neolithic appear troves. In the visual art of the neolithic era, there is a transition to the conditional manner of execution, to the deliberate simplification, stylization, image in return for a whole part5. Stylized characters appear in images on ceramics: crosses, swastiki, double-sided secrets, etc. It is possible that the helix is \u200b\u200bone of the leading elements of the ornament - also had some kind of symbolic meaning. The development of productive forces led to a significant increase in the population. Based on some estimates of R. Breidwood and Ch. Rida concerning early agricultural communities in the Middle East, it is believed that as a result of the Neolithic Revolution "Population on globe For 8 thousand years, it has increased blue, and its average density increased from 0.04 on sq.km, as it was in the upper Paleolithic, up to 1 person per square meter. KM6 (6). It happens (using modern terminology) the first in the history of mankind "demographic explosion" 7. The occurrence of agriculture and cattle breeding related to certain conditions of the natural environment, reinforced non-uniformity in historical development mankind. The unevenness of the development of culture and its local originality in different territories, outlined in Paleolith, even more intensified in Neolithic. Archaeological cultures of the era of neolithic are already tens of dozens. The tribes of different countries at different times were at the neolithic stage of development. Most of the neolithic monuments of Europe and Asia dates back to the VIII-III millennia BC. The first such metal was copper9. The spreading period of copper guns is called Eneolyt (Aseus in Latin - Copper, Lithos in Greek - stone) or Halkolite (Halkos in Greek - copper). Essentially, the Eneith with difficulty differs from Neolithic. Copper guns did not push the stone, in the "copper eyelid" most of the guns are made of stone. However, the fact of the appearance of a new substance for the manufacture of weapons - metal, which determined the further progress of the development of equipment was of great importance. Scientists of different countries of Europe have a different attitude towards the term "Eneith" ("Halkolite"). Scientists of the northern countries apply it to highlight the stage of transition from neolithic to the bronze age and include all the cultures in which metal appears, at least imported. In Eastern European countries (Hungary, Czechoslovakia) and in France, there is the concept of "Eneolith", close to the received from us10. In Britain and Scandinavian countries, only the terms "neolithic" and "bronze age", megalithic and other transitional cultures refer to neolithic. In Spain, the term "Eneolith" and the monuments of this period have recently ceased to consume to the next I Mediterranean period of bronze. Given this disconnect, as well as the fact that for historical periodization, the selection of the Eneolyt's era does not have a fundamental importance, I consider in this chapter of the culture of Neolithic and Eneolytic together in many archaeological periodizations that have become classic, for example, a cheeselate, the copper eyelid refers to the first first bronze period. I took only those cultures and monuments to the bronze century, in which no copper, but bronze products appear, perfectly understanding the conventionality and inaccuracy of such a face in the historical aspect.

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