Sociology as science and academic discipline.

Sociology is a science of society, its institutions and processes occurring in society.

Among behavioral sciences, sociology is allocated to the complexity of the subject of study, the huge volume of the material under study, which is primarily due to the complexity of the object under study - modern society. In the system of scientific knowledge of sociology, a special place is assigned. She is the only science studying society as a whole. It is known that sociology is a science of society and the relationship of people. Her applied focus is the creation of a stable, constantly progressive society.

The Sociology object is society in all its environments. The subject of sociology is the processes occurring at the Institutions of the Company.

Object, subject, levels of sociological knowledge, empirical base (base).

The formation and main stages of the development of sociology as science.

Problems of development of social life worried humanity for a long time. Their theoretical development took more ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle.Such works of Plato, as the "state" or "laws", as well as "politics" of Aristotle laid the beginning of the study of individual public institutions, in particular, the states, families, rights. For the first time, antique philosophers turned to the problem of a person's place in society. The authors of the ancient works set the doctrine of a person and society on the theoretical basis.

The first antiquity sociologists are called social philosophers. They, as well as current sociologists, studied the traditions, customs, morals and relationships of people, generalized the facts, built concepts that ended with practical recommendations on how to improve society. Since in the antiquity "society" and "state" did not distinguish, both concepts were used as synonyms.

Causes (prerequisites) of the occurrence of sociology:

1. Antiquity: the emergence of the first problems associated with interaction in groups, associations, etc.

2. Revival, enlightenment: the ability to scientifically predict the behavior of people and the ability to stimulate the development of production.

3. History: Settlement of social conflicts.

4 stages of development of sociology:

1. 60s - 90s 19th century.

Classical sociology develops. The emergence of sociology is associated with the name of the French philosopher Auguste Konta (1798-1857), which introduced the term "sociology" himself. CONT, in the universal classification of sciences, put sociology on the top of the top. Sociology should open universal laws of development and society. It makes its discoveries with the help of four methods: observation, experiment, comparison and historical method. And they should be applied objectively and regardless of the estimated judgments of the researcher. This approach has since called positivism. The essence of the position-based positivism (positive) can be reduced to the following. Sociology should not be engaged in subjective arguments and abstract philosophy. She studies society, and it is the same "organism", as well as organisms of wildlife. Its development also manage objective laws similar to natural laws. Therefore, sociology should be accurate science acting on the pattern of natural "positive" sciences. Posivists advocated an objective, impartial explanation of social processes. Such "explaining sociology" should be free from any ideologies and personal judgments of individuals.

From the most difficult to simple: Sociology - Biology - Chemistry - Physics - Astronomy - Mathematics.

2. The 90s of the 19th century - the 30s of the 20th century.

Pitirim Sorokin (Russian-American sociologist), Tolkot Parsons (American).

The main efforts of American scientists have always focused on solving practical tasks:

· What are the motives (what causes human activity) of human behavior;

· How best to carry out social control and management;

· How to overcome conflicts and maintain stability in society;

· How to ensure the spirit of cooperation of people in production.

3. 30th - 60th year of the 20th century.

4. 60s 20th century - our time.

Modern stage. In the first place is the production of services.

An important aspect of the study of sociology, as well as any other science, is to study the history of its formation and development. Although sociology as science and took shape in the XIX century, but also before that thinkers for many centuries, the problem of society was interested.

There is no doubt that the views of these scientists need consideration, as it has not yet been a single theoretical direction in sociology, and their study may provide significant assistance in this process. Moreover, throwing a rich theoretical material created on the daughting level of sociology would be just stupid.

During antiquitythe first complete picture of the society was given as part of social philosophy Plato ("Laws", "about the state") and Aristotle ("Politicians"). It was Plato for the first time who developed in his work the doctrine of social stratification. It highlights three classs that must exist in an ideal society: rulers philosophers; Warriors and manufacturers: merchants, artisans and peasants.

Aristotle also proposed his theory of social stratification. According to her in society, it is allocated: a rich layer (plutocracy), the middle class and devoid of property class. Moreover, the philosopher notes that for the normal functioning of society, most must be the middle class. It is not difficult to see that in modern times this theoretical position has not lost its relevance.

Close attention to the problems of social stratification of ancient scientists was non-random. The transition from the primitive bureau to the early-grade society was accompanied by the deepening of the processes of social differentiation of the population and the strengthening of the struggle between the various layers of the Company, which reached its apogee in ancient Rome. As for the nature of the knowledge itself, it was in antiquity primarily mythological, idealistic and utopian meaning. The main goal of the ancient socio-philosophical concepts was the desire to improve society, relieve it from internal conflicts and prepare for the fight against the external danger.

IN middle Agesstudies of society have been subject to the strong influence of Christianity and the Roman Catholic Church, which is, due to the very thermal nature. The core of the worldview was a medieval Christian religion. In this regard, it was reorienting the philosophical interest from the values \u200b\u200bof earthly life on the problems of the absolute, supernatural world order.

Social antagonism is translated into the plane of the struggle of two worlds: Divine and earthly, spiritual and material, good and evil. Another important area of \u200b\u200bmedieval thought was Arab public thought. She also developed under the influence of world religion - Islam. The concept of Plato and Aristotle's concept was the second source of formation of Arab social thought.

The central themes were the problems of the state and power. Significant theoretical developments appeared on the issue of the evolution of society and above all of the state. A feature of the Arab political thought was the study of various social communities. So, one of the most prominent thinkers of the Arab Middle Ages Ibn-chaldun persistently studied the behavior of large social groups, making up the "anatomy of human society."

The largest and significant events of the late Western Middle Ages became Revival and Reformation. In their socio-historical entity, they were anti-refortional, earlyburiza phenomena. For this period, such social trends were characteristic such as breaking the feudal and the emergence of early-capitalist relations, the strengthening of the positions of bourgeois passages of society, the secularization of public consciousness.

Of course, all this affected the views of the thinkers of that time. The concept of self-satisfaction, the dignity and autonomy of each individual was developed. However, not all thinkers adhered to this concept. So, N. Makkiavelli , and after and T. Gobbs the antisocacy and the antisocialism of the nature of people, the asocial essence of man. However, in general, the era of the revival and the reformation can be called the epoch of humanism. The main achievement of this period was the appeal to a person, his motivation, its place in the social system.

IN new timethe development of sociology is characterized by replacing the preceding irrational-scholastic views on humans and society that leave leading positions and is replaced by the developing concepts of rational nature focused on the principles of scientific (positive) knowledge.

During this period, the development of public thought was widely developed by the idea of \u200b\u200bthe nras of people, public morality and traditions, the nature of nations and peoples, social facilities ( Voltaire, Didro, Kant and etc.). At the same time, the terms arose, which caused the formation of a categorical and conceptual apparatus of future sociological science: society, culture, classes, structure, etc.

A distinctive feature of this period of public thought was the distruting of the spectrum of theories and concepts. One of these rational social theories has become a generalocial theory developed by K. Marx and F. Engels. .

The founders of this concept believed that the social development process of society is based on materialistic and socio-revolutionary principles.

Another direction of rational theories was positivism. The founders of this approach to first place put the spiritual aspects of social life.

An important trend that determined the development of social thought was the transition from the disciplines of the physico-mathematical cycle to biology, which had a significant impact on social philosophy (evolutionary theory, organity, etc.).

2. Social and theoretical backgrounds of the occurrence of sociology as science

So, sociology as an independent science originated at the end of the 30s - early 40s. XIX century In the Xih century European society is finally and irrevocably joined the path of capitalist development. It was the time of extreme instability of public life.

At this period, it was characterized by the social shocks and crisis of public relations. This was evidenced by the following phenomena: the uprising of Lyon weaves in France, Silesian weaves in Germany, a chartist movement in England, the French revolution of 1848. The specified trends have sharply raised the question of the need to create a generalizing theory, able to predict where humanity moves, which guidelines can rely , gain your place and your role in this process. It was under the influence of social shocks that one of the classical paradigms of sociology was formed - Marxism.

The founders of this flow believed that the concept of scientific socialism, the core of the theory of the socialist revolution, should be such a generalizing theory.

In parallel, the theories of the reformist route of solving social conflict and the development of society are arising. Another important theoretical source of the formation of sociological theories was naturally scientific discoveries (the discovery of the cell, the creation of the theory of evolution).

However, in addition to theoretical premises, the formation of sociology was determined by the creation of a certain methodological base, which allows to study social processes. Methodology and methodology for specific sociological studies were developed mainly by natural resources. Already in the XVII-XVIII centuries. John Graunt and Edmunt Galley methods have developed a quantitative study of social processes. In particular, D. Graunt applied them in 1662 to the analysis of the mortality rate.

And the work of famous physics and mathematics Laplas "Philosophical essays on probability" is built on a quantitative description of the dynamics of population.

In the XIX century, in addition to social shocks and revolutions, there were other public processes that demanded the study precisely with the help of a sociological methodology. Capitalism has actively developed, which led to a rapid increase in the number of urban population due to the outflow of rural. This tendency led to the emergence of such a social phenomenon as urbanization. This, in turn, led to a sharp social differentiation, an increase in the number of poor people, an increase in crime, an increase in social instability. Along with this huge pace, a new interlayer of society was formed - the middle class, which was represented by the bourgeoisie advocating stability and order. The institution of public opinion is strengthened, an increase in the number of public movements speaking for social reforms.

Thus, on the one hand, "Social Diseases of the Company" clearly manifested, on the other, it was objectively matured by those forces that were interested in their "treatment" and could act as customers of sociological studies capable of offering "medicine" from these "diseases" .

Of great importance for the development of the methodology and methodology of empirical sociological research was the work of one of the largest statistics of the XIX century. Adolf ketle "About man and development of abilities, or experience of social life" (1835). Some researchers believe that it is from this work that it is possible to start the time of the existence of sociology or, as A. Ketle, "Social Physics" expressed.

This work helped science on society to move from the speculative elimination of empirically not proven laws of history to the empirical elimination of statistically calculated patterns using complex mathematical procedures.

Finally, before becoming an independent science, sociology was to pass the institutionalization process. This process includes the following steps:

1) the formation of a self-consciousness of scientists specializing in the field of knowledge. Scientists are aware that they have their own specific object and their specific research methods;

2) the creation of specialized periodicals;

3) the introduction of these scientific disciplines into curricula of various types of educational institutions: lyceums, gymnasiums, colleges, universities, etc.;

4) the creation of specialized educational institutions for these knowledge branches;

5) the creation of the organizational form of the combination of scientists of data disciplines: national and international associations.

Sociology has passed all these stages of the process of institutionalization in various countries of Europe and the United States, starting from the 40s. XIX century.

3. Sociological view of O. Cont

The founder of sociology is considered Auguste Cont (1798-1857) - The French thinker, who proposed a project for creating positive science, the essence of which is to study the laws of observed phenomena based on reliable facts and connections.

For contact, sociology is a science studying the process of improving the human mind and his psyche under the influence of public life. He believed that the main method, tool, with which scientists will study society, is observation, comparison (including historical comparison) and experiment. The main thesis of contact is the need for a strict check of those provisions that sociology considered.

With genuine knowledge, he considered those that were obtained not theoretical path, but by social experiment.

The need to occur with the new science contact justified on the basis of the nominated act on the three stages of the development of intellectual development of a person: Theological, metaphysical and positive.

First theological, or fictitiousStage covers antiquity and early Middle Ages (up to 1300). It is characterized by the domination of religious worldview. On the second, metaphysical Stage(from 1300 to 1800) a person refuses to appeal to the supernatural and is trying to explain everything with the help of abstract entities, causes and other philosophical abstractions.

And finally, on the third, positive Stagea person refuses philosophical abstractions and proceeds to the observation and fixation of permanent objective bonds, which are laws that manage reality phenomena. Thus, the thinker contrasted with sociology as a positive science of theological and metaphysical speculation about society. On the one hand, he criticized theologians who considered a person as different from the animal, considered him the creation of God. On the other hand, he reproached metaphysician philosophers in the fact that they understood society as creating a human mind.

The transition between these stages in various sciences occurs independently and is characterized by the emergence of new fundamental theories.

So, the first social law put forward by the right in the framework of the new science was the law on the three stages of human intellectual development. The second became law on the separation and cooperation of labor.

According to this law, social feelings combine only people of one profession. As a result, corporations and internal corporate morals arise, which can destroy the basics of society - feelings of solidarity and consent. This is another argument of the need for such science as sociology.

Sociology should perform the function of the rationale for rational, proper state and public order.

It is the study of social laws that will allow the state to pursue the right policies, which should implement the principles that determine the structure of society that ensure harmony and order. As part of this concept, Contludes in sociology. Main public institutions: a family, a state, religion - from the point of view of their social functions, their role in social integration.

The theory of Sociology CONT divides on two independent sections: social statics and social dynamics, which is not difficult to see the obvious sympathy of a scientist for physics. Social Statisticslearns social ties, phenomena of the public structure. This section allocates the "Collective Creature Structure" and explores the conditions of existence inherent in all human societies.

Social speakermust consider the theory of public progress, the decisive factor of which, in his opinion, acts spiritual, mental development of humanity. The integral picture of society, according to Cont, gives the unity of the statics and dynamics of society.

This is determined by his submission of society as a single, organic whole, all parts of which are interrelated and can only be understood in unity.

Within the framework of the same views, the Contest opposed its concepts of the concept of individualistic theories, which considered society as a product of the contract between individuals.

Based on the natural nature of public phenomena, CTP opposed the revaluation of the role of great people, pointed out the level of political regime for the development of civilization.

The value of the sociological concept of the contact is determined by the fact that on the basis of the synthesis of the achievements of social studies of that period, he first substantiated the need for a scientific approach to the study of society and the possibility of the knowledge of the laws of its development; identified sociology as a special science based on observation; Substituted the laws of the development of history, the general contours of the social structure and a number of the most important institutions of society.

4. Classical sociology of the beginning of XX in

At the beginning of the XX century. In public life there was significant changes, which could not not affect the development of sociological knowledge.

Capitalism entered into its developed stage, which was characterized by revolutions, world wars, unrest in society. All this required the development of new social development concepts.

One of the most prominent representatives of sociology, which influenced the creation of classical sociology became E. Durkheim(1858-1917). The French sociologist was largely relied on the positivistic concept of O. Kont, however, it went much further and put forward the principles of the new methodology:

1) naturalism- the establishment of the laws of society is similar to the establishment of laws of nature;

2) sociologist- Social reality does not depend on individuals, it is autonomous.

Durkheim also claimed that sociology should learn an objective social reality, in particular, that sociology should study social facts. Social fact- This is a public life element that does not depend on the individual and has a "forced force" in relation to it (a way of thinking, laws, customs, language, beliefs, money system). Thus, one can allocate three principles of social facts:

1) Social facts are fundamental, observable, impersonal phenomena of public life;

2) the study of social facts should be independent of "all congenital ideas", i.e., the subjective predisposition of individuals;

3) The source of social facts is in society itself, and not in the thinking and behavior of individuals.

He also suggested using a functional analysis that made it possible to establish a compliance between the social phenomenon, the social institution and a certain need of society as a whole. Another term put forward by the French sociologist is a social function.

Social function- This is the establishment of communication between the institute and the needs of society defined by them as a whole. The function is the contribution of the Social Institute in the stable functioning of society.

Another element of the social theory of Durkheim, uniting it with the concept of contact, is the doctrine of consent and solidarity as the fundamental principles of the social device. Durkheim Following its predecessor, there is a consensus as the basis of society. It highlights two types of solidarity, the first of which historically replaces the second:

1) mechanical solidarity inherent in undeveloped, archaic societies, in which the actions and deeds of people are homogeneous;

2) Organic solidarity based on the division of labor, professional specialization, economic relations between individuals.

An important condition for the solidarity of people is the compliance of their abilities and inclinations performed by them.

At one time with Durkheim, another prominent theorist of sociological thought was ... M. Weber (1864-1920) . However, his views on society were significantly different from the French thinker.

If the latter rehabited the priority to society, Weber believed that only the individual possesses motives, goals, interests and consciousness, the term "collective consciousness" is more like a metaphor than the exact concept. The Company consists of a set of existing individuals, each of which seeks to achieve its own, and not public purposes, since a specific goal is to achieve always faster and less costs are required for this. To achieve individual goals, people are combined into groups.

A tool of sociological knowledge for Weber is the perfect type. Perfect type- This is a mental logic design created by the researcher.

They serve as the basis for understanding human actions and historical events. Society is just such an ideal type. It is intended to mean one term to designate a huge set of social institutions and connections. Another study method for Weber is to search for human behavior motifs.

It was he who first introduced this method into the category of sociological and clearly developed a mechanism for its application. So, to understand the motivation of human action, the researcher must be put in place of this person. Knowing the entire chain of events and how most people do in certain cases, allows the researcher to determine which motives led by a person when they commit a particular social action.

Only together with him, social statistics can be the core of the methodological base of sociology. It was the method of studying the motives of human activity that lay down the theory of social action.

Within the framework of this theory, Weber allocated four types of it: the descriptive, value-rational, traditional, affective.

An important element of social teaching Weber is also theory of values. Values- This is a statement that is associated with a moral, political or any other assessment.

The process of forming Values \u200b\u200bWeber has attributed to the values.

Assignment to values- This is the procedure and selection, and the organization of empirical material.

Considerable attention to Weber paid to the study of the issues of sociology of power. In his opinion, the organized behavior of people, the creation and operation of any social institutions is impossible without effective social control and management. He considered the ideal mechanism for realizing the relationship of power, a specially created management apparatus.

Weber has developed the theory of the ideal bureaucracy, which, according to the thinker, should have the following characteristics:

1) division of labor and specialization;

2) a clearly defined hierarchy of power;

3) high formalization;

4) extravaluity;

5) career planning;

6) division of organizational and personal lives of members of the organization;

7) discipline.

5. Sociology of Marxism. Materialistic understanding of history. Concept of socio-economic formation and social revolution

A completely different, rather than contact, the approach to the understanding of the company put forward the Arctic Border of Marxism Karl Marx (1818-1883) . He jointly with F. Engels (1820-1895) suggested a materialistic theory of explanation of society and public life.

At the same time, they also proceeded in creating their sociological theory from the positivist plants focused on the consideration of social phenomena by analogy with natural.

Materialistic Marxist theory of society was based on a number of fundamental principles:

1) Principle definitions by the social consciousness of public consciousnessthat is the main sign of the materialism of the Marxist sociology;

2) Principle patterns of public development, the recognition of which indicates the presence of certain relations and relations between processes and phenomena in society;

3) Principle determinismrecognition of causal relationships between different social phenomena - a change in social life under the influence of a change in means of production;

4) Principle definitions of all social phenomena with economic phenomena;

5) Principle priority of material social relations before ideological;

6) principle progressive progressive social development, which is implemented through the doctrine of the change of social and economic formations (in natural sciences, these are certain structures related to the unity of the conditions of education, the similarity of the composition, the interdependence of the elements), the basis of which is the method of production, i.e., a certain level of development of productive forces and the corresponding level production relations;

7) Principle naturally historical nature of the development of society, in which two opposite trends were reflected: the pattern of the development of society, on the one hand, and its dependence on the activities of people - on the other;

8) Principle incarnation in the human personality of social qualitiesdefined by a set of social relations;

9) Principle coordination of empirical data and theoretical conclusions "With the historical interest of the era", I.e. the impossibility of abstraction of scientific data from the subjective settings of the researcher. The creators of Marxist sociology themselves were repeatedly recognized that it was very fundamentally politically and ideologically aimed at expressing the interests of the working class.

Another important element of Marxism was the doctrine of the social revolution. According to Marx, the transition from one formation to another is possible only through the revolution, since it is impossible to eliminate the shortcomings of the socio-economic formation by converting it.

The main reason for the transition from one formation to the other are antagonism.

Antagonism- This is an irreconcilable contradiction of the basic classes of any society. At the same time, the authors of the materialistic concept indicated that these contradictions are the source of social development. An important element of the theory of social revolution is the conditions under which its commitment becomes possible: it is not performed until they mature the necessary social, primarily material, prerequisites.

The doctrine of the social revolution in the Marxist sociology was not only theoretical, but also practical. So, she was closely related to revolutionary practice.

Marxist sociology actually develops the framework of science in the generally accepted sense, it becomes a whole, independent ideological-practical movement of the masses, the form of public consciousness in a number of countries that adhere to and adhered to socialist orientation.

According to the Marxist vision of social progress, capitalism is represented by the final stage of the development of the exploitation society, the basis of which is private property.

The completion of this stage and the transition to the new one is carried out in the Marxist theory as a result of the proletarian revolution, which should lead to the elimination of the class division of the Company as a result of the population of all property. As a result of the social revolution, a new type of society appears, in which there is only one class - the proletariat. Development in such a society is based on the free development of each of its member.

The undoubted merit of Marxist sociology is the development of a number of major categories of science, "Property", "Class", "State", "Public Consciousness", "Personality", etc. In addition, Marx and Engels developed a significant empirical and theoretical Material in the study of the modern company, applying a system analysis to his study.

In the future, Marxist sociology is more or less successively and successfully developed numerous students and followers of Marx and Engels: in Germany - F. Mering, K. Kautsky and others, in Russia - G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin and others, in Italy - A. Laboral, A. Gramshi and others. Theoretical and methodological importance of Marxist sociology is preserved to this day.

6. "Formal" Sociology School of Zimmel, F. Tennis and V. Pareto

The first representative of the "formal" school of sociology is considered Zimmel (1858-1918) . The name of this school was given precisely on the works of this German researcher who offered to study the "pure form", which records the most stable, universal features in social phenomena, and not empirically diverse, transient. The definition of the concept of "pure form", closely related to the concept of "content", possibly through the disclosure of those tasks that, according to Zimmel, it must be performed.

They can be distinguished three:

1) correlates each other several contents in such a way that these contents form unity;

2) coined form, these content are separated from other contents;

3) the form structure structures the contents that it mutually relates to each other.

Thus, it is not difficult to notice that the Zimmelev's "net form" is closely related to the Weber's ideal type - both are the tool for the knowledge of society and the method of sociology.

Another connection between the theories of Zimmel and Weber is the priority of the human factor in them, but they use various methods for this.

Thus, the use of the Winner of the concept of "clean form" allows sociologist to exclude from the process of studying human actions irrational factors: feelings, emotions and desires.

If we exclude these psychological acts from the subject area of \u200b\u200bsociology, it becomes possible to investigate an exclusively sphere of values \u200b\u200b- the area of \u200b\u200bthe ideal (or ideological to define the most Zimmel). Moreover, the sociologist must learn not the content of the ideal, but insulated values. This allows you to get a "building material" to create the geometry of the social world.

The formal-geometric method of Zimmelus allowed to allocate society at all, institutions in general and construct such a system in which sociological variables are exempt from morality evaluation judgments.

Based on this, you can specify that pure form- This is a relationship between individuals, considered separately from psychological aspects.

Social type- This is a combination of the essential qualities of a person who become characteristic of it with the power of its inclusion in a certain kind of relationship.

Other German sociologist also proposed her social typology F. Tennis (1855-1936).

According to this typology, two types of human relations can be distinguished: community(community), where personal and related relations are dominant, and societywhere formal institutions prevail.

According to the opinion of the sociologist, each social organization combines the qualities of both communities and society, therefore, these categories become criteria for the classification of social forms.

Tennis allocated three such social forms:

1) social relations- social forms that are caused by the possibility of ongoing mutual rights and duties of participants and are objective;

2) social groups- social forms arising from social relations and characterized by a conscious association of individuals to achieve a certain goal;

3) corporation- Social uniform with a clear internal organization.

Another major component of the sociological concept of tennis was the doctrine of social norms. Sociologist also classified them into three categories:

1) social norms- norms based on the general agreement or the Convention;

2) legal norms- norms defined by the normative power of facts;

3) moral norms- norms established by religion or public opinion.

Another representative of formal sociologists V. Pareto (1848-1923) considered society as a system that is constantly in a state of gradual violation and equilibrium recovery. The second fundamental link of the sociological concept of the researcher was the emotional sphere of a person, considered by the author as the basis of the social system.

Based on this, Pareto has developed the theory of residues that the researcher shares into two classes. First class is the remains of the "combinations instinct". The remains of this class underlie all social changes and they correspond to the psychological tendency of a person to combine various things. The second class includes remnants of "constancy of aggregates"Expressing the tendency to maintain and save once formed links.

It is the opposition to these types of residues is the cause of the struggle of trends towards the preservation and change of public life.

Another important element of Pareto's teaching was a classification of social action. Sociologist allocated two types of social action depending on the motivation of factors:

1) logical social actionis carried out on the basis of the mind and regulated standards;

2) an illogical social actionit is characterized by ignorance of people of their committing objects of ties between phenomena.

The sphere of attention Pareto also included the processes of belief. Exploring this phenomenon, the Italian sociologist allocated its following types:

1) "Simple assurances": "It is necessary, because it is necessary", "it is so, because it is so";

2) arguments and reasoning based on credibility;

3) appeal to feelings, interests;

4) "verbal evidence."

Another phenomenon of public life studied Pareto, has become elite. The thinker himself identified it as a chosen part of the population, who participates in the management of society. Pareto pointed out that the elite is not constant and the process of its shift occurs in society - the circulation of elite.

Createness Elit- This is the process of interaction between members of a heterogenic society, as a result of which a change in the composition of the chosen part of the population occurs by entering it by members from the lowest system of society, which meet the two main requirements for the elite: the ability to convince and the ability to apply the power where necessary. The mechanism through which the ruling elite is updated in peacetime is social mobility.

7. American Sociology: The main stages of development

So, at the first stage of the formation of sociology (XIX - the beginning of the XX centuries.) The center of the development of science was three countries: France, Germany and England. However, already in the 20s. XX century The Center for Sociological Research is shifting in the United States. A huge role in this process was played by considerable help of the state and support for most universities. This was the main difference from European sociology, which was mainly developed on an initiative basis. In the US, sociology initially developed as university science.

The world's first Sociological Faculty, assigning doctoral degrees, originated in 1892 at the University of Chicago. Another feature of American sociology has become its empirical character.

If in Europe, sociologists tried to create universal theories, reflecting all aspects of public life, and used social philosophical methods of knowledge, in the United States in 1910 more than 3 thousand empirical studies were conducted in the country.

The main subject of these studies was to study the socialization process of people, most of which were migrants from Europe, to new social conditions. The most famous of these studies was the work F. Knownetsky "Polish peasant in Europe and America". It was in this work that the main methodological principles of specific sociological studies were developed, which preserve their relevance to this day.

Another subject of empirical sociological research in the United States was labor and management issues. The main researcher in this area became Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) . This scientist first conducted a comprehensive research on enterprises and created the world's first system of scientific organization of labor.

Based on his research, Taylor concluded that the disadvantage of various production and organizational innovations themselves, as they rest in the so-called "human factor".

In the works of Taylor first received the development of the term " restrictionism" Restrictionism is a conscious restriction of working outage, which is based on the mechanism of group pressure. Based on all these data, Taylor has developed many practical recommendations to optimize the production process that are enormous popular.

Another researcher, significantly enriched the theoretical and empirical material of labor and management sociology, became E. Mao. .

Under his leadership in the conditions of the most severe economic crisis in the countries of the United States and Western Europe, hotorn experiments were held. As a result of these studies, it was found that the main impact on labor productivity is provided by psychological and socio-psychological conditions of the labor process. On the basis of hotorn experiments, sociologists were developed doctrine "Human Relations". As part of this doctrine, the following principles were formulated:

1) a person is a social being focused on the surrounding and included in the context of group interaction;

2) a rigid hierarchy and a bureaucratic organization are unnatural of human nature;

3) To increase productivity, it is necessary primarily orientation to meet the needs of people;

4) Individual remuneration must be supported by favorable moral incentives.

The most famous sociological school was the Chicago school, which emerged on the basis of the first in the United States, the Department of Sociology, organized since the creation of a new university in Chicago. The founder and first dean of the Faculty of Sociology of the University of Chicago Albion Small (1854-1926) . Another "father" of American sociology became William Graham Samner (1840-1910) .

These researchers were the first to approved liberalism as the main doctrine of sociological school. Significant attention to Small and Samner paid a study of customs, traditions and morals of peoples. Until now, the idea of \u200b\u200bSunner on the mechanisms of the formation of customs, their role in the development of society and strengthening the relationship between generations; The development of the concepts "We are Group" and "they are a group", "ethnocentrism" as the foundations of intergroup interaction.

The leaders of the second generation of the Chicago school were The park and Bergess . The main theme of the study of these scientists was the problems of urbanization, family, social disorganization. A new term "Social Distance" was introduced by a park to scientific turnover.

Social Distance- This is an indicator of the degree of proximity or alienation of individuals or social groups. Another achievement of these studies was the development of the concept of marginalness.

Another distinction of American sociology from European is its relationship with social psychology. Instead of the philosophical substance, the Americans made focus on behavior and action. They were not interested in what was hidden inside the mind and that is not amenable to accurate measurement. They were attracted by what is manifested in the so-called open behavior. So appeared behaviorism(from the English. Behavior - Behavior), subordinate to himself in the first half of all social sciences (economics, psychology, sociology, political science).

Positive in biheviorism methodology is the desire for the rigor and accuracy of sociological research. However, the absolutization of behavioral aspect, external forms of research and quantitative methods of analysis leads to a simplified look at social life.

At the border of sociology and social psychology, the concept of needs was created Abraham Masuel . The scientist divided all human needs for basic (in food, reproduction, security, clothing, housing, etc.) and derivatives(In justice, well-being, the procedure and unity of social life).

Maslow created a hierarchy of needs from lower physiological to higher spiritual. The needs of each new level become relevant, i.e. by pressing, requiring satisfaction only after previously satisfied. Hunger drives man until he is satisfied. After it is satisfied, other needs come into effect as behavioral motifs.

8. Features of the historical development of Russian sociology

Sociological thought in Russia was initially part of global sociology. This was determined by the fact that the sociology penetrated into Russia in the 40s. XIX century From the West and soon acquired a specific nature on the basis of the characteristics of the historical development of society. The development of sociological thought in Russia in the period from the 40s to the 60s. XIX century can be described as substociological stage.

At this stage, the program field of Russian sociology was formed.

Further development of sociology in Russia can be divided into several stages: the first stage is 60-90s. XIX century, the second is the beginning of the XX century. - 1918, the third - 20-30s. XX century, fourth - from the 50s. XX century to the present day.

1st stage (1860-1900).This period of development of sociological thought is associated with the concepts of such thinkers like populists, representatives of the subjective school, naturalistic direction, psychological direction (Kovalevsky, Plekhanov). The development of sociology during this period of time was largely due to social changes: the complication of the social structure of the Russian society, the rapid growth of urban classes, differentiation in the peasant environment, the increase in the number of the working class. At this stage, the basis of sociological thought was the positivistic theory of O. Kont, whose ideas in Russia knew well and developed. In 1846, SERNO-SOLONEVICH, reflecting on the composition of social sciences, raised the question: does the current state of knowledge of the appearance of new science, which will explore the laws of the development of society as natural science examines nature? As a result, in the mid-60s. XIX century The term "sociology" appears in the Russian literature, which was considered as the highest science based on the synthesis of scientific knowledge and exploring universal social laws.

Initially, the accumulation of sociological information contributed to Zemstvo statistics: surveys of peasants, studying their lives.

At this stage, there was a formation of various directions and schools of sociological thought, which largely relied on the achievement of Western sociology, but had an important impact on the specifics of Russian concepts. Among them you can select the following:

1) geographical (L. I. Mesnikov) - The progress of society is determined primarily by natural, in particular, water resources. So, according to this theory, in the history of the development of societies, the main role was played by those rivers that were halo of their habitat;

2) Organizmism (A. I. Stononin) - society is a complex organism that operates on the basis of natural laws;

3) psychologism (P. L. Lavrov, N. K. Mikhailovsky) - the initial point of sociality is psychophysical relations, and a person is put to the Center for Study;

4) Marxism (G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin) .

2nd stage (1900-1920). At this stage of its development, Russian sociology passes the process of institutionalization. The following events were the manifestations of this process: the opening in 1912 of the social section at the historical faculty of St. Petersburg University; Education in 1916 of the Russian Sociological Society named after M. M. Kovalevsky; Introduction in 1917 a scientific degree in sociology; Creation of the Department of Sociology in Petrograd and Yaroslavl Universities; In 1920, the first Faculty of Social Sciences with the Sociological Department opens in Petrograd University. A few years before the revolutionary events of 1917, scholars and educators enthusiasts, sociology under various pretexts manage to include as a subject of studying in the programs of some secondary educational institutions, various collections, courses.

In the last decade, he was read on the revolution on sociology on top women's courses, in the biological laboratory of P. F. Lesgaft. The theoretical concepts of this period were characterized by the spread of neopositisism, combining functionalism and empirical studies. Bright representatives of this period of sociological thought were G. P. Green, A. S. Zalovsky, K. M. Takhtarev, A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky and etc.

At the same time, peculiar Christian sociology in line with religious philosophy (N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov) , not accepting nestositivism and behaviorism. Along with the development of theoretical issues, empirical sociological research was unfolded. The central place in them is occupied by studies on the social and socio-psychological problems of labor and life of workers and peasants.

3rd stage (1920-1930 - e.).In the third stage, the development of theoretical sociology continues. In the 20s, extensive sociological literature is published: P. A. Sorokin ("Basics of Sociology" in 2 volumes, 1922), V. M. Tailov ("The basics of sociology. The doctrine of the laws of the social process", 1928), N. A. Bukharin ("Theory of historical materialism, a popular textbook of Marxist Sociology", 1922), M. S. Salynsky ("Social life of people. Introduction to Marxist Sociology", 1923) and others.

The main focus of these works was to identify the ratio of the history of the Russian sociological thought and sociology of Marxism, in the desire to formulate the original sociology of Marxism and determine its place in the Marxism system. After a brief period of academic freedoms during the NEP years, a reaction is established, and a number of prominent sociologists and philosophers (P. Sorokin, N. Berdyaev) are forced to leave Russia forever.

The term "sociology" begins to acquire a negative tint and used mainly due to the criticism of the "bourgeois" sociology. Many magazines and departments are closed, a considerable number of sociologists, economists and philosophers are subjected to repression and reference to the camp. Exploray In 1922, a large group of scientists from Russia immediately affected the reduction of the level of national sociology.

It is during this period that the scientific activity of one of the most prominent representatives of world sociological thought begins Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokina (1889-1968) .

This thinker born in Russia made a huge contribution to the development of sociology, which can be compared unless with the contribution of Weber.

Sorokin has developed the theory of stratification and social mobility. P. Sorokin considers the world as a social universe, that is, some space filled with non-stars and planets, but social relationships and relations of people. They form a multidimensional coordinate system, which determines the social position of any person.

4th stage (from the 1950s). During this period, the revival of interest in sociology begins. Sociologists of the 50-60s, or, as they were later called, the sociologists of the first generation, solved the difficult task - not only to revive, but also almost re-create this science.

In many ways thanks to the work B. A. Grushina, T. I. Zaslavskaya, A. G. Zazevenzlova, Yu. A. Levada, G. V. Osipova, V. A. Yadova et al. In the country, the scale of sociological research was significantly expanded.

In the middle of 1960, the first sociological institution was created - the Department of Sociological Research at the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Laboratory of Sociological Research under the Leningrad State University.

Thus, it is not difficult to see that at this stage, sociology acquires mainly applied empirical character.

The subject of sociological research was the social structure of society, the budget of the time of workers, social problems of labor, education, families.

However, the data obtained are not combined, the medium-level theories are not created on them.

The Department of Sociology begins across the country, training aids are being created on this discipline. Sociology passes the process of institutionalization, the result of which the emergence of the sociological faculty of Moscow State University becomes the first after a long break by the sociological faculty in the USSR.

To date, there is a huge number of sociological faculties in Russia, which are produced by high-class sociologists.

Sociological studies are conducted in large quantities.

There are public opinion research centers that conduct sociological research throughout Russia and create numerous reports and projections based on their data.

2. Stages of the development of sociology

XIX century Named the "golden age" of classical sociology: the formation of new approaches to the study of society - positivism (O. Kont, Spencer) and Marxism (K. Marx, F. Engels) was developed, the theoretical science was developed, the first scientific schools and directions were created, born Sectoral sociological knowledge. Conditionally, this time is called the first stage of the development of sociology and dating its 40-80s. Xgh century

Attokov Sociology was representatives of social philosophy, political economics, mathematics and empirical social studies. Thanks to them, a gradually crystallized an understanding of society as a system of interactions of people forming the fundamental social life of the structure, which interdepend each other, function and develop under objective laws. Since these laws were not studied before any science and because without their knowledge it is impossible to do in managing public life, the need for the creation of new science on society - sociology arose. The first attempts to know these laws showed that this requires new methods of thinking, special theories and methods for obtaining sociological information.

The evolution of sociology from the 90s. XIX century up to the 20s. Xx in. At the second stage, it was associated with the development of methods of sociological thinking and the formation of a categorical apparatus. Professionalization and institutionalization of sociology, the creation of profile periodics, the increase in the number of new scientific schools testified to the accession of science in the strip of his heyday. But sociology became more complicated and acquired a pluralistic character. The positivist doctrine O. Konte and the city of Spencer found its development in the works of the French scientist Emil Durkhey-Ma (1858-1917) - the author of a functional theory based on the analysis of the functions of social institutions. At the same time, representatives of the Antiposivistic approach to the study of society - humanitarianism also stated themselves. The Social Action School of the German Sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920), which was the founder of the "understanding" sociology, which, according to him, understands the social action and is trying to explain its current and results. In the development of sociology, this period was a period of crisis of classical science and the search for a new world view.

20-60s. XX century Characterized by stabilization. This is the beginning of the rapid development of empirical sociology, widespread and improving methods and techniques of specific sociological research. The Sociology of the United States, who was trying to correct the "imperfections" of society with the help of empirical research. The most significant theoretical concept of this stage was the structural functionalism of the sociologist Tolkott Parsons (1902-1979), which made it possible to submit society as a system in all its integrity and contradictions. T. Parson enriched the theoretical development of contact, Spencer, Dykereum. The US society was represented by the new theories of the humanitarian sense. The follower of M. Weber Professor Charles Wright Mills (1916-1962) created a "new sociology", which posted the beginning of critical sociology and sociology in the United States.

The current stage in the development of sociology, which began from the mid-1960s, is characterized by both the expansion of the range of applied research and the revival of interest in theoretical sociology. The main question was the question of the theoretical basis of empiricism, which caused in the 1970s. "Theoretical explosion." He led to the process of differentiation of sociological knowledge without the authoritarian influence of any one theoretical concept. Therefore, the stage is represented by the variety of approaches, concepts and their authors: R. Merton - "average theory meaning", J. Homans - the theory of social exchange, Garfinkel - Ethnomethodology, MFA and G. Bloomer - Theory of Symbolic Interactionism, Code Theory Conflict and others. One of the directions of modern sociology is the study of the future, covering the total long-term prospects for future land and humanity.

2. Prerequisites for sociology

3. The main stages of the development of sociology

Double Stage:

- Sociological Teaching Plato and Aristotle

The main socio-political theories of the new time: a look at society, a person and history N. Makiavelli, T. Gobbs, J. Vicco

Philosophy of the Epoch of Enlightenment: a look at the Society of J. Lokka, W Montesquieu, Zh. Rousseau, French materialists

Classic development phase:

- French sociological school.

- German Sociology School.

- Early stage of the development of American sociology: L. Ward, W. Samner, F. Gidding, A. Small.

- Modern stage of sociology.

1. Refriization criteria and stages of development of sociology

Three types of criteria periodization of sociology development of sociology can be distinguished: temporary (19-20VV), spatial (continents), meaningful (schools, currents, paradigms).

Attempts to periodize the history of sociology. Repeatedly undertaken in foreign and domestic science, rarely took into account all these criteria in their combination and unity. In some works (even in textbooks on the history of sociology), no periodization is generally not given and the question of its criteria is not raised, which, of course, does not contribute to the systematization of the accumulated material.

Usually in works on the history of sociology, attention was focused on some one, most often temporary or substantive criteria. At the same time, various criteria could be based on each rejoduction. French scientists Sh.A. Kuen and F. Gresl in the work "History of Sociology" allocate five stages of the development of sociological science:

The first to 1917;

Second - 1918-1945;

Third - 1945-1968;

Fourth - 1969-1990s;

Fifth - from the beginning of the 1990s.

As the basis of such adhesion, there is not a table of meaningful process that occurred in the most sociological science, how many large political events that have had a worldnowledge: revolution, war, socio-political movements and performances that seriously influenced the development of society.

The periodization of the history of sociology is much more accurate, which is based on an analysis of the internal development, content, significant changes that occur as sociological knowledge develops, and its rod problems are revealed. Among them can be called an understanding of society, its relationship with social groups and personalities, the question of the subject of sociology, etc. Therefore, one of the most relevant and "cross-cutting" is the problem of the ratio of theoretical and empirical sociology.

The two main phases of the development of sociology are distinguished. The first covers 19V (since the contrary) and the beginning of the 20th century. (Until the 1920s), the second is the entire 20th century. The first was the name of the classic (stage of the emergence and development of classical sociology), the second - modern (stage of development of modern sociology). The first is associated with the existence, mainly theoretical sociology, the second - along with the continuation of this process, the emergence and development of empirical sociology.

Theoretical sociology is the area of \u200b\u200bthe development of theoretical knowledge, the creation of common and special sociological theories.

Empirical sociology - receiving factual knowledge based on the study of specific social problems with the help of appropriate methods.

It is clear that calling the second stage of modern, we risk, be incomprehensible. Is it possible at the turn of the 20-21th century on the turn of 20-21 centuries that the processes in sociology occurring 80 years ago should be considered as a modern stage of its development.

Regarding the boundaries between the classical and modern stages of the development of sociology, there is another, also common in the global and domestic history of sociology. So, V.P. Kultygin believes that the modern stage covers the post-war (meaning the Second World) and the new sociology. Rubbet between periods end 1960 x. gg The length of the classic stage is determined by the emergence of sociology in the middle of the 19th century and completion during World War II. At the same time, it includes the earliest periods of early and late sociological classes. Rubage between them is the First World War and October Revolution in Russia. It is the beginning of the 1920s. I marked the transition of society into a new vengeance caused by the need to understand it with the help of not traditional sociological theories, primarily with the help of epirical studies. Social groups began to be studied, local questions of the life of the city, production, ethical relations, education, etc. Thanks to such research, the branches of sociology began to occur. The strengthening of the study of subjective phenomena from the point of influence on their social processes and identifying their social nature.

It seems that for sociology of the 20th century. The central link, and still some time at 21 c. There will be a relationship of theoretical and empirical sociology. The fruitful development of sociological studies, many decades rests on the question of their validity, evidence, both on theoretical and empirical levels.

Temporary criterion		Spatial criterion. Personalia
Early classic period: 1830-1880s.	Positivism Naturalism, organicism: Social Darwinism racial anthropological direction geographical area	Cont (France), Spencer (England), Kovalevsky (Russia) Humplovich, Ratzenhofer (Austria), Small, Samner (USA), Stonetin, Lilienfeld. Gobino, flying (France) Gun (England), Ratzel, Househofer (Germany), Reclement (France), Messenikov (Russia)
	Marxism	Marx, Engels (Germany), Plekhanov, Ulyanov / Lenin (Russia)
Late classic period: 1880-1910-1920 -	Psychological Direction: Evolutionism psychology of Peoples Group Psychology Instinctivism Inactivityism	Ward, Gidding (USA), de Roberti, Kareyev (Russia) WUNDT (Germany) TARD, LEBON (France) Mak-Dougall (England) Kuli (USA)
	Classical German Sociology: Formal Sociology understanding sociology	Tennis, Zimmel (Germany) Weber (Germany)
	Positivism and neopositivism	Durkheim (France), Pareto (Italy), Sorokin (Russia)

Modern stage.The current stage is connected, firstly, with the formation and development of empirical sociology; secondly, with the sectoral differentiation of sociological science; third, with the emergence of new schools, intensives, paradigms and theories in comparison with those that were in the 19th century; Fourth, with the desire to combine theoretical and empirical sociology in a certain way; Fifth, with searching for ways to go from the classic theories to the side of the postclacial.

In the boundaries of the current stage of the development of sociology, several periods can be distinguished.

The first has to for 1920-1930s. and is characterized by a powerful onset of sociological empiricalism.

Second- 1940-1960s. - It is determined by a significant increase in theoretical and methodological constructions, which has become a kind of response to the dominance of empirical tradition.

The third- 1970s - mid 1980s; At this time, attempts are made, on the one hand, to combine theoretical and empirical research, micro- and macrosociology, on the other - to bring science to a new level of theoretical understanding of processes (both in real life and in sociology itself).

Fourth - covers the last 20 years and allows you to detect fundamentally different trends that are integrative. New movements, theories and paradigms in sociology give reason to talk about the beginning of the period of "postclassical" constructions.

Each science arises as an answer to the needs of social development. Initially, individual elements of science are emerging and developing and developing, then its name explains the essence and maintenance.

As already mentioned first, the term "sociology" was introduced by a French scientist, a student of the famous Socialist-Utopistist K. Saint-Simon Auguste Count in 1839.

Many ideas of future sociological science arose long before her immediate appearance. The individual elements of this science were traced already in the writings of the ancient Chinese philosophers, such as Confucius, as well as the Ancient Indian, Assyrian and Egyptian thinkers as ideas of social science. Then they can be traced in the writings of the ancient thinkers of Plato, Aristotle, Polybia. In the Middle Ages, certain sociological views are traced in the works of Arab scientist Ibn-chalduna, founder of "social physics", English philosopher Gobbs, political thinker and writer N. Makiavelli. Analysis of the works of French enlighteners of the XVIII century. - Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Didro, Gelving, Golbachas well as earlier and later utopists - T. Mora, T. Campars, K. Saint-Simon. Sh. Fourier and R. Owen - Also show the presence of certain problems associated with the development of society on any historical period of time.

But all social ideas expressed and formulated before the XIX century were the forerunner of sociology, its origins, but not the most science itself. The emergence of sociology as science reflects a new quality level in the development of society, when each person becomes the subject of the historical process, the Great Social Shocks associated with bourgeois revolutions in England, Holland and, most importantly, in France, were held in the world. . The last revolution proclaimed the principles of freedom, equality and fraternity of people regardless of the social situation, origin, religion, nationality. Thanks to her, the concept of "society" appeared.

Due to the comprehension of the new role of a person in all horsesome - economic, social, political and cultural, many questions appeared, which it was necessary to give answers. Therefore, in the XIX century. There were various concepts, seeking to explain the existing reality.

New Science - Sociology began to build, abandoning the chronological description of events, based on the conclusions of natural sciences and anatizing the facts, and not only based on philosophical postulates and ideological ideas.

The first stage in the development of sociology is the stage of formation of the scientific basis of sociology, which includes the ideas of a number of brilliant thinkers who have developed, who have completed and enriches the sociological knowledge of new approaches and the search for new methods of knowledge and achieve truth. Created by O. Const (1798-1857), sociological theory consisted of "social statics" and "social speakers" and was associated with analyzing social life, the main factor of which he considered mental and spiritual development. He likened the science on the Social Physics Society, so that the scientist could operate with specific facts, data and relationships, as the natural test.

Other direction - Socialobiological concept of English philosopher Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), which opened the basic law of social development, considers society by analogy with a biological organism, as something that is unavailable to the aggregate of individual elements. He was influenced by ideas

Ch. Darwin And supported the idea of \u200b\u200b"natural selection" in relation to public life: they survive those who are more adapted to the transformations of fate. Criticism of the concept of Spencer by representatives of the psychological school L. Gumploch (1838-1909), Garda (1843-1904), G. Lebo (1841-1931), as well as a well-known economist J. S. Mill (1806-1873) led to the creation of a socio-psychological concept of sociology. These scientists refused to biologize society and tried to overcome the limited evolutionism by analyzing social and psychological phenomena and attempts to explain the role of the personality in the historical process.

The geographical direction in sociology is presented E. Rekku(1830-1905) and F. Ratzamm (1844-1904), exaggerating the impact of the natural and geographical environment on the political life of society. However, they managed to trace the patterns of the influence of natural conditions on the development of peoples and their cultures in different geographical conditions, which was further used in geopolitics.

One of the main achievements of Sociology of the XIX century. It became the economic direction, or the Marxist branch of sociology, named by its founder of K. Marx (1818-1883), which exists in the world for more than 150 years. Together with F. Engels. (1820-1895) He formulated a set of ideas on the basis of a materialistic understanding of the historical understanding of the story, which served as the basis for the formation of the formation development of social relations. Marks and Engels were special importance to the structural structure of each society consisting of the basis of productive forces and production relations and add-ons - political, legal, religious and philosophical views. Marx refused to reasoning about society in general and gave a scientifically substantiated picture of the capitalist society and capitalist progress.

Mainly sociologists of the XIX century. They held general issues related to the structure of society, laws and trends of its development.

The second stage in the development of sociology is the first half of the XX century, when the ideas about the fact that the subject and object of sociology is society in integrity. This is the stage of development of classical foreign sociology.

Important contribution at this stage Emil Durkheim (1858-1917) - the founder of the French sociological school. He believed that only social facts that reflect social reality should be the subject of sociology.

He interpreted the reality (laws, customs, rules of behavior) as an objective, independent of humans. In addition, he considered the behavior of social groups, highly appreciating the role of group consciousness called collective. The doctrine of the Society of Durk-Game has formed the basis for many modern sociological theories, and above all the structural and functional analysis.

Another scientist Georg Zimmel (1858-1918) proposed his concept of separating sociology from other sciences on society and determined its task to study patterns inaccessible to other social sciences. In his opinion, sociology studies the pure forms of "sociacin" (communication), which can be systematized, to psychologically substantiate and describe in terms of their historical development.

A sociological theory of M. Weber (1864-1920), a German economist, historian and a sociologist, who, under the influence of ideas K. Marx and F. NietzscheAt the same time, I developed my own sociological theory, which currently has a decisive impact on all scientific sociological theories and the activities of sociologists in all countries of the world.

One of the central places of his theory was the allocation of social action that explains the behavior of an individual in society, which is the cause and consequence of a system of complex relationships between people. At the same time, the society according to Weber represents a combination of existing individuals, each of which seeks to achieve its own goals. At the same time, the important aspect of Weber's creativity can be considered by the study of basic relations in social associations, primarily in relation to power. He introduced the concept of a rational bureaucracy as an artificially created organization management system, extremely rational, controlling and coordinating activities of its employees.

In the works of M. Weber not only quite clearly defined the subject of sociology as science, but also laid the foundations of its development both in theoretical and in practical terms.

Among the achievements of other prominent representatives of the second stage in the development of sociological thought, it should be noted the sociological system of the Italian economist of the marginistical school Wilfred Pareto (1848-1923), who liked the sociology to the exact sciences and offering to use only empirically reasonable measurements, strictly observing the logical rules during the transition from observations to generalizations. It formed the basic requirements of empirical sociology, which was distributed in the XX century. The same oppression paid great attention to such scientists as V. Dielte, W. Moore, K. Devis.

Very important for sociology had a scientific heritage of one of the representatives of Russian and at the same time world sociological thought of Pitirim Sorokina (1880-1968) (since after the 1917 revolution, he emigrated from Russia and was considered to be American scientists later). He proposed and substantiated the conceptual apparatus of this science in terms of integral sociology, introducing such concepts as social phenomena, social control, social behavior, historical process and its trend.

The major scientific achievement of Sorokina was the development of the theory of social stratification, which is based on the economic, political and professional statuses of people.

Another scientist of this period was L. von Visa (1876-1969), the author of the labor "Sociology system" dedicated to the study of general forms of social phenomena. He focused on the knowledge of "social" in the framework of the forms of relationships of people like "I - You" and "I - We".

Thus, the classical sociology of the first half of the XX century. In the face of these scientists and their followers, it was finally formed as a science, determining their place and appointment in the system of other social sciences, and laid the foundations for its further development and differentiation of social knowledge.

The third stage was the development of modern overseas sociology, i.e. Sociology XX century.

First, the sociology went "Washir" and "deep into" gradually covering the countries of Eastern Europe, Asia, Latin America, Africa, and today there is not a single country in which sociological science would be presented in one way or another. At the same time, it covered new and new areas of knowledge (health, demography, urbanization) and gave a new sociological meaning of those areas that were developed by other sciences (communication, conflicts, infrastructure). At the same time, the institutionalization of sociological knowledge was originated in the form of opening and organizing special departments, faculties, the organization of research centers and institutions. The profession "sociologist" appeared on which the demand for the labor market.

After World War II in 1946, the International Sociological Association was founded, which is based on the beginning of the XXI century. held 15 world congresses and contributed to the transformation of sociologists into an important category of leaders who contribute to the development of social knowledge.

We will list briefly the main directions and their representatives that determine the face of modern sociology.

• 1. Nezozenism - theoretical and methodological orientation in sociology, based consciously or unconsciously into the philosophical provisions of logical positivism. Its basic principles:
• 1) social phenomena are subject to laws common to natural and socially historical (naturalism);
• 2) methods of sociological research should be as accurate, strict and objective, as methods of natural science (science);
• 3) "Subjective aspects" of human behavior can be explored only through open behavior (behaviorism);
• 4) scientific concepts should be determined by the operationalism (operativeism);
• 5) social phenomena should be described and quantified (quantification);
• 6) Sociology as science should be exempted from value judgments and communications with ideology (methodological objectivity). Nezozhenism is not a single school, but rather some overall orientation, the supporters of which are called themselves by representatives of the "scientific sociology" or "naturally scientific" directions in sociology. Arriving originally on the basis of the Vienna Mug
• ("Physicalism" and "The Concept of Empirical Sociology" O. Neirazt), this course, abandoning its initial Rigorism, was then a significant impact on American sociology. Main representatives D. Landberg, S. Chepin, S. Dodd and etc.
• 2. Structural functionalism. The foundations of this direction were developed T. Parsons (1902-1979), based on the ideas of Spencer, Durkheim and Sorokina. The basic basis is the idea of \u200b\u200b"social order", personifying the desire to maintain the equilibrium of the system, the coordination of its various elements and the achievement of the consent between them. These ideas were they are nominated on the basis of the analysis of the US public and state system, the stability of which the scientist regarded as a great achievement. ^ Gi Views have long dominated in Western sociology, sometimes in a somewhat modified form (structuralism in France - Foucault, Levy Strauss other). However, in the end, the Creator of the Parsons theory itself recognized criticism into its address, since this direction rejected the idea of \u200b\u200bthe development of the social system, calling for maintaining equilibrium in it.
• 3. Neo-voltageism - direction improving the previous one. He was developed by Parsons in collaboration with E. Shilz (1911 -1995). '^ Go The direction has passed on the analysis of structures to the analysis of functions. In addition, this teaching considers human problem and attempts are being made to explain the process of complicating social systems through the increasing differentiation of functions performed by individuals in the system. However, attempts to improve structural functionalism, applying the ideas of evolution, led to the complication of the social system.
• 4. The theory of social change. Designed R. Merton(1910-2003) by introducing the concept of "dysfunction". He declared the possibility of deviating the social system from the adopted regulatory model. The idea of \u200b\u200bsocial change caused the need to search for causal relationships, so attempts were made by sociologists to find them, which was implemented in the development and application of several types of determinism (for example, a model of economic determinism W. Rosto).
• 5. The theories of social conflict were created by criticizing structural functionalism.

So, C. Mills. (1916-1962) argued that the basis of development is conflict, and not conformism, consent or integration. The highest manifestation of the conflict is having a struggle for power.

R. Dawarendorf (1929-2009) believes that all complex organizations are based on the redistribution of the authorities, which is happening both in the open and closed form. The basis of conflicts, in his opinion, is not economic, but political reasons. The source of conflicts is the "political person". Analyzing conflicts of opponents of one rank, opponents who are subject to submission, he received 15 types of conflicts and considered in detail the possibility of their regulation.

L. Kosher (1913-2003) determines the social conflict as an ideological phenomenon, reflecting the aspirations and senses of social groups or individuals in the struggle for power, change the status, redistribution of income, etc.

Most of the representatives of this area emphasize the value of conflicts that become a source of development and improvement, the same time such a position involves the possibility and need to regulate them.

6. Beheviorism - founder E. Torndayk (1874-1949). The basis of this direction is the continuous study of the specific state of human relations within the framework of social organizations.

It exists in two major theories - social exchange theory (J. K. Khoman (1910- 1989) and I. M. Blau (p. 1918) and the theory of symbolic interactionism (J. MID (1863-1931).

The first direction comes from the recognition of the dominant position of a person with respect to the system. The main thing in this theory, according to Blau, is that people wanting to have a remuneration for their activities (recognition, status, monetary remuneration) can only get it from other people who are in cooperation with them, although this interaction is not always It will be equal and satisfying all the interests of his participants.

Representatives of symbolic interactionism began to interpret the behavior of people on the basis of the value that the person or the group gives one or another aspects of the situation. The focus of J. Mid was active, intelligent, active individual. The Foreign Ministry has introduced the concept of an individual perspective, the prerequisite of which is social freedom.

7. Phenomenological sociology originates from the philosophical concept E. Gusserly (1859-1938) and justified in the writings of the Austrian philosopher A. Shychez (1899-1959). In the center of its attention is not the world as a whole, but a person in its specific dimension. Social reality is constructed through images and concepts expressed in communication. Social events only seem objective, and in fact appear as the opinions of individuals about these events.

Phenomenology does not give a response to the question why people rarely understand each other or why people understand the actions of some people and do not understand the actions of others. It states that there are linguistic and non-ninguistic parameters that promote or prevent successful communication.

As part of this direction, two large schools have developed: Sociology of Knowledge ( TO. Mannheim - (1893-1947) and ethnomethodology (Garfinkel (r. 1917).

These are the main directions of sociology of the XX century., Defining her face.

In the 1990s, the subject of research in sociology has changed. The problematics associated with the concept of "social system" was replaced by the study of issues characterizing the concepts of "action" and "figure".

The conceptual and categorical apparatus has also changed. The dominant concepts of "social institutions", "Sots & Tization", "integration" lost the first place to the concept of "crisis" and close to it categories: "Disorganization", "Violence", "Chaos" as well as "consciousness" and "people's behavior".

The greatest value acquired:

• The theory of rational selection proposed by the American sociologist J. Colemen. (1926-1995), denying the concept of the system and considering the concepts of resources and mobilization;
• theory of new institutionalism;
• The idea that a person acts as an active social entity (actor);
• Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical and methodological direction in sociology and social psychology (primarily American), which is based on the analysis of sociocultural reality social (with focusing of a mix endless aspect) of interaction, taken in their symbolic (especially language) expression.

Therefore, such definitions of sociology, as "sociology, is the science of the methods of studying human behavior" or "Sociology is a scientific study of human behavior and the social environment of a person who affects this behavior."

Thus, despite the existence of many concepts, today's state of world sociology reflects the concepts that study the role of a person and its activity in the modern world.

However, considering the formation of sociology as science, it is impossible to disregard the development of domestic sociology.

• Interpreted by the publication Toschepko J. T. Sociology. M.: Uniti-Dana, 2005. P. 11-24.
• http: //slovari-onlinc.m/word/connojioni4cckhi-cjionapb/hcono3nriihm3m-b-couna4onni.htm.