Characteristics of vulnerable species. 1.Narrow range (especially island). 2.Small population size. 3.Decreasing population size. 4.Low population density. 5. Large individual plots. 6. Large species. 7. Poorly dispersed species. 8. Seasonal migrants. 9.Low genetic variability. 10.High specialization. 11.High constancy of habitats. 12.Permanent or temporary clusters. 13. Hunting (trophy) species. Several traits can be interrelated and combined in one species, which increases its vulnerability
Philippa Scott () Sir Peter Scott () Who invented the Red Book?
Chronology of the creation of the Red Data Book of monographs on rare species of mammals 1948 the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) was created 1949 the Species Survival Commission was created 1963 the publication of the first IUCN Red Book (animals)
100 sq km >10 sq km, 1 locus Fluctuations in numbers, Reduction of range, Deterioration of Conditions EN Decrease by" title="Category Number Trend Current number. AREA, trend AREA , modern Current situation CR Decrease by 80% over 10 years Less than 250 individuals >100 sq km >10 sq km, 1 locus Fluctuations in numbers, Reduction of range, Deterioration of conditions EN Decrease by" class="link_thumb"> 11 !} Category Number Trend Modern number. AREA, trend AREA, modern Current situation CR Decrease by 80% over 10 years Less than 250 os. >100 sq km >10 sq km, 1 locus Fluctuations in numbers, Reduction of range, Deterioration of conditions EN Decrease by 50% over 10 years Less than 2500 ind. >5000 sq km >10 sq km, 5 VU loci 30% reduction over 10 years Less than >20 thousand sq km Fragmentation; 10 loci “critical” “threatened” “vulnerable” 100 sq km >10 sq km, 1 locus Fluctuations in abundance, Reduction of range, Deterioration of conditions EN Decrease by "> 100 sq km >10 sq km, 1 locus Fluctuations in abundance, Reduction of range , Deterioration of Conditions EN Decrease by 50% over 10 years Less than 2500 individuals >5000 sq. km >10 sq. km, 5 loci VU Decrease by 30% over 10 years Less than 10,000 individuals >20 thousand sq. km Fragmentation; 10 loci “critical” “threatened” “vulnerable”"> 100 sq km >10 sq km, 1 locus Fluctuations in numbers, Reduction of range, Deterioration of Conditions EN Decrease by" title="(!LANG :Category Abundance Trend Current population AREAL, trend AREAL, current Current situation CR Decrease by 80% over 10 years Less than 250 individuals >100 sq. km >10 sq. km, 1 locus Fluctuations in abundance, Abbreviated range reduction, Deterioration of Conditions EN Decrease by"> title="Category Number Trend Modern number. AREA, trend AREA, modern Current situation CR Decrease by 80% over 10 years Less than 250 os. >100 sq km >10 sq km, 1 locus Fluctuations in numbers, Reduction of range, Deterioration of conditions EN Decrease by"> !}
Information objectives of the Red Book of Facts To ensure its consistent use by different specialists To increase the objectivity of assessing the risk of extinction of taxa To facilitate the comparison of the risks of extinction of different taxa To provide an idea of the classification of species according to the risk of their extinction
CATEGORIES OF THE RED BOOK OF IUCN (1994) and Russia (2001) 1. ENDANGERED (EXTINCT, EX) 2. ENDANGERED (EXTINCT IN THE WILD, EW) 3. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) 4. EXTINCTION GUYS ENANGERED, EN 5. VULNERABLE (VU) 6. NEAR THREATENED (NT) 7. LEAST CONCERN (LC) 8. DATA DEFICIENT (DD) 9 .NOT EVALUATED 0 probably disappeared. 1 endangered. (CR) 2 declining in number (EN) 3 rare (VU) 4 uncertain status. 5 - restored, but needs control
Rare vertebrates of Russia There are 300 species of mammals in Russia. This is 7% of the world's fauna. The hotbed of mammal species diversity is located in the North Caucasus (glacial relics!) 20% of Russian mammal species are in the Red Book. 90 species (33%) of mammals are classified as endangered in Central, Western Europe and in the world. 39 species are whales and cats. 60% of mammals Kr. Russian books are protected in protected areas. Pinnipeds and ungulates - only 40% in protected areas. Birds. 732 species (7.6% of the world's fauna). 515 nest, 27 in Russia alone. 30 species are included in the IUCN Red List. 60% of rare bird species are protected in nature reserves. Reptiles. 75 species, 12% of the world's fauna. 15% of them are rare. The outbreak is also located in the Caucasus. 45 species of reptiles are on the IUCN Red List. More than 50% of rare reptile species are protected in reserves.
In accordance with Art. 60 of the Federal Law “On Environmental Protection”, animals and plants listed in the Red Books of the Russian Federation and constituent entities of the Russian Federation are everywhere subject to withdrawal from economic use. Article 24 of the Federal Law “On Fauna” Actions that could lead to death, reduction in numbers or disruption of the habitat of fauna objects listed in the Red Books are not allowed. Legal entities and citizens carrying out economic activities in the territories and waters where animals listed in the Red Books live are responsible for the conservation and reproduction of these wildlife objects. Harvesting of species listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation is permitted in exceptional cases under a permit (administrative license) issued by a specially authorized state environmental protection agency. Art.18. Government funding for conservation programs for rare species. Art. Registration, cadastre and monitoring of fauna objects.
To create a regional Red Book it is necessary to: Develop a Regulation on the Red Book and approve it in the regional government Create a Commission of specialists Approve the lists of Red Book species included by the Commission at the level of the regional Government Oblige specially authorized environmental protection bodies to monitor actions that may harm species included in the Red Book, and THEIR HABITAT Prepare, publish and distribute the Red Book itself Regional Red Books
International environmental legislation Convention - agreement, rules of conduct, tradition Principles of operation of international conventions 1. sovereignty over natural resources 2. nature without borders OBJECTIVES of the conventions: formulation of general priorities, adjustment of the list of vulnerable species, unification of environmental legislation
CITES (1973) “CITES” – CONVENTION on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was signed in Washington in 1973. It regulates the movement of animals of rare species (3 categories) and their derivatives through state borders and transportation conditions
CONVENTION “On Biological Diversity” (Russia - since 1995): obligations of the parties Development of national strategies for EVERY species included in the Red Book as endangered Development of specific measures for the conservation of BRs Prevention of the introduction of alien species Development of regulatory legal acts Conservation of species ex -situ and their use for restoration in nature, etc.
These species require special protection and monitoring measures. Among the rare species, special legal status have species listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation, which is an official state document and has legal status. The objectives of the National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity of Russia (2001) include the development of principles and technologies for the conservation and restoration of rare and endangered species. Rare and endangered species include species that are either threatened with extinction or are reducing their numbers and range due to human actions, and those that are potentially vulnerable due to biological characteristics (naturally rare, narrowly distributed, relict).
"To the list World Heritage UNESCO lists natural and cultural sites, constituting the heritage of all mankind and deserving special treatment, protection and attention of the world community" Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO) Virgin forests of Komi 1995 Lake Baikal 1996 Volcanoes of Kamchatka 1996 Altai-Golden Mountains 1998 Western Caucasus 1999 Curonian Spit 2000 Central Sikhote-Alin 2001 Ubsunur Basin 2003 Wrangel Island 2004
Bilateral international agreements on the protection of migratory birds Convention of the Governments of the USSR and the USA on the protection of migratory birds and their habitat (September 2, 1987). Convention of the Governments of the Russian Federation and the DPRK on the Conservation of Migratory Birds (June 2, 1994). Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Korea (June 2, 1994) on the protection of migratory birds Convention of the Governments of the USSR and India on the protection of migratory birds and their habitats (1984) Convention of the Governments of the USSR and Japan on the protection of endangered migratory birds , and their habitats (1973) 1973 - multilateral Agreement (USSR, USA, Canada, Denmark, Norway) on a mining ban polar bear for commercial purposes
Law on the Fauna of the Russian Federation of March 22, 1995 Article 24. Protection of rare and endangered objects of the fauna Executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation are obliged to create the necessary conditions for the conservation and breeding of rare and endangered objects of the fauna, including including through the specialization of zoos and the organization of nurseries.
Objectives of breeding centers Preservation of species on the verge of extinction Intensive breeding of small species Intermediate stage during repatriation Restoration of the number of commercial species Removing hunting pressure from wild population Often these tasks are combined
40) Red wolf46? Horse " title=" Number of individuals of endangered species in captivity and in nature at the end of the twentieth century (according to A.V. Yablokov) Species (subspecies) Number of individuals in captivity Number of individuals in nature Amur tiger892250 (300+) Sumatran tiger80 ?East Siberian leopard 4220 (>40) Red wolf46?Horse" class="link_thumb"> 34 !} Number of individuals of endangered species in captivity and in the wild at the end of the twentieth century (according to A.V. Yablokov) Species (subspecies) Number of individuals in captivity Number of individuals in nature Amur tiger (300+) Sumatran tiger80? East Siberian leopard 4220 (>40) Red wolf46? Przewalski's Horse >1500Repatriated 1998 David's Deer800+Repatriated 1985 Arabian Oryx141Repatriated 1979 and 1982 Indian Rhinoceros Orangutan 40) Red wolf46? Horse ">40) Red Wolf46? Przewalski's Horse >1500Repatriated 1998 David's Deer800+Repatriated 1985 Arabian Oryx141Repatriated 1979 and 1982 Indian Rhino581100 Orangutan6031000">40) Red Wolf46? Horse " title=" Number of individuals of endangered species in captivity and in nature at the end of the twentieth century (according to A.V. Yablokov) Species (subspecies) Number of individuals in captivity Number of individuals in nature Amur tiger892250 (300+) Sumatran tiger80 ?East Siberian leopard 4220 (>40) Red wolf46?Horse"> title="Number of individuals of endangered species in captivity and in the wild at the end of the twentieth century (according to A.V. Yablokov) Species (subspecies) Number of individuals in captivity Number of individuals in nature Amur tiger892250 (300+) Sumatran tiger80? East Siberian leopard 4220 (>40) Red wolf46? Horse"> !}
Breeding centers for endangered animals of the world Name Objectives Main achievements of the Wildfowl Trust (UK) Breeding Anseriformes Restoration of the Hawaiian goose Cornell University (USA) Breeding gallinaceae and birds of prey Restoration of the peregrine Falcon Norfolk Pheasant Center (England) Conservation of endangered pheasant species Restoration of 2 species of extinct pheasants in Taiwan Wisconsin crane center Crane breedingRecovery of whooping, Japanese and other crane species Jersey Wildlife Trust (UK) Breeding of “difficult” species 135 species bred Indonesian Orangutan Center Orangutan breeding 120 orangutans released in 8 years
Breeding centers for endangered animals former USSR Name Year of creation Species Askania-Nova (Ukraine) 1875 Ungulates, birds Beaver farm of the Voronezh Nature Reserve 1927 Restoration of the beaver Bison nurseries in the PTZ and OGZ Belovezhsky bison Bukhara Ecocenter "Djeiran" (UzSSR) 1977 Djeiran, Przewalski's horse Oka crane nursery 1979 Siberian crane and other species cranes Russian Falcon Center, Moscow 1995 Peregrine falcon, saker falcon and other species of birds of prey Khingan Nature Reserve 1985 Rare species of cranes
Repatriation (using the example of birds) Method of adoptive parents (nursing birds by K.N. Blagosklonova, Mexican falcon for the peregrine falcon, etc.) Method of adoption (adding chicks) Method mixed couples(wild and aviary birds) Feralization method (ducks, pheasants, bustards, etc.)
PROTECTING THE PLANET'S GENE POOL
LECTURE No. 8
Learning objective: consider the role of protected natural areas in the protection of the gene pool of plants and animals, the environmental significance of the Red Books, as well as directions for the international protection of protected areas.
Plan:
8.1 Protection of rare and endangered species
8.2 Environmental significance of the Red Books
8.3 International protection of protected areas.
Literature:
1. Handbook on reserve management / Ed. A.M. Grodzinsky. – K.: Harvest, 1988. – 167 p.
2. Kolosov A.M. Protection and enrichment of the fauna of the USSR. - M.: Timber Industry, 1975.
3. Nature conservation. - M: Enlightenment, 1987.
4. Law of Ukraine “On the Red Book of Ukraine”, No. 805-VI dated December 25, 2008.
5. Law of Ukraine “On Fauna”, No. 2894 - III dated December 13, 2001.
6. Law of Ukraine “On Flora”, No. 591-XIV dated 04/09/1999
Currently, one of the most pressing tasks is preservation of the gene pool of flora and fauna. The disappearance of every species of wildlife harms the socio-economic interests of society and leads to irreparable losses.
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), every tenth plant species needs protection. Every year one species or subspecies of animals disappears from the world. This happens, as a rule, under the pressure of human economic activity.
Human influence on populations of living organisms occurs in two directions:
Indirect.
Direct impact constitutes direct persecution, disruption of population structure, or dispersal. It is experienced mainly by game animals, which are exterminated in large quantities. As a result, the numbers of many species are sharply declining, and some species are even disappearing. An example is the decline in the number of Siberian sable at the beginning of the 20th century.
Indirect impact represents a change in living conditions. It is very diverse and is becoming increasingly widespread with every decade. The transformation of natural landscapes into anthropogenic complexes radically affects the way of life of many populations of animals and plants. Some of them adapt to the environment changed by man and find in it quite favorable conditions for their existence. Their numbers are increasing and their habitat is expanding. However, for many species, unfavorable changes in living conditions in a significant part of the range have determined a sharp reduction in numbers or even their complete disappearance. This process has become global.
The disappearance of tarpan horses and saigas, which previously inhabited the steppes of southern Ukraine in large numbers, occurred as a result of the plowing of the steppes and, thus, the destruction of their habitat.
The safe level of abundance of a species in nature is considered to be:
For large vertebrates - 500 copies;
For small vertebrates - approx. 10 thousand individuals;
For invertebrate animals - 50 thousand specimens;
For plants - several thousand individuals.
The numbers given are purely indicative.
Species in need of protection are identified by the IUCN Commission on Rare and Endangered Species. There are five main categories:
1 Extinct species
2 Endangered species
endangered
disappearing
3 Rare species
4 Shrinking species
5 Threatened species.
Extinct species- a species that has not been found in nature for a number of years, but may have survived in some inaccessible places or preserved in culture (captivity).
Endangered species- a species whose morphophysiological and/or behavioral characteristics do not correspond to modern living conditions, and the genetic possibilities for further adaptation have been exhausted. Artificial reproduction of V.v. without its complete cultivation, it cannot lead to long-term success and can only delay its death.
Endangered species- under threat of complete extinction species, the number of surviving individuals of which is insufficient for self-sustaining populations in natural conditions, and therefore requires careful special measures for protection, and sometimes artificial reproduction to restore its numbers to safe sizes. Unlike endangered species In and. has favorable genetic capabilities for further adaptation to new environmental conditions.
Rare species- not directly threatened with extinction, but occurring in such a small number of individuals and/or populations, in such a limited area and in such specific habitats that it can quickly disappear.
Shrinking species- still quite widespread and found in a significant number of individuals and populations, but tending to a steady decrease in the number of individuals, diversity of populations and narrowing of the range under the influence of natural and/or anthropogenic causes, and therefore raising concerns about its well-being in the longer term.
Threatened species- presumably endangered, but due to lack of information, not classified as an endangered species.
All of the above categories are required to be included in the Red Books and need protection.
Species protection can be:
State
Local
Plants and animals that are endangered throughout the entire or main part of their range within the country need state protection.
Species that are rare in the region require local protection. this region, but not endangered beyond its borders. In a given territory, they may have an isolated part of their range or be in unfavorable conditions.
The protection and restoration of rare and endangered species of animals and plants has long been an extremely important task. At the beginning of the 20th century. Animal species such as the sea otter, river beaver, fur seal, muskrat, polar bear, Ussuri tiger, etc. were on the verge of complete extinction. Thanks to timely measures taken, most of these species were saved from destruction. At the same time, unfortunately, many are irretrievably lost.
As an example, we can cite the monk seal, which was once common in the vicinity of Sevastopol - a representative marine mammals. They lived in the area of underwater caves of the Chersonesos lighthouse. At the end of the last century they were still hunted. Their complete disappearance off the coast of Sevastopol is due to the deterioration of the ecology of the sea, disruption of migration sites and habitats, a decrease in food supply, as well as the extermination of animals by humans. The last time a monk seal was seen in the Black Sea was in 1986.
The protection of rare and endangered species of animals and plants is ensured through a wide range of measures:
Systematic work to identify their habitats and growth;
Organization of protected areas;
Preserving them in an artificial environment (in botanical gardens, nurseries, zoos, etc.);
Organization of special scientific research in order to develop the scientific basis for their protection and reproduction;
Improving the legal framework for activities;
Environmental education.
TO rare and endangered species These include animals whose numbers are so small that their continued existence is threatened. They need careful protection. Most of the rare and endangered species in our country belong to commercial species. In the past they were widespread and numerous. The predatory use of animal resources in Russia led to the fact that by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. many species have become rare or are on the verge of extinction. Under Soviet rule, they were taken under protection and hunting for them was prohibited. In places where the most valuable species were preserved (bison, river beaver, sable, kulan, muskrat), nature reserves were organized.
The main task of protecting rare and endangered species is to, by creating favorable conditions for their habitat, achieve such an increase in their numbers that would eliminate the threat of extinction. It is important to restore the natural reserves of animals in order to include them in the number of commercial animals.
In Russia, a lot of and painstaking work has been carried out to restore the population river beaver, sable, elk, saiga, which were on the verge of extinction. Currently, their numbers have been restored and they have again become a commercial species.
All rare and endangered species of animals, like plants, are included in Red Book, created by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN). The Red Book, first published in 1966 and translated into Russian in 1976, included 292 species and subspecies of mammals, 287 species and subspecies of birds, 36 species of amphibians and 119 species of reptiles, of which 16 species of animals and 8 species of birds live in our country. In 1978, the Red Book of the USSR was published, which included (species and subspecies): mammals - 62, birds - 63, reptiles - 21, amphibians - 8.
The Red Book of Russia (1983) includes (species and subspecies) of mammals - 65, birds - 108, reptiles - 11, amphibians - 4, fish - 10, mollusks - 15, insects - 34.
The lists of species included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (1997) with additions (1999) include the following species: invertebrates - 154, fish - 44, amphibians - 8, reptiles - 21, birds - 124, mammals - 65, insects - 94, shellfish - 41.
Listing a species in the Red Book is a signal of the danger that threatens it and the need for urgent measures to protect it. Each country in whose territory a species included in the Red Book lives is responsible to its people and all humanity for its conservation.
To preserve rare and endangered species, nature reserves and sanctuaries are organized, animals are resettled in areas of their former distribution, fed, shelters and nesting sites are created, and protected from predators and diseases. When numbers are very low, animals are bred in captivity and then released into suitable conditions. These measures are producing positive results.
Here are some species whose numbers have been restored through enormous efforts:
Bison(Bison bonasus) - big bull body weight up to 1 t (Fig. 14, A). In the past it was distributed in the forests of Western, Central and Southeast Europe, in the east - to the river. Don and the Caucasus. By the beginning of the 20th century. In their natural state, bison were preserved only in Belovezhskaya Pushcha (727 heads) and in the Caucasus (600 heads). The last free bison in Belovezhskaya Pushcha was killed in 1919, in the Caucasus - in 1927. There are only 48 bison left, living in zoos and acclimatization stations.
This is the lower limit of the species' abundance. The beast was on the verge of extinction. Work has begun to restore the bison. It was most actively carried out in Poland and in three nature reserves of the USSR: Belovezhskaya Pushcha, Prioksko-Terrasny and Kavkazsky. By 1975, there were 320 in Poland, 155 purebred Belovezhskaya bison in the USSR, and more than 500 bison in the Caucasus. Successful work on breeding bison allowed us to move on to creating free herds in 1961. By 1981, the number of bison in the USSR reached 830, in the world more than 2000 (Red Book of the USSR, 1984).
Saiga antelope (Siga tatarica) - a small antelope weighing 23-40 kg (Fig. 14, b). Previously, it was distributed over vast territories of steppe and forest-steppe regions of Europe, Kazakhstan and Central Asia. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. herds of saigas were common in the steppes of Eastern Europe and Asia, back in the early 18th century. were found in Moldova and west of the Dniester. The plowing of the steppes forced the saiga out of many areas. The reduction in numbers was facilitated by intensive hunting for meat, skins and horns, which were sold to China as medicinal raw materials.
By the beginning of the 20th century. The saiga has survived in the remote areas of the right bank of the Lower Volga and in Kazakhstan. In 1919, a law was passed banning saiga hunting. By this time, only a few hundred of its individuals remained. As a result of protection, the number of saiga antelopes reached commercial levels by the end of 1940, and fishing was allowed in the early 50s. The saiga population has stabilized; Every year from 100 to 500 thousand individuals are harvested, which provides the national economy with about 6 thousand tons of meat, 20 million dm 2 of leather and medicinal raw materials.
Amur tiger(Panthera tigris altaica) - the largest subspecies (body weight up to 272 kg), distinguished by long thick fur. In the past he was an ordinary inhabitant Ussuri taiga. Excessive hunting and trapping led to a reduction in its numbers in the late 1930s to 20-30 individuals. In 1947, tiger hunting was prohibited. In the 1950-1960s, there were already 90-100 individuals; since 1960, capturing tigers for zoos has been allowed. Currently, the tiger is found in the Primorsky and eastern regions Khabarovsk Territory. The length of the range from north to south is approximately 100 km, from west to east - 600-700 km. In 1969-1970 150 tigers were counted, in 1978 - 200 tigers. Outside Russia, in China and Korea, apparently no more than 100 individuals have survived. There are 844 individuals in zoos around the world (1979).
Polar bear(Ursus maritimus) is the largest representative of the family and the entire order of predatory mammals (body weight up to 1000 kg). The species' range is circumpolar region, limited north coast continents, the southern limit of the distribution of floating ice and northern border warm sea currents. Over the past few centuries total area and the boundaries of the species’ permanent habitat have changed little. The exception is the European sector of the Russian Arctic, where polar bear hunting has long existed. There are no longer polar bears on the coasts of the Kola and Kanin peninsulas, Timanskaya, Malozemelskaya and Bolshezemelskaya tundras. It is still regularly found on islands and ice fields of the Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi seas.
In addition to Russia, the polar bear is distributed in the Arctic sectors of Norway, Greenland, Canada and the USA (Alaska). The total number of polar bears in the early 1970s was approximately 20 thousand, including 5-7 thousand in the Soviet Arctic. At the end of the 70s, the number of the species reached 25 thousand individuals. For conservation purposes, in our country, since 1938, the shooting of bears from ships has been prohibited, and since 1956, hunting has been closed everywhere. On Wrangel Island, in one of the places where mass polar bears breed, a reserve was organized in 1976. In 1975, an international agreement on the protection of polar bears came into force.
Kulan(Equus hemionus) is an odd-toed animal of the equine family, a semi-donkey (Fig. 14, c). Lived in desert regions of Russia, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan.
Northern sea otter(Enhydra lutrix lutrix) is a medium-sized sea animal (body weight up to 40 kg), one of the subspecies of the only species and genus endemic to the northern part of the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 14, d). Previously found near the reefs and rocks of the Commander Islands and the northeastern coast of Kamchatka. It is believed that before the start of intensive fishing in the 18th century. its total number was 15-20 thousand individuals. They hunted sea otters for their thick, elastic and warm fur. By the end of the 19th century. he was almost exterminated. Preserved in small quantities near the Commander and Aleutian Islands. The ban on sea otter fishing in our country was announced in 1924 with a population of 350 individuals, and currently it is 2.5-3 thousand individuals.
Siberian Crane, or white crane(Grus leucogeranus), - a large bird (body weight from 5 to 8 kg), endemic Russia, an endangered species (Fig. 14, e). Breeds in two separate areas - in the north of Yakutia and in the lower reaches of the Ob. Winters in China, India and Northern Iran. The reduction in numbers is believed to be due to deteriorating conditions in wintering areas (drying out water bodies, reduction in food supply, competition with other species). The total number is catastrophically low - about 250 birds. The Yakut population is relatively stable, while the Ob population continues to decline. Shooting the Siberian Crane on the territory of our country was prohibited. Migrating birds are protected in the Astrakhan Nature Reserve and in the Thana-Bharatpur National Park of India. Several nurseries have been created for raising Siberian Cranes from eggs and then releasing the grown birds into the wild. One of these nurseries exists in Russia (Oka Nature Reserve), two - abroad.
Bustard(Otis tarda) is one of the largest birds of our fauna (body weight 16 kg). Distributed in the lowland and mountain steppes of North-West Africa, Europe and Asia. The main wintering grounds are in Transcaucasia, Northern Iran, Southwestern Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. Within the entire range, the number of bustards has been steadily declining since the beginning of this century, but especially sharply since the 50-60s. The number of individuals has decreased tenfold and now amounts to approximately 3 thousand in Russia, the European subspecies O. tarda tarda - 13.3 thousand.
The main reason for the sharp decline in numbers is the widespread deterioration, and in some places, the complete disappearance of suitable biotopes. Plowing of the steppes and grazing of livestock in the few remaining areas of the virgin steppe deprived the bustard of lands suitable for nesting. In Russia, hunting bustards is prohibited. To preserve and restore the numbers of this species, reserves have been created in the Saratov region and Buryatia. In Hungary, Austria, the German Democratic Republic and Poland, there are stations for incubating eggs from abandoned clutches with the subsequent release of reared birds into farmlands.
Little Bustard(Otis tetrax) is a medium-sized bird (body weight 600-950 g) (Fig. 14, f). Distributed in the steppes and semi-deserts of Southern Europe, the western coast of the Mediterranean Sea, North Africa to the foothills of Altai and Kashgaria. In our country, it is found in the steppe regions of the European part, Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, and Central Asia. Winters in North Africa, Western Asia, India, in small quantities in the Crimea, Transcaucasia, Central Asia. Little bustard numbers are declining everywhere.
So, in 1978-1980. There were 4,800 individuals, but over ten years their number fell by 40%. The main reasons for the decline in the number of this species are the same as for the bustard. Hunting for little bustard is prohibited. To preserve its populations, it is necessary to strictly protect nesting sites, areas with high grass that cover nests and incubating birds, and the creation of nature reserves in these areas; Bird wintering areas need protection.
Rare and protected species and subspecies of animals in our country include the muskrat, the Atlantic walrus, the red-footed ibis, the barnacle goose, the red-breasted goose, the scaly merganser, the relict gull, the Tibetan sajja and some others.
In other countries, Przewalski's horse (Mongolia), wild bactrian camel(Mongolia), Indian rhinoceros (India, Nepal), giant panda (PRC), Asiatic lion (India), koala (Australia), Californian condor (USA), hatteria ( New Zealand) and other animals.
Protection of the most important animal groups
Protection of aquatic invertebrates. Sponges- marine and freshwater animals that lead an attached lifestyle and form colonies in areas with hard rocky soil. The seas and oceans are inhabited by littoral to a depth of 6 thousand m. Their ability to filter water is remarkable. Sponges are captured and used to feed bacteria, unicellular algae, and protozoa; mineral particles are released and settle to the bottom. The great role of sponges in biological treatment water: a freshwater sponge 7 cm long filters 22.5 liters, and a colony of a marine organosilicon sponge with 20 mouth openings filters 1575 liters of water per day.
Number of sponges in Lately has decreased due to overharvesting (the skeletons of glass sponges are used as decorations, and the tomato sponge is used for medicinal purposes), disruption of bottom biocenoses, and water pollution. To preserve the role of sponges as biofilters, it is necessary to reduce their fishing, use fishing gear that does not cause damage to aquatic ecosystems, and also reduce the entry of various pollutants into water bodies.
Coral polyps- marine colonial organisms. Of particular interest is the order of madrepore corals - the largest group of the coelenterate type. Representatives of this order have a powerful external calcareous skeleton. It is constantly growing, and the skeletons of individual polyps merge into a single monolith, the diameter of which can reach 8-9 m. Madrepore corals form coastal, barrier reefs and horseshoe-shaped islands - atolls. They are inhabited by many animals - polychaetes, mollusks, barnacles, echinoderms, fish. Coral reefs are unique oases of relatively unproductive biocenoses of the ocean.
The prosperity of corals is possible only under certain conditions: with a constant salinity of sea water (3.5%), high temperature(not lower than 20 °C), good aerial radios and illumination. Pollution of sea water, disturbances in lighting and aeration cause the death of coral polyps and promote the reproduction of animals that destroy coral reefs. Thus, the Great Barrier Reef of Australia suffered greatly from the invasion of large starfish(d = 60 cm) called crown of thorns (Acauthaster plansi). It is believed that their mass reproduction is associated with a decrease in the number of the natural crown of thorns - one of the species of gastropod mollusks Charonia tritonis with a beautiful shell, which scuba diving enthusiasts get for souvenirs.
For the population of tropical countries, a vast space occupied coral reefs, is a huge natural lime factory. Tiny polyps extract CaCO e from sea water and deposit it in their bodies. Madrepore corals are widely used by people to build houses, piers, embankments, paving streets, as a raw material for producing high-quality lime, for polishing wooden and metal products, making jewelry, and souvenirs. The economic use of coral reefs must be local and strictly controlled. The destruction of coral islands during testing of atomic and thermonuclear weapons is unacceptable. Strict protection of the unique biocenoses of coral islands is necessary.
Shellfish- a type of marine and freshwater (less often terrestrial) invertebrate animals, which are characterized by a hard calcareous shell covering the body. Distributed in seas, oceans and fresh water bodies. Bivalves They feed on plankton, passing a large amount of water with suspended particles through the mantle cavity, sedimenting them, purifying the water and promoting the accumulation of bottom sediments. Shellfish serve as food for fish, birds and mammals, as well as a delicacy for humans. They catch oysters, mussels, scallops, squid, cuttlefish, and octopus.
There is a fishery for pearl mussels and mother-of-pearl shells. The volume of fishing is increasing: before the Second World War, 5 million quintals were mined per year, in 1962 - 17 million quintals, which amounted to 50% of the production of marine invertebrates, or 4% of all marine products (Akimushkin, 1968). By 1980, the share of shellfish in marine fisheries reached 6%. However, water pollution, disruption of bottom biocenoses (oyster banks) by fishing gear, and overfishing have sharply reduced shellfish stocks. Much attention is paid to the cultivation of mollusks to restore their numbers in natural communities and obtain biological products. Mussels, oysters, and scallops are successfully farmed in Japan, Spain, France, Holland and some other countries. There is experience in breeding shellfish in Russia.
Crustaceans different by lifestyle, body shape and size (from fractions of a millimeter to 80 cm). Representatives of this class are very numerous: marine plankton at different latitudes and depths it consists mainly (up to 90% by weight) of crustaceans; their share is also large in fresh water plankton.
Crustaceans play an important role in aquatic ecosystems. Organic matter in water bodies is created mainly by unicellular microscopic algae. The crustaceans that feed on them are, in turn, eaten by fish. Thus, they act as intermediaries, making the organic matter created by algae available to fish. In addition, crustaceans use dead animals as food, ensuring the cleanliness of the reservoir.
The existence of many marine and freshwater fish depends largely on crustaceans. Some fish (for example, herring) feed on them all their lives, others use them after hatching and then move on to other food. Some crustaceans are bred to feed fish fry. For the largest mammals - baleen whales - crustaceans serve as the main food. Humans use representatives of the class of crustaceans for food. Fishing for shrimp, crabs, lobsters, lobsters and some other species has been developed.
Due to their large size and good taste, representatives of the decapod crayfish order are of greatest commercial importance. In 1962, about 1 million tons of crustaceans (shrimp, crabs, lobsters, lobsters) were caught worldwide. Their fishing [is developed in China, the USA, India, Japan. In Russia they trade Kamchatka crab, the stocks of which have been undermined by intensive fishing and, without special measures to limit it, are not restored due to slow growth and reproduction.
Thus, for the majority of commercial and those marine invertebrates whose numbers are declining, protection, rational use (regulation of catch rates, acclimatization, captive breeding) and control of water pollution are necessary.
Pollinating insects. About 80% of all flowering plants are pollinated by insects. The absence of pollinating insects changes the appearance vegetation cover. In addition to the honey bee, the income from pollinating plants is 10-12 times higher than the income from honey and wax, pollen is carried by 20 thousand species of wild bees (of which 300 are in central Russia and 120 in Central Asia). Bumblebees, flies, butterflies, and beetles take part in pollination.
Unfortunately, environmental pollution and other anthropogenic factors have recently sharply reduced the number of pollinating insects. Near large industrial centers it has become relatively difficult to find even common pollinators. The protection of pollinating insects is the most important measure for increasing the productivity of crops and preserving the diversity of wild plants. It is necessary to strictly dose pesticides and use them only to suppress the mass reproduction of pests. Plants on which pollinating insects develop should be preserved.
Entomophagous insects, destroying pests, are extremely diverse. In Russian agriculture, 11 types of entomophages are used against 20 types of plant pests.
To protect them from destruction, anthills are covered with caps made of mesh, fenced, and covered with spruce branches. Sometimes ants are artificially dispersed.
Various types of ground beetles, lacewings, ladybugs, etc. are of great benefit in exterminating pests of agricultural and forest plants.
Nurse insects belong to the family of beetles and Diptera. These are numerous and widespread groups of carrion beetles, dung beetles, calorie beetles and flies, numbering thousands of species
From the family of carrion beetles, a group of burying beetles can be distinguished. The black gravedigger (Necrophorus humator) forages for carrion in groups. These beetles can perceive the smell of carrion from several hundred meters away. They bury the corpses of small animals (rodents, birds) in the ground, and the females lay eggs there, from which larvae hatch that feed on carrion. The larvae of dung beetles and dung beetles feed on dung, which is dragged into burrows and earthen passages by adult beetles before laying eggs.
The number of this beneficial group of insects has sharply declined due to excessive and improper use of pesticides. To restore it, it is necessary to reduce the use of chemicals and more often resort to biological control methods.
Fish conservation. In human protein nutrition, fish makes up from 17 to 83%. World fish catches are rapidly increasing due to the development of the edge of the continental shelf and the depths of the open sea, where up to 85% of fish are now caught, as well as due to the use of new species. The permissible annual removal of fish from the World Ocean is estimated at 80-100 million tons, of which more than 70% is currently caught. In inland waters of most countries, including Russia, fish catch has reached its limit, stabilized or began to decline.
Over the past decades, stocks of the most valuable commercial fish (sturgeon, salmon, and small fish) have declined sharply. Among the many factors influencing the decrease in fish stocks, and therefore the catch, the following are of greatest importance.
Overfishing- a phenomenon common in many marine and inland waters. At the same time, young fish that have not reached sexual maturity are caught, which reduces the population size and can lead to the extinction of the species. Combating overfishing is the most important task of fisheries, protection and rational use of fish resources.
Pollution of marine and freshwater bodies of water with various substances has become widespread and on an ever-increasing scale. Pollution from industrial wastewater containing salts of heavy metals, synthetic detergents, radioactive waste and oil is especially dangerous for fish. In recent years, extensive work has been carried out on wastewater treatment. Emergency measures have been developed for emergency oil spills. However, these measures are clearly not enough or they are applied too late, when pollution reaches catastrophic proportions.
Hydraulic structures. Dams block access of migratory fish to spawning grounds, disrupting natural reproduction. To eliminate this adverse effect, the most reliable measure is the construction of special fish hatcheries in the lower reaches. Here, fish that approach the dam are used for artificial insemination and breeding of fry, with their subsequent release into the rivers.
Fluctuations in water levels in reservoirs, sometimes reaching 8 m, have a negative impact on the state of fish stocks. Dams retain nutrients that serve as the basis for the development of phytoplankton and other organisms, thereby reducing food supplies for fish.
The reduction in the volume of fresh river water entering the seas increases the level of their salinity in the pre-estuarine areas and negatively affects the fish living here.
Shallowing of rivers reduces fish stocks. It is the result of deforestation of banks and watersheds, as well as the diversion of water for irrigation. Measures have been developed to increase water levels in rivers and inland seas, which is of great importance for fishing, agriculture, climate mitigation, etc.
A drastic measure to increase the water level in reservoirs is the afforestation of river banks, which requires constant care and a long time.
The most important measures for the protection of freshwater fish include the protection of spawning grounds, wintering pits, and the fight against winter death. For increase biological productivity In reservoirs, work is being carried out to acclimatize fish, invertebrate animals and plants that serve as their food.
Particular attention is paid to the protection and reproduction of fish stocks in inland waters. Every year, millions of juveniles of valuable fish species, including sturgeon, are released into rivers and lakes. It is necessary to continue to build fish breeding facilities and effective fish protection devices at water intakes and dams.
Protection of amphibians and reptiles. These two groups of animals include a small number of species ( amphibians- 4500, reptiles- 7000), but are important in natural biocenoses. Amphibians are carnivores; among reptiles there are also herbivorous species.
Amphibians, feeding on insects and other invertebrates, regulate their numbers and themselves serve as food for reptiles, birds and mammals. The importance of amphibians for humans is due to the fact that some of them are consumed as food (giant salamander, pond salam, edible salam, Chinese salam, bullfrog, etc.), and are widely used in laboratories for biological experiments. According to incomplete data, 1 million individuals per year are caught for this purpose in our country. India exported 25 million frogs in 1970, and Italy exported 47 million frogs in three years (1968-1970). The high cost of frogs (about 20% more expensive than the best varieties of fish) has led to their overfishing in many countries. In the USA, their numbers fell by 50%, and the populations of pond and lake frogs in Italy, France, Romania, and Bulgaria sharply decreased.
Considering the great practical importance and role of amphibians in the biological control of the number of pests of forest and agricultural plants, measures have been taken in many countries to protect them. Decrees have been issued prohibiting the capture and destruction of amphibians. During the period of migration of frogs to spawning ponds, special signs are posted near the highway, requiring drivers to be careful; driving on these roads at night is prohibited. The spawning grounds of amphibians are protected from economic use and pollution. To the Red Book IUCN European proteus, giant salamander, etc. are included. If previously 4 species of amphibians were listed in the Red Book of Russia (1983), now there are 8 (1999).
Reptiles, no less than other groups of animals, suffer from overfishing. Great damage was caused to the populations of crocodiles, turtles, monitor lizards and some snakes. Turtles and their eggs are used as food in many tropical countries. On the Amazon and Orinoco islands (South America), 48 million arrau turtle eggs are harvested annually; soft-skinned turtles are eaten in Japan and China. Due to overfishing, the green (soup) sea turtle and hawksbill sea turtle have catastrophically reduced their numbers and are on the verge of destruction.
Reptiles suffer greatly during anthropogenic transformations of natural landscapes. To preserve “living fossils”: hatteria, elephant tortoise, giant komodo dragon reserves have been created, strictly protected areas on small islands off
New Zealand, the Galapagos and the islands of Komodo and Flores. In Costa Rica, a nursery has been established for breeding and raising green turtles in artificial nests and then releasing them into the sea. On the Zapata Peninsula (Republic of Cuba) there is a nursery for breeding Cuban crocodile. The creation of the IUCN Red Book, the Red Book of Russia and the red books of some other countries was important for the protection of reptiles.
Snakes are beginning to disappear at an ever-increasing rate. They suffer from the draining of swamps, changes in vegetation cover, and the widespread use of pesticides that destroy small animals that snakes feed on. Snakes are caught for venom used in medicine. Serpentariums (nurseries) have been created in which snakes are kept (but not bred) to repeatedly obtain venom from them. Naturally, the systematic capture of snakes causes significant damage to their natural populations. To protect snakes in most European countries It is prohibited to catch them without special permits. The Red Book of Russia, published in 1983, includes 11 species of reptiles, including 6 species of snakes; currently (1999) there are 21 species, including 13 species of snakes.
Protection and attraction of birds. In addition to poultry farming and fishing, the importance of birds in the national economy is the extermination of forestry and agricultural pests. Most birds are insectivores and insectivores-herbivores. During the nesting period, they feed the chicks with abundant species of insects, including many pests of cultivated and forest plants. To combat insect pests, birds are attracted by hanging feeders and artificial nesting boxes, which are most often used by hollow nesters - tits, flycatchers, redstarts, wagtails.
Birds of prey are of great interest for pest control in agriculture. Previously, they were exterminated, considering them competitors of humans in the hunting industry. Later, when the true role of birds of prey in regulating the number of prey in biocenoses was clarified, they were placed under protection and shooting was prohibited. They try to disturb the birds less, protect their nests, make artificial nests and perches. Positive results provides experience in breeding in captivity and releasing into the wild individuals of species that are on the verge of extinction. However, the restoration of the number of birds of prey is slow.
The use of pesticides (DCT, hexachlorane, etc.) in agriculture and forestry caused great harm to birds of prey. Their concentration is greatest in the body of birds of prey occupying the upper trophic levels, which negatively affected their reproduction. Direct and indirect impacts from humans are detrimental to many species of birds of prey. The Red Book of Russia (1983) included 20 species of birds of prey, in 1999 - 25.
The most ancient way of using birds by humans is hunting. Commercial and amateur hunting with birds of prey - falcons, hawks, eagles - was widely practiced. Until now, hunting with birds of prey has not lost its importance in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and some European countries.
Birds are the object of commercial hunting, which occupies an important place in the economy of many countries. As a result of overhunting, a sharp reduction in hunting grounds, environmental pollution, and the use of pesticides, the reserves of game birds have been greatly reduced and continue to decline.
In our country, measures are being taken to protect game birds: establishing deadlines and standards for shooting, banning hunting of rare species and predatory methods of hunting, combating poaching, implementing biotechnical measures aimed at increasing the capacity of land, increasing the density of the bird population, protecting nests from ruin, etc. To increase the reserves of game birds, in addition to reserves, reserves are organized where hunting is prohibited for several years, hunting farms are created in which hunting is regulated in accordance with the number and the possibility of restoration of commercial species.
Some species are promising for captive breeding. They successfully breed pheasants, gray partridges, quails, and mallards and release them into hunting grounds. Hunting farms and pheasant farms in Poland raise up to 100 thousand pheasants per year, of which 50 thousand per year are released into hunting grounds. In the Krakow Voivodeship alone, about 300 hunting farms are engaged in game breeding. In France, about 2 thousand hunting farms raise game. In just one year (1968) they supplied about 2 million pheasant eggs and chicks, over 1 million partridge eggs and chicks, 1.6 million quail and 1 million duck eggs. These farms release 2.5 million pheasants and 0.4 million partridges into hunting grounds per year.
Mammal conservation. Representatives of the class of mammals, or animals, play an important role in biocenoses and serve as an object of fishing. Breeding ungulates is the basis of animal husbandry; rodents and carnivores are used in fur farming. The most important terrestrial mammals for fishing are rodents, lagomorphs, and carnivores, and aquatic ones are cetaceans and seals.
Considering that no more than 15% of the land area is used for agriculture, the relevance of finding ways to exploit the phytomass of non-agricultural lands through game animals is obvious.
The most important measure for the protection of game animals is strict compliance with hunting laws, which stipulate the timing and methods of obtaining them. Hunting is regulated by the Regulations on Hunting and Game Management. It indicates the species of animals and birds the hunting of which is prohibited or permitted under licenses. It is prohibited to hunt animals in nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, and green areas of cities. Mass hunting of animals, hunting from cars, airplanes, motor boats, destruction of burrows, lairs, nests is not permitted. Standards for shooting or catching have been established for each species of animal. Violation of laws and hunting rules is considered poaching and entails administrative, financial and criminal liability.
All of these measures are aimed at the protection and rational use of mammals. Recently, more attention has been paid to the protection of wild animals.
On the territory of Russia there are 245 species of mammals, of which 65 species were included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation in 1983, in 1999 this number did not change (together with protected subspecies - 89).
Legal protection of wildlife
The protection and rational use of wild animals are determined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws, regulations and other legislative acts. The most significant of them are considered to be the laws of the Russian Federation “On the Protection of the Natural Environment” (1992) and “On the Animal World” (1995). According to the latest law “ animal world is the property of the peoples of the Russian Federation, an integral element of the natural environment and biological diversity of the Earth, a renewable natural resource, an important regulating and stabilizing component of the biosphere, fully protected and rationally used to meet the spiritual and material needs of citizens of the Russian Federation "
This law provides for the procedure for the use of game animals, monitoring of wild animal populations, measures for the protection and restoration of rare and endangered species.
The legal norms of fisheries in Russia are determined by the Regulations on the protection of fish stocks and on the regulation of fish farming in water bodies of the USSR, approved by the Council of Ministers of the USSR in 1958, and by the “Fisheries Rules” published for each republic and basin. They prohibit fishing using explosives, firearms, toxic substances, prisons, nets, and fishing near dams and locks. The rules determine the terms and areas commercial fishing, cell size in networks.
In the system of measures for the protection of animals, one of the central places is given to maintaining the Red Book of the Russian Federation and the Red Books of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation as the most important element contributing to the conservation of biodiversity.
In accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation “On the Red Book of the Russian Federation” (1996), it is maintained by the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Environmental Protection (included in the Ministry of Natural Resources since the summer of 2000) with the participation of federal bodies of the natural resource block and RAS. The procedure for maintaining it is regulated by the Regulations on the procedure for maintaining the Red Book of the Russian Federation, approved by the State Committee for Ecology of Russia (October 1997) and registered by the Ministry of Justice of Russia (December 1997).
As of November 1, 1997, 415 species of animals were included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (including 155 species of invertebrates, 4 cyclostomes, 39 fish, 8 amphibians, 21 reptiles, 123 birds and 65 mammal species ). Compared to the previous Red Book of Russia (1983), the number of animal species has increased by 1.6 times. At the same time, 38 species of animals were excluded from the new Red Data Book of the Russian Federation, the state of their populations, thanks to the protection measures taken, currently does not cause concern.
At the end of 1997, red books were created in 18 subjects of the Russian Federation, and lists of rare and endangered species of animals and plants were compiled and approved in 39 subjects of the Federation.
Control questions
1. What role do animals play in the cycle of substances in nature and what significance do they have for humans?
2. What is the direct and indirect impact of humans on animals?
3. What species of animals have become extinct over historically documented time and what are the reasons for their extinction?
4. What is the essence of the rational use and protection of game animals?
5. What is the rational use and protection of fish resources?
6. Name the rare species of animals listed in the IUCN Red Book.
7. How are rare and endangered animals protected in our country? How are aquatic invertebrates protected?
8. What measures are used to protect beneficial insects?
9. What is the difficulty of protecting amphibians and reptiles?
10. How are insectivorous and birds of prey protected and attracted?
11. What measures are used to protect rare and endangered mammals?
480 rub. | 150 UAH | $7.5 ", MOUSEOFF, FGCOLOR, "#FFFFCC",BGCOLOR, "#393939");" onMouseOut="return nd();"> Dissertation - 480 RUR, delivery 10 minutes, around the clock, seven days a week and holidays
Chashkin Petr Vladimirovich. Legal protection of rare and endangered species of animals: dissertation... Candidate of Legal Sciences: 12.00.06 Moscow, 2007 218 p. RSL OD, 61:07-12/1365
Introduction
Chapter I. General characteristics of legal measures for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals
1. Rare and endangered species of animals as objects of special protection 14
2. Formation and development of legal measures for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals 35
Chapter II. Legal measures for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals in the Russian Federation
1. Requirements for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals 57
2. Organizational mechanism for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals 72
3. Legal liability for violation of legislation on the protection of rare and endangered species of animals 104
4. Problems of regional protection of rare and endangered animal species 124
Chapter III. International legal measures for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals
1. International treaties of the Russian Federation ensuring the protection of rare and endangered species of animals 143
2. International trade in rare and endangered species of animals: legal aspect 172
Conclusion 192
List of used literature 196
Introduction to the work
Relevance of the research topic. The development of law in general as a response to emerging problems of society requires scientific coverage and justification. This is necessary in order to know “to what extent the current level of development of law corresponds to the needs of society in achieving the goals of nature conservation” 1, and what path its further development should take.
Problems of legal protection, rational use and reproduction of natural resources cover an unusually wide range of issues and are inextricably linked with the prospects for well-being and development human society, the level of scientific and technological progress, education and culture of the population. Despite the fact that nowadays they are given more importance than ever serious significance and importance they are understandable, many of these questions are very far from the required completeness of the solution. This especially applies to the problems of protection and sustainable use of wildlife. In this area of knowledge and practice, despite significant progress and certain successes achieved in recent years in terms of the conservation of a fairly large number of economically valuable species, one of the main, acute and pressing problems remains the conservation of all species diversity living beings and, above all, the gene pool of rare biological species and endangered species.
According to the latest scientific research and observations, only 12,500 rhinoceroses of five species have survived in the world, no more than 6,000 tigers, including 350 Siberian tigers, about 1,000 large pandas, 100 individuals of freshwater dolphins living in the Chinese Yangtze River. And this depressing list could be continued. At the same time, new species with more
1 Kolbasov O.S. Ecology: politics - law. M., 1976. P.7.
4 a perfect system of adaptation to changing conditions of existence, not
appear. Therefore, the modern process of extinction of biological species
is unnatural and destructive to all living things.
Natural scientific (ecological) and economic arguments are traditionally put forward in favor of an urgent solution to the problem of preserving rare and endangered species of animals.
Animals are part of the biosphere in which we live. The normal functioning of the living components of the biosphere is associated with maintaining the purity of fresh waters, the stable composition of the world's oceans, and the purity and gas composition of the atmosphere. The loss of several or even the loss of any one “low-value” species will entail a violation of the integrity, stability and productivity of ecosystems as a whole.
In addition, the extinction of a species is the irretrievable loss of unique information stored in its genes. Any species, even one not currently used by people, has potential value, since today it is impossible to predict which species and what properties will prove useful and even irreplaceable in the future.
Rare and endangered species are currently gaining increasing economic importance. Pharmaceuticals, food and light industries are developing on the basis of modern biotechnologies using animal waste products, tissues and cells. At the same time, such economic interest creates a new threat to maintaining the balance of the animal world, expanding the list of rare and endangered species.
The economic significance of a particular species of wild animal is not the only correct criterion for its value. Rare species also have enormous educational, ethical and aesthetic significance. Many of them are relics of past geological eras and therefore their preservation is important for understanding the laws of evolution, others are symbols for people of wild nature and the efforts taken to protect it. Thus,
5 the disappearance of any population, and especially a species, is an irreparable loss for
Earth's biodiversity and irretrievably lost “opportunities”
humanity,
In solving the problem of preserving rare and endangered species of animals important role belongs to the right. Law, thanks to its inherent properties of generally binding normativity, formal certainty, action through subjective rights and obligations, and the provision of state coercion, gives legal force, and also is a guarantee of the implementation of environmental requirements operating within the framework of the practical protection of endangered species of fauna. At the same time, the conditions and requirements contained in legal norms are fulfilled and achieve their goals only if they have a scientific basis, ensuring their implementation with the necessary organizational, financial and material and technical means, and instilling the required ecological worldview. Only when such a relationship is carried out constantly and unchangeably will it become possible to achieve the main strategic goal - the quantitative and qualitative restoration of animal species to a level at which they are no longer in danger of extinction and loss of the natural gene pool.
In scientific research devoted to the legal protection of the natural environment, its individual components and complexes, traditionally increased attention is paid to the following issues: determination of objects of legal protection; establishing in legislation the conditions and requirements for the protection of these objects, compliance with which is mandatory for all individuals and legal entities in the process of economic and other activities; carrying out organizational and managerial work aimed at implementing the conditions and requirements provided for by law (including the implementation of control and supervisory functions); attraction to
legal liability of persons guilty of violating the law. 1 In our opinion, this issue is also relevant when considering legal aspect protection of rare and endangered species of animals.
An assessment of the state of legal regulation of the protection of rare and endangered animal species in Russia forces us to admit that legislation in this area does not fully meet public needs. Existing gaps, the declarative nature of certain norms enshrined in the law and the lack of their development at the level of by-law rule-making, the use of legally vague categories and terms, and the truncated legal protection mechanisms reduce the effectiveness of efforts to preserve rare and endangered species of animals. The problem is aggravated by the lack of a clearly expressed executive policy of the state, constant changes in the structure of state executive bodies and the redistribution of powers between levels state power, insufficient financing of measures provided for by law.
Object of study. Object dissertation research are public relations in the field of legal protection of rare and endangered species of animals.
Subject of study draws up legislation on rare and endangered species of animals, on the animal world, on specially protected natural areas that ensure the protection of the habitat of rare and endangered species of animals, as well as practical executive and administrative activities of government bodies to implement legislation.
Purpose of the dissertation research consists of analyzing legislation on rare and endangered species of animals, studying theoretical and practical problems in this area, identifying ways
1 See Kolbasov O.S. Legal protection of waters and fish stocks. M., 1974. P.48; Zabshlyspsky A.L. Fundamentals of environmental law. Sverdlovsk, 1978. SLU; Petrov V.V. Ecology and law. M., 1981. P. 224.
7 improving the system of legal regulation of faunal
relationships.
The research goal is achieved by solving the following problems:
Studying legislation on wildlife, including rare and endangered species of animals as objects of special protection;
Identification of features of the formation and development of legal measures for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals;
Analysis of legal requirements and organizational mechanism for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals;
Comparisons of various types of legal liability for violation of legislation on the protection of rare and endangered species of animals;
Disclosure of problems of regional protection of rare and endangered species of animals;
Determining areas of international cooperation in the field of protection of rare and endangered species of animals.
The methodological basis of the dissertation research was made up of general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis, generalization and analogy. Special and private methods were also used: formal-logical, comparative legal, historical, forecasting in order to identify areas for improvement Russian legislation in the field of protection of rare and endangered species of animals.
The theoretical basis of the study was scientific works on the theory of state and law, environmental law, as well as works on criminal and civil law related to the subject of the study. Regulatory legal acts on faunistic, environmental and natural resource legislation, scientific and practical comments and judicial practice were studied.
8 Domestic and foreign legal science paid serious attention to
attention to the problems of legal support for environmental protection
The works of S.A. are widely known. Bogolyubova, O.S. Kolbasova, I.O. Krasnova,
V.V. Petrova, N.F. Reimers, A.S. Shesteryuk and other researchers.
Determining the place of environmental law in the legal system of society
devoted to the works of P.V. Gorbachev, A.G. Tarnavsky, M.I. Vasilyeva, G-N.
Shevardnadze.
The history of the development of environmental regulations in Russia is reflected in the works of A.K. Golichenkova, A.M. Galeeva, M.L. Kurok, G.E. Novitskaya.
The environmental activities of state bodies were concerned with such scientists as V.P. Bozhev, R.Z. Vezirov, ALO. Vinokurov, Yu.E. Vinokurov, R.D. Bogolepov, P.V. Gorbachev, N.K. Gorislavsky, A.V. Dmitrieva, N.M. Zhavoronkov, V.V. Koroleva, F.G. Mouse.
The mechanism for implementing environmental law norms is covered in the works of O.L. Dubovik, N.S. Maleina, A.K. Shaposhnikova, T.D. Shapdritnoy.
Issues of legal regulation of the protection of rare and endangered animal species are reflected in the works of Russian scientists: S.A., Bogolyubov, M.M. Brinchuk, N.N. Vedenina, R.K. Guseva, D.P. Dichute, S.A. Demina, L.A. Zaslavskaya, O.S. Kolbasova, S.S. Konstantinidi, I.O. Krasnova, O.I. Krassova, G.A. Larionova, A.E. Luneva, T.N. Maloy, I.F. Pankratova, V.V., Petrova, N.A. Syrodoeva, V.E. Flint, I.O.C. Shemshuchenko and others. Their research had a positive impact on the development of wildlife legislation and served as the basis for this dissertation research.
Regulatory basis for the study constitute the Constitution of the Russian Federation, international treaties of the Russian Federation, federal laws, decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, decrees and orders of the Government of the Russian Federation, regulatory legal acts of federal ministries and departments, laws and other regulatory
legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, decisions of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation.
Scientific novelty of the research. Certain aspects of the legal protection of rare and endangered species of animals were considered in the science of Soviet environmental law in the 70-80s. Subsequent changes in the political and economic way of life of the country and the associated processes of reforming Russian environmental legislation required further development of the topic, including issues that were not previously the subject of comprehensive scientific analysis.
Provisions of the dissertation submitted for defense. The main theoretical principles and practical conclusions, which have elements of novelty and are put forward for defense, are:
1. Due to the absence in the legislation of the legal concept of rare and
endangered animal species is proposed
fill this gap with the following formulation. Rare and found
an endangered animal is a wild animal,
being in a state of natural freedom or contained in
semi-free conditions or artificially created habitat for
preservation of the gene pool, other scientific or educational purposes,
belonging to a species, subspecies or population that, in the established
order recognized by a state, a group of states or a state-
territorial entities in need of special protection and included
based on reliable scientific data on declines in population, range and
other threatened factors in the official list (Red Book).
2. Based on the positive experience of rapeseed scientific research
research, a general conclusion was made that the special protection regime
rare and endangered species of animals should consist of those fixed in
the law of special requirements for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals,
a special organizational mechanism for implementing these requirements, as well as
10 system of measures of legal liability of persons guilty of violation
protective legal regulations.
3. Requirement for widespread withdrawal from economic use
objects of the animal world included in the red books, provided for
paragraph 1 of Article 60 of the Federal Law “On Environmental Protection”,
formulated very broadly and is not so much a direct norm
actions, how many general principle, unable to protect vulnerable species
from extermination during non-commercial production. In this regard, it is proposed
make an addition to Article 24 of the Federal Law “On Animal World”,
introducing a ban on the acquisition of animal objects belonging to
species listed in the Red Books, except when it
produced for environmental, scientific and other purposes for special purposes
permits issued by authorized state bodies
authorities of the Russian Federation and constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
For reasons of a legal and technical nature, it is necessary to change the wording of the requirement enshrined in paragraph 2 of part 2 of Article 24 of the Federal Law “On Wildlife”, stating it as follows: “Individuals and legal entities carrying out economic and other activities in the territories and waters where they live animals listed in the Red Books are obliged to take measures provided for by the legislation of the Russian Federation and the legislation of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation for the conservation and reproduction of these objects of the animal world.”
A proposal is being made for the speedy development and adoption of the Regulations on licensing activities for keeping and breeding in semi-free conditions and in artificially created habitats of wildlife objects listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation, which, along with the licensing procedure, should provide for requirements for professional training, financial and organizational
capabilities, as well as the material and technical equipment of licensees necessary to perform the special tasks assigned to them.
The analysis of the provisions of civil legislation and legislation on the protection and use of wildlife allows us to assert that wild animals removed from the natural environment, belonging to species listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation, belong to the category of limitedly negotiable objects of civil rights.
In order to strengthen the criminal legal protection of rare and endangered species of animals, it is proposed to supplement the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation with an article establishing criminal liability for the illegal extraction, destruction, acquisition or sale of rare or endangered wildlife objects related to species listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation. Federation and (or) Red Data Books of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, as well as for the illegal acquisition or sale of rare or endangered objects of wildlife belonging to species protected by international treaties of the Russian Federation. A note to this article should indicate that an animal object refers to both the wild animal itself and its products, parts and derivatives.
In order to eliminate duplication of norms of criminal and administrative legislation, it is simultaneously proposed to amend Article 8.35 of the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses, stating it in the following wording:
"1. Actions (inaction) that may lead to death, reduction in numbers or disruption of the habitat of rare or endangered wildlife objects belonging to species listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation are punishable... .
threat of extinction of fauna objects related to species,
listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation or protected
international treaties of the Russian Federation, as well as their products,
parts or derivatives without proper permission or in violation
conditions provided for by the permit, or in violation of other
established order, are punished...”
8. Current legislation, legalizing the establishment of the Reds
books of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, entrusts all work on their maintenance to
government bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Maintaining
Red Data Books are carried out in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation unsystematically,
at completely unequal legal and organizational levels. In this
connection, the following proposals are put forward:
Develop and approve a Model Regulation on the procedure for maintaining the Red Data Book of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation;
Accelerate the preparation and adoption of legislative acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation establishing administrative and tax liability for violation of legislation on the protection of regionally rare and endangered species of animals;
Provide funding from the federal budget for research projects aimed at studying the current and forecast state of populations of the most endangered animal species listed in the Red Books of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, as well as measures for the conservation and reproduction of these species in specialized nurseries and specially protected natural areas.
9. State legal regulation of the protection of rare and endangered
animal species can only be effective if the efforts of states
will be sufficiently consistent. Therefore, in close connection with
development of national legal systems it is necessary to expand
13 international legal regulation designed to mobilize and
coordinate the efforts of individual states, their cooperation in the global
scale And individual regions in the field of protection of the most vulnerable species
fauna, as well as ensure joint actions to protect habitats and
migration routes of these animals.
The practical significance of the study lies in the possibility of using the provisions and theoretical conclusions of the dissertation submitted for defense to improve the quality of adopted regulatory legal acts in this area.
Approbation of research results. The dissertation was discussed and reviewed at the Department of Agrarian and Environmental Law of the Moscow State Law Academy. The main conclusions and provisions of the dissertation are reflected in published scientific articles, were presented at scientific and practical conferences, and were also taken into account during the work of the expert commission of the state environmental assessment on the project of organizing in the Orenburg region the reserve “Steppe Park-Biostation Orenburg Tarpania”, necessary for the conservation of a representative steppe massif and the reintroduction of the Prezhivalsky horse species on it , listed V Red Book of the Russian Federation.
Rare and endangered species of animals as objects of special protection
In accordance with the Environmental Doctrine of the Russian Federation, nature conservation and environmental improvement are priority areas of activity for the state and society. The natural environment must be included in the system of socio-economic relations as a most valuable component of the national heritage. The formation and implementation of the country's socio-economic development strategy and state environmental policy must be interconnected, since the health, social and environmental well-being of the population are inextricably unified.
Among the main directions public policy The environmental doctrine of the Russian Federation includes the conservation and restoration of rare and endangered species of living organisms in natural environment their habitats, in captivity and gene banks; the creation and development of specially protected natural areas of different levels and regimes, the formation on their basis, as well as on the basis of other territories with a predominance of natural processes, of the natural reserve fund of Russia as an integral component of the development of the regions and the country as a whole, the preservation of unique natural complexes; conservation and restoration of natural biological diversity and landscapes in economically developed and urbanized areas.
The development of effective measures to protect rare and endangered animal species is impossible without preliminary analysis the reasons for their endangered state or, in other words, limiting factors. Limiting factors are factors that negatively affect the biological parameters of a species, leading to its degradation and posing a threat of extinction1. Natural and anthropogenic limiting factors are identified. Natural limiting factors are: feeding conditions; natural mortality from old age; diseases, including epizootics - mass infectious diseases of wild animals; predators; weather conditions (precipitation, temperature, snow cover thickness, etc.); weather disasters (severe frosts, heavy snow, tornado, etc.); natural disasters (Forest fires, floods); ecological plasticity or, conversely, non-plasticity of the species; population structure, etc. Despite the wide range of limiting factors determined natural processes and reasons, it would be too optimistic to overestimate their impact against the backdrop of rapidly emerging purely anthropogenic transformations covering vast territories. Therefore, it is no less, and sometimes even more important, to know anthropogenic limiting factors, which, according to the form of impact, are traditionally divided into direct and indirect (indirect).2
Direct impacts entail the death or removal of organisms of a given animal species from natural populations. This can occur as a result of: 1) overexploitation due to legal fishing or illegal mining; 2) destruction of “harmful”, “dangerous” and “unpleasant” organisms; 3) accidental death of organisms under one or another influence. Indirect impacts are associated with changes in the habitat of organisms, leading to a deterioration in the condition of the species. Three areas of such impacts can be distinguished: physical - changing the physical properties of soil or soil, construction, creating physical obstacles to the movement of organisms (dams, pipelines, roads, canals, etc.), regulation of river flow, destruction of small rivers, withdrawal of water from reservoirs ( water consumption), hydroelectric power station turbines, seismic exploration and blasting, the effect of electromagnetic fields, noise impact, thermal pollution, etc.; chemical - toxic industrial emissions, pesticides, herbicides, chemical fertilizers, radionuclides, emergency oil spills, changes in environmental pH, household and transport pollution, etc.; biological - acclimatization (movement and release into nature of animals bred in captivity or removed from nature) and introduction (introduction of any non-native species into the local indigenous fauna), invasive species, spread of epizootics, eutrophication of water bodies, destruction of food resources, etc. As a rule , different kinds human activity(agriculture, construction, mining, transport, industry, recreation, fishing, etc.) have both direct and indirect impacts.
According to Article 1 of the Federal Law of January 10, 2002. No. 7-FZ “On Environmental Protection” environmental protection represents the activities of government bodies of the Russian Federation, government bodies of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local government bodies, public and other non-profit associations, legal and individuals aimed at preserving and restoring the natural environment, rational use and reproduction of natural resources, preventing the negative impact of economic and other activities on the environment and eliminating these consequences1. It is quite obvious that the protection of the animal world consists of elements inherent in the content of the protection of the natural environment as a whole, which, in relation to wild fauna, consist of activities aimed at preserving biological diversity and ensuring the sustainable existence of the animal world, as well as creating conditions for the sustainable use and reproduction of its representatives1. In relation to rare and endangered species of animals, this activity also receives its specific expression. At the same time, in order for it to be effective and not random, but systemic in nature, all state and public activities in the field of conservation, reproduction and strictly controlled limited use of rare and endangered representatives of the animal world must be based on the achievements modern science and practices, strategy for the protection of rare and endangered species of fauna.
This idea has been discussed in scientific circles for quite a long time, but only now have legal grounds for its real implementation appeared. In 1995 Russia ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity,3 which was opened for signature at an international conference in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. As a party to this international agreement, our country assumes a number of obligations, the most important of which are the development of a national strategy and action plan for the conservation of biodiversity, including its most vulnerable part. The strategy for the conservation of rare and endangered species of animals, plants and fungi was approved by order of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation dated April 6, 2004. No. 3234. In accordance with this long-term planning document, which defines the goals, objectives and priorities in the field of conservation of vulnerable species, the strategic level of protection of rare and endangered species of animals should cover various aspects of human activity, including, in particular, scientific (comprehensive study of the biology of species as the basis for developing measures for their conservation and restoration of numbers), practical (forms of implementation of protective measures), economic (economic and financial mechanisms of protection), educational (environmental education and environmental propaganda) and legal.
Formation and development of legal measures for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals
The problem of preserving rare and endangered fauna became obvious to specialists already at the end of the 19th century. However, it was only in the mid-20th century that calls for the necessary measures to protect them became global. At the same time, their inventory and recording, both on a global scale and in individual countries and regions, were recognized as the main task, a necessary condition and the initial stage of the protection of rare and endangered animal species.
The first attempts to compile first regional and then global reports of rare and endangered animals and birds were made 60-65 years ago. However, the information was either too laconic and contained only a list of rare species, or, on the contrary, very cumbersome, containing all the available data on biology and setting out the historical picture of the reduction of their ranges. In 1948, work on the protection of wildlife by state, scientific and public organizations various countries of the world united and headed the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Among his first decisions in 1949 was the creation of a permanent Species Survival Commission, which in Russian-language literature is usually called the Commission on Rare Species.
The commission's main goal was to create a global annotated list (cadastre) of animals that, for one reason or another, are in danger of extinction. To emphasize the special significance of this cadastre, it was necessary to give it a capacious, catchy and memorable name. And such a name was found. Sir Peter Scott, who chaired the commission, proposed calling it the Red Data Book1. Red is a danger signal, and it was here that it turned out to be more relevant than ever. To date, four editions of the IUCN Red Book have already been published, but work on it continues. In principle, there cannot be a final version. The Red Book is a permanent document, since the living conditions of animals are constantly changing and more and more new species may find themselves in a catastrophic situation.
The IUCN Red List was originally conceived as a way to record endangered animal species in order to attract the attention of the international community to take urgent action to protect them. Gradually, the Red Book began to be given importance political meaning. The book became the basis for appealing to states and peoples to take effective measures to protect rare and endangered species, a source of information about species in need of international legal protection, and a measure of environmental work carried out by states and international organizations3. However, the international IUCN Red List is not a means of direct legal application, since it does not itself generate legal rights and responsibilities of states, organizations and individuals. Only after being transferred to the soil of intrastate relations, the idea of the Red Book, while maintaining its social significance as an alarming alarm bell for scientists in defense of rare and endangered species of animals, acquires official legal recognition4.
In the Soviet Union, this process began in the early 70s, when employees of the Central Laboratory of Nature Conservation of the USSR Ministry of Agriculture, which was a member of the IUCN, carried out the necessary preparatory work on the basis of the collected scientific data, as a result of which, by resolution of the Board of the USSR Ministry of Agriculture dated March 12, 1974 The Red Book of rare and endangered species of animals and plants of the USSR was established - “The Red Book of the USSR”1, by order of the Ministry of Agriculture of the USSR dated October 16, 1974. No. 428, the Regulations on this book were approved and, finally, on November 27, 1974. At the Scientific and Technical Council of the USSR Ministry of Agriculture, the final version of the list of terrestrial vertebrates to be included in the Red Book of the USSR was reviewed and approved.
The regulations on the Red Book provided that rare and endangered animal species of the USSR were subject to inclusion in the Red Book of the USSR. The basis and procedures for including species in the Red Book of the USSR and exclusion from the list were established; the structure, content, and procedure for making entries, storing and distributing the Union Red Book were regulated. Particularly noteworthy is paragraph 5 of the Regulations, according to which the sheets of the Red Book, along with information on the biological parameters and limiting factors of endangered species, should also include data on the measures taken and necessary for their protection. In addition, paragraph 4 of the order that approved the Regulations ordered the relevant authorities, scientific and publishing organizations to provide timely information about work to preserve rare and endangered species of animals in the USSR, as well as to take measures to organize the publication of scientific, popular science literature and posters promoting the protection and restoration of these species.
Thus, in this regulatory act, the Red Book of the USSR was officially given the importance of the main state instrument for inventory and registration of endangered species, a scientifically supported program of practical measures to save them, as well as a means of promoting and educating a reasonable and caring attitude towards animals. At the same time, the main thing was missing here, namely legal requirements guaranteeing the conservation of species listed in the Red Book of the USSR, which, of course, belittled its legal significance.
In the scientific literature, S.L. drew attention to this circumstance. Demina, who studied the legal forms of nature conservation. In her opinion, an analysis of the said Regulations on the Red Book reveals its inadequacy. There is no requirement prohibiting the destruction of rare and endangered species of animals listed in the Red Book of the USSR. The responsibilities of state bodies for the protection and regulation of the use of wildlife to take measures to preserve and optimally increase their numbers are not fixed. As a legal document establishing the status of rare and endangered animal species, the Regulations should have contained a general rule providing for the application of liability for violation of the protection regime for such species,
Organizational mechanism for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals
Law without the proper organizational form of its implementation is a dead dogma, unable to actively regulate social relations. The organizational mechanism for the implementation of environmental legislation in its content is environmental management, an integral part of which is public administration in the field of protection and use of wildlife objects. The basis of the organizational mechanism for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals on a nationwide scale is the maintenance of the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation, which is classified as one of the main functions in the Federal Law “On Animal World” government controlled in the field of protection and use of wildlife. In accordance with the Regulations on the procedure for maintaining the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation, approved by order of the State Committee for Ecology of the Russian Federation dated October 3, 1997. No. 419-a, the content of this function includes a complex set of measures, which can be divided into two blocks. Firstly, this is the activity of collecting, processing and storing scientific information on the state of rare and endangered species, their limiting factors and protection measures, entering these species into the Red Book of the Russian Federation (exclusion from the Red Book of the Russian Federation), as well as its periodic republication (chapters III - VII). Sources of scientific information include biological surveys and government monitoring data. This information, appropriately processed and arranged, together with the protection recommendations developed on its basis, constitutes the content of the Red Book.
But the preparation and publication of the Red Book is not an end in itself. By itself, without the protective measures taken in relation to the types of protective measures included in it, the Red Book of the Russian Federation would be just another popular science publication about the life of animals that has no practical significance. Therefore, the second block of activities included in the content of the function under consideration includes the preparation and implementation, with the participation of natural resource users and other interested parties, of proposals for special protection measures, including the organization of specially protected natural areas and gene banks, as well as the issuance of licenses to carry out activities related to the use of and permits for the extraction of wildlife objects listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation ( Chapter VIII- X). By carrying out precisely these activities, authorized state bodies directly implement the legislative requirements for the protection of rare and endangered species of animals and ensure their implementation by other participants environmental relations. In Article 5 of the Federal Law “On Animal World”, maintaining the Red Book of the Russian Federation is attributed to the powers of state authorities of the Russian Federation. As already noted, until 2000, the Red Book of the Russian Federation was maintained by the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Environmental Protection. In accordance with the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of May 17, 2000. No. 867 “On the structure of federal executive bodies”, this Committee was abolished, and its function of maintaining the Red Book of the Russian Federation was transferred to the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation. The administrative reform of 2004 led to another reorganization of environmental agencies. According to the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of March 9, 2004. No. 314 “On the system and structure of federal executive authorities”2, the Federal Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Natural Resources (Rosprirodnadzor), which is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, was established. In paragraph 5.6 74 of the Regulations on the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of July 30, 2004. No. 400, on Federal service Supervision in the field of environmental management is entrusted with maintaining the Red Book of the Russian Federation1. In accordance with paragraph 1.3 of the Regulations on the procedure for maintaining the Red Book of the Russian Federation, scientific support for maintaining the Red Book of the Russian Federation is carried out by organizations from among research organizations and universities conducting research activities on the study and development of measures for the protection of animal objects and flora. In 1996, scientific support for maintaining the Red Book of the Russian Federation, including the creation of a computer version of the “Red Book of the Russian Federation,” was entrusted to the All-Russian Research Institute for Nature Conservation2. Since 1998, the All-Russian Research Institute for Nature Conservation has also supported the activities of the Commission on Rare and Endangered Animals, Plants and Fungi3.
Knowing sufficiently complete and accurate information about the condition and distribution of fauna, one can effectively plan their protection. This fully applies to the most vulnerable part of the animal world - rare and endangered species of animals, information about which is subject to inclusion in the Red Book of the Russian Federation. In accordance with the Regulations on the procedure for maintaining the Red Book of the Russian Federation, obtaining information about objects of the animal world listed and recommended for inclusion in the Red Book of the Russian Federation represents the following set of interrelated actions: 1) collection and analysis of data about objects of the animal world listed or recommended for inclusion in the Red Book of the Russian Federation; 2) periodic monitoring of fauna objects listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation; 3) creation and replenishment of a special data bank on objects of the animal world listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation.
The collection and analysis of data on fauna objects included or recommended for inclusion in the Red Book of the Russian Federation is primarily ensured as a result of conducting the necessary surveys. The Regulations define the composition of the necessary information about objects of the animal world that must be collected and analyzed during surveys: a) distribution; b) habitats; c) lifestyle; d) biology; e) number; f) limiting factors; g) measures taken and necessary to protect and restore these fauna objects, to change their living conditions. In accordance with paragraph 3.1 of the Regulations, surveys are carried out by organizations and citizens related by the nature of their activities to the study and protection of wildlife objects.
Problems of regional protection of rare and endangered species of animals
The concept of rarity in most cases is relative. It is fully applicable only at the planetary level. This level is reflected, in particular, in the characteristics of rare and endangered species in the IUCN Red List. When moving to a single country or region, coincidence of the federal and regional levels is possible in the case when the habitat of a rare species is entirely located within regional boundaries. In all other cases, it would be more correct to talk about regionally rare species indicating the corresponding region. For example, a rare species of the European part of Russia, a rare species Sakhalin region, etc.
Already such a division of species establishes a certain hierarchy when assessing their status. The complexity of the problem of assessing status is determined to a large extent by ecological differences between species. The experience of maintaining red books has shown that it is impossible to create uniform criteria and develop uniform approaches to assessing the environmental status of plants and animals. Thus, the concept of a federal strategy for the conservation of rare and endangered species should be based on a regional approach that takes into account the specifics of economic and natural conditions of certain regions and characteristics of the state of populations living within their borders.
In accordance with Article 6 of the Federal Law “On Animal World”, the establishment and maintenance of the Red Data Book of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation is within the competence of state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. As in the case of the Red Book of the Russian Federation, species included in the Red Books of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation immediately find themselves within the framework of special legal regime; separate regulation of their use, mandatory adoption of additional conservation and restoration measures in relation to them, etc. Unfortunately, even among leading experts in the field of nature conservation, not everyone accepted this most important component of the contents of the Red Book. It is for this reason that in the 70s there was a serious discussion on the legality of publishing the Red Books individual territories. The main objection to such Red Books was the lack of an appropriate legislative basis and thereby weakening the legal component of this term. In the early 90s, the situation in the area of the problem under consideration changed dramatically due to the fact that the subjects of the Federation were endowed with the right of broad legislative action. The RFSFM Law “On the Protection of the Natural Environment”, adopted in 1991, first declared the creation of regional Red Data Books as the responsibility of the republics within the Russian Federation. In 1995, the Federal Law “On Fauna” extended this responsibility to all subjects of the Federation. Thus, conditions were created for active work within the framework of the problem under consideration in all subjects of the Federation.
At the end of 2003, out of 89 constituent entities of the Russian Federation, Red Books were published in 60 constituent entities of the Russian Federation, and in another 14 they were being prepared for publication. Regional Red Books are divided into official ones, published on the basis of relevant legal norms (75% of the total), and scientific ones, for which there is no legal framework. At the same time, some official Red Books were published in violation of the law. As a rule, this is expressed in a discrepancy between the composition of species included in the Red Book and the previously approved list of species. There are also situations when, although there is an approved Regulation on the Red Book, there is no list of species at all. The All-Russian Research Institute for Nature Conservation has compiled and published a unified register of 126 state-protected rare and endangered species in Russia. According to the register, 2,353 species of animals are legally protected throughout the country.
According to clause 1.6 of the Regulations on the procedure for maintaining the Red Book of the Russian Federation, the procedure for maintaining the Red Books of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation is determined by the regulations of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The rule-making work on legal support for the functioning of the Red Data Books of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation is different. In some regions it has either not yet begun or is in its early stages. In other regions, on the contrary, full-fledged legal systems, covering with their regulation almost all aspects of the protection and use of rare and endangered species of animals.
Thus, by order of the administration of the Voronezh region dated July 24, 2001. No. 1299-r “On the Red Book of the Voronezh Region”, an instruction was given to the Department of Ecology and Natural Resources of the regional administration, with the involvement of scientists and specialists from universities and environmental organizations, to carry out work to collect materials for the establishment of the Red Book of the Voronezh Region, as well as to make proposals for financing work on creation and publication of the Red Book.
By the Decree of the Head of the Administration of the Belgorod Region dated April 22, 2002. No. 204 “On the Red Book of the Belgorod Region”, the proposal of the Committee of Natural Resources for the Belgorod Region and the Belgorod State University to create a Red Book of the Belgorod Region was supported, the regulations on the Red Book were approved, as well as the composition of the commission on rare and endangered plants, mushrooms and animals Belgorod region. Resolution of the Head of Administration of the Irkutsk Region dated February 8, 2002. No. 14-PG “On the Red Book of the Irkutsk Region” approved the Procedure for maintaining the Red Book, the composition of the Commission for its maintenance and the rules of its work.
By Decree of the Government of the Murmansk Region dated September 4, 2002. No. 325-PP “On the Red Book of the Murmansk Region” established the Red Book of the Murmansk Region, approved the Regulations on it, as well as lists of species, curator institutions summarizing information on the biology, abundance and distribution of flora and fauna objects in the region2, etc. .d.
The main task of protecting rare and endangered species is to achieve such increasing their numbers, which would eliminate the danger of their extinction.
Rare and endangered species of animals (as well as plants) are included in the Red Books. The inclusion of a species in the Red Book is a signal of the danger that threatens it and the need to take urgent measures to save it. Each country in whose territory a species included in the Red Book lives is responsible to its people and all humanity for its conservation.
In our country, to preserve rare and endangered species, reserves and wildlife sanctuaries are organized; animals are resettled in areas of their former distribution, fed, shelters and artificial nesting sites are created, and protected from predators and diseases. When numbers are very low, animals are bred in captivity (in nurseries and zoos) and then released into suitable conditions.
Protection and restoration of the number of game animals
The preservation and restoration of the number of game animals is of particular importance. As you know, the value of game animals lies in the fact that they live off natural food, which is inaccessible or unsuitable for domestic animals; they do not need special care. From game animals people receive meat, furs, leather, raw materials for the perfume industry and medicines. For some peoples of the North, hunting wild animals is the basis of their existence.
Among game animals, fish, birds and animals are of greatest importance. Centuries of ever-increasing mining, as well as changes in their habitat, led in the first half of this century to a sharp reduction in their reserves. Of the mammals, the reserves of ungulates, fur and sea animals. There was even an opinion that they could only be preserved in nature reserves. However, the successful restoration of the numbers of some species - elk, beaver, sable - made it possible to once again include them in the number of game animals.
Among game birds, waterfowl, vultures and bustards have suffered especially severely due to human fault. The number of geese, swans, and geese has decreased significantly. The red-breasted goose, little swan, white and mountain geese, Caucasian grouse, bustard and many other species are included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (see the corresponding section Examples and additional information).
Security system protection of wild animals consists, on the one hand, of measures to protect the animals themselves from direct extermination or death from natural disasters, and, on the other hand, of measures to preserve their habitat. The protection of the animals themselves is carried out by hunting laws. They provide for a complete ban on hunting rare species and restrictions on the timing, norms, places and methods of hunting other commercial species.
Rational use reserves of game animals does not contradict their protection if it is based on knowledge of their biology.
It is known that in populations In animals, there is a certain reserve of non-reproducing individuals; they are able to increase fertility with low numbers and abundance of food. It is possible to achieve the well-being of game animal populations by maintaining a certain ratio of sex and age groups and regulating the number of predatory animals.
The protection of hunting grounds is based on knowledge of the habitat conditions necessary for the life of commercial species, the availability of shelters, suitable places for nesting, and the abundance of food. Often the optimal places for species to exist are nature reserves and wildlife sanctuaries.
Reacclimatization of the species - This is its artificial resettlement in areas of its former distribution. It is often successful, since in this case the species takes its former position. ecological niche . Acclimatization new species require extensive preliminary preparation, including forecasting their impact on the local fauna and possible role in biocenoses . Experience acclimatization indicates many failures. The importation of 24 rabbits to Australia in 1859, which decades later gave rise to multimillion-dollar offspring, led to a national disaster. The multiplied rabbits began to compete for food with local animals. By settling in pastures and destroying vegetation, they caused enormous damage to sheep farming. Fighting rabbits required enormous effort and a long time. There are many such examples. Therefore, the relocation of each species should be preceded by a thorough study of the possible consequences of introducing the species into a new territory based on environmental assessment and forecast.
Timely measures taken make it possible to successfully maintain the required number of game animals and use them for a long time.
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Depletion and pollution water resources Fresh waters make up an insignificant (about 2% of the hydrosphere) share of the total water reserves in nature. Fresh water available for use is found in rivers, lakes and groundwater. Its share of the entire hydrosphere is 0.3%. Fresh water resources are distributed extremely unevenly; often the abundance of water does not coincide with areas of increased economic activity. In this regard, the problem of shortage and depletion of water resources and especially fresh water arises. It is aggravated by the ever-increasing volumes of its use. The problem of depletion of water resources arises for several reasons, the main of which are: uneven distribution of water in time and space, the increase in its consumption by mankind, water losses during transportation and use, deterioration of water quality and, as an extreme case, its pollution (rice). Main causes of pollution and anthropogenic freshwater depletion. The growth in fresh water consumption by the population on the planet is estimated at 0.5 - 2% per year. IN beginning of XXI century, the total water withdrawal reached a volume of 12-24 thousand km3. Fresh water losses increase with the growth of per capita consumption and are associated with the use of water for domestic needs. Most often this is due to imperfect technology in industrial, agricultural production and public services. In some cases, lack of fresh water is associated with negative consequences of human activities Water losses and depletion of water resources are largely due to lack of knowledge natural conditions(geological-lithological and hydrogeological, climatic and meteorological, biological), internal patterns and mechanisms of ecosystem development. The deterioration of water quality and pollution is associated with the ingress of pollutants and products of human activity into rivers and other surface water bodies. This type of freshwater depletion is the most dangerous and is becoming increasingly threatening to human health and the state of life on Earth. Its extreme manifestation is catastrophic water pollution. Natural changes, including deterioration of water quality associated with contact with water and the transfer of various substances, occur constantly. They are cyclical, less often spontaneous, in nature: they occur during volcanic eruptions, earthquakes (rice), tsunamis, floods and other catastrophic phenomena. Under anthropogenic conditions, such changes in the state of water have unidirectional character. Recently, pollution of sea waters and the World Ocean as a whole (background pollution) has caused great concern. The main sources of their pollution are domestic and industrial wastewater (60% of large cities are located in coastal areas), oil and oil products, and radioactive substances. Of particular danger are oil pollution (rice) And radioactive substances. Enterprises in coastal cities throw thousands of tons of various, usually untreated, waste into the sea, including sewage. Polluted river waters are carried into the seas. Water pollution causes the death of marine animals: crustaceans and fish, waterfowl, and seals. There are known cases of death of about 30 thousand sea ducks, mass death of starfish in the early 1990s in the White Sea. There are frequent cases of beach closures due to dangerous concentrations of pollutants in sea water caused by numerous accidents of ships transporting oil and petroleum products. Unauthorized or emergency discharges of industrial and household waste are very dangerous for the environment (Black Sea in the Odessa region, 1999; Tisa river, Romania, 2000; Amur river, Khabarovsk, 2000). As a result of such accidents, river waters are rapidly polluted downstream. Contaminated sewage water can enter water intake structures. The degree of seawater pollution largely depends on the attitude of the states bordering the seas and oceans to this problem. All internal and marginal seas of Russia are experiencing powerful anthropogenic pressure, including numerous planned and emergency discharges of pollutants. The level of pollution of Russian seas (with the exception of White Sea), according to State report“On the state of the environment of the Russian Federation”, in 1998 exceeded the maximum permissible concentrations (MAC) for the content of hydrocarbons, heavy metals, mercury, phenols, surfactants by an average of 3-5 times |
Contemporary water issues The problems of clean water and the protection of aquatic ecosystems are becoming more acute with the historical development of society, and the impact on nature caused by scientific and technological progress is rapidly increasing. Already, in many areas of the globe there are great difficulties in ensuring water supply and water use as a result of the qualitative and quantitative depletion of water resources, which is associated with pollution and irrational use of water. Water pollution mainly occurs due to the discharge of industrial, household and agricultural waste into it. In some reservoirs, the pollution is so great that they have completely degraded as sources of water supply. A small amount of pollution cannot cause a significant deterioration in the condition of the reservoir, since it has the ability of biological purification, but the problem is that, as a rule, the amount of pollutants discharged into the water is very large and the reservoir cannot cope with their neutralization. Water supply and water use are often complicated by biological obstacles: overgrowing of canals reduces their throughput, algae blooms worsen water quality and its sanitary condition, fouling creates interference in navigation and the functioning of hydraulic structures. Therefore, the development of measures with biological interference acquires great practical importance and becomes one of the most important problems of hydrobiology. Due to the disruption of the ecological balance in water bodies, a serious threat of significant deterioration of the environmental situation as a whole is created. Therefore, humanity faces the enormous task of protecting the hydrosphere and maintaining biological balance in the biosphere. The problem of ocean pollution Oil and petroleum products are the most common pollutants in the World Ocean. By the beginning of the 80s, about 6 million tons of oil entered the ocean annually, which accounted for 0.23% of world production. The greatest oil losses are associated with its transportation from production areas. Emergency situations involving tankers draining washing and ballast water overboard - all this causes the presence of permanent fields of pollution along sea routes. In the period 1962-79, as a result of accidents, about 2 million tons of oil entered the marine environment. Over the past 30 years, since 1964, about 2,000 wells have been drilled in the World Ocean, of which 1,000 and 350 industrial wells have been equipped in the North Sea alone. Due to minor leaks, 0.1 million tons of oil are lost annually. Large masses of oil enter the seas through rivers, domestic wastewater and storm drains. The volume of pollution from this source is 2.0 million tons/year. Every year 0.5 million tons of oil enters with industrial waste. Once in the marine environment, oil first spreads in the form of a film, forming layers of varying thickness. The oil film changes the composition of the spectrum and the intensity of light penetration into water. The light transmittance of thin films of crude oil is 1-10% (280 nm), 60-70% (400 nm). A film with a thickness of 30-40 microns completely absorbs infrared radiation. When mixed with water, oil forms two types of emulsion: direct - “oil in water” - and reverse - “water in oil”. When volatile fractions are removed, oil forms viscous inverse emulsions that can remain on the surface, be transported by currents, washed ashore and settle to the bottom. Pesticides. Pesticides constitute a group of artificially created substances used to control plant pests and diseases. It has been established that pesticides, while destroying pests, harm many beneficial organisms and undermine the health of biocenoses. In agriculture, there has long been a problem of transition from chemical (polluting) to biological (environmentally friendly) methods of pest control. Industrial production of pesticides is accompanied by the emergence large quantity by-products polluting wastewater. Heavy metals. Heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, arsenic) are common and highly toxic pollutants. They are widely used in various industrial processes, therefore, despite treatment measures, the content of heavy metal compounds in industrial wastewater is quite high. Large masses of these compounds enter the ocean through the atmosphere. For marine biocenoses, the most dangerous are mercury, lead and cadmium. Mercury is transported to the ocean by continental runoff and through the atmosphere. During the weathering of sedimentary and igneous rocks, 3.5 thousand tons of mercury are released annually. Atmospheric dust contains about 12 thousand tons of mercury, a significant part of which is of anthropogenic origin. About half of the annual industrial production of this metal (910 thousand tons/year) ends up in the ocean in various ways. In areas polluted by industrial waters, the concentration of mercury in solution and suspended matter increases greatly. Contamination of seafood has repeatedly led to mercury poisoning of coastal populations. Lead is a typical trace element found in all components of the environment: rocks, soils, natural waters, atmosphere, living organisms. Finally, lead is actively dissipated into the environment during human economic activity. These are emissions from industrial and domestic wastewater, from smoke and dust from industrial enterprises, and from exhaust gases from internal combustion engines. Thermal pollution. Thermal pollution of the surface of reservoirs and coastal marine areas occurs as a result of the discharge of heated wastewater by power plants and some industrial production. The discharge of heated water in many cases causes an increase in water temperature in reservoirs by 6-8 degrees Celsius. The area of heated water spots in coastal areas can reach 30 square meters. km. More stable temperature stratification prevents water exchange between the surface and bottom layers. The solubility of oxygen decreases, and its consumption increases, since with increasing temperature the activity of aerobic bacteria decomposing organic matter increases. The species diversity of phytoplankton and the entire algal flora is increasing. Freshwater pollution The water cycle, this long path of its movement, consists of several stages: evaporation, cloud formation, rainfall, runoff into streams and rivers and evaporation again. Along its entire path, water itself is capable of purifying itself from contaminants that enter it - products of decay of organic substances, dissolved gases and minerals, suspended solids. In places where there are large concentrations of people and animals, natural clean water is usually not enough, especially if it is used to collect sewage and transport it away from populated areas. If not much sewage enters the soil, soil organisms process it, reusing nutrients, and clean water seeps into neighboring watercourses. But if sewage gets directly into the water, it rots, and oxygen is consumed to oxidize it. A so-called biochemical demand for oxygen is created. The higher this need, the less oxygen remains in the water for living microorganisms, especially fish and algae. Sometimes, due to lack of oxygen, all living things die. The water becomes biologically dead; only anaerobic bacteria remain; They thrive without oxygen and, in the process of their life, emit hydrogen sulfide, a poisonous gas with a specific smell of rotten eggs. The already lifeless water acquires a putrid odor and becomes completely unsuitable for humans and animals. This can also happen when there is an excess of substances such as nitrates and phosphates in the water; they enter water from agricultural fertilizers in fields or from wastewater contaminated with detergents. These nutrients stimulate the growth of algae, the algae begin to consume a lot of oxygen, and when it becomes insufficient, they die. Under natural conditions, the lake exists for about 20 thousand years before it silts up and disappears. Excess nutrients accelerates the aging process and reduces the lifespan of the lake. IN warm water Oxygen is less soluble than in cold water. Some enterprises, especially power plants, consume great amount water for cooling. The heated water is released back into the rivers and further disrupts the biological balance of the water system. Low oxygen content hinders the development of some living species and gives an advantage to others. But these new, heat-loving species also suffer greatly as soon as the water heating stops. Organic waste, nutrients and heat become an obstacle to the normal development of freshwater ecological systems only when they overload these systems. But in recent years, ecological systems have been bombarded with huge amounts of completely alien substances, from which they have no protection. Pesticides used in agriculture, metals and chemicals from industrial wastewater have managed to enter the aquatic food chain, which can have unpredictable consequences. Species at the beginning of the food chain can accumulate these substances in dangerous concentrations and become even more vulnerable to other harmful effects. Polluted water can be purified. Under favorable conditions, this occurs naturally through the natural water cycle. But polluted basins - rivers, lakes, etc. - require much more time to recover. In order for natural systems to recover, it is necessary, first of all, to stop the further flow of waste into rivers. Industrial emissions not only clog, but also poison wastewater. Despite everything, some urban households and industrial enterprises still prefer to dump waste into neighboring rivers and are very reluctant to give up this only when the water becomes completely unusable or even dangerous. In its endless circulation, water either captures and transports many dissolved or suspended substances, or is cleared of them. Many of the impurities in water are natural and get there through rain or groundwater. Some of the pollutants associated with human activities follow the same path. Smoke, ash and industrial gases settle to the ground along with rain; chemical compounds and sewage added to the soil with fertilizers enter rivers with groundwater. Some waste follows artificially created paths - drainage ditches and sewer pipes. These substances are usually more toxic, but their release is easier to control than those carried through the natural water cycle. Global water consumption for economic and domestic needs is approximately 9% of total river flow. Therefore, it is not the direct water consumption of hydro resources that causes a shortage of fresh water in certain regions of the globe, but their qualitative depletion. Over the past decades, an increasingly significant part of the freshwater cycle has come to consist of industrial and municipal wastewater. About 600-700 cubic meters are consumed for industrial and domestic needs. km of water per year. Of this volume, 130-150 cubic meters are irrevocably consumed. km, and about 500 cubic meters. km of waste, so-called wastewater, is discharged into rivers, lakes and seas.
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