Under the norms of word use, or lexical norms, is understood the correctness of the choice of words and the appropriateness of their use in a well-known meaning and in generally accepted combinations.
The norms of word use require the speaker to give a thoughtful assessment of the word in terms of its meaning, its motivation in the context, as well as in terms of its aesthetic purpose.
Competent handling of the word ensures complete mutual understanding, which is the essence of linguistic communication.
The culture of speech at the level of vocabulary provides for the analysis of common mistakes:
Using a word without taking into account its semantics;
Violations of lexical compatibility;
Wrong choice of synonyms, ambiguous words;
Incorrect use of antonyms, homonyms, mixing of paronyms;
Non-discrimination of stylistic variants of words.
1. Semantic accuracy of speech. Word choice
The word is the basis for understanding speech. The correct use of words is a necessary condition for the informative value of the text, its effectiveness. "The vagueness of speech is an invariable sign of the vagueness of thought," L. Tolstoy asserted. Words should be used in strict accordance with their semantics, that is, meaning. Every significant word has a lexical meaning. Calling the realities of the surrounding world, the word evokes in the mind, in the memory, some information, a certain concept.
Precision, clarity- the most important characteristics of correct speech. The wrong choice of word distorts the meaning of the statement.
For instance: The beginning of 2002 was marked by worsening climatic conditions - blizzards, a sharp drop in temperature(instead of weather conditions: the climate cannot change in a year) .
Platinum RTDs work in tough environments(instead of apply).
I want to continue the family dynasty and therefore decided to become an officer(instead of tradition).
We focus on the development of product quality(instead of take care of improvement).
Due to imprecise word usage, an anachronism may occur - a violation of the chronological characteristics in the lexical sense:
In ancient Rome, plebeians dissatisfied with the laws organized rallies(word rally appeared much later, in England).
VXviiicentury in Leningrad, several printing houses were closed(instead of Leningrad should have used Petersburg).
Often a generic name is used instead of a specific name in order to give the statement the impression of "importance". KI Chukovsky, in his book "Alive as Life", recalled how the text was edited when preparing a radio broadcast for the air. The participant of the program wanted to say: "The heavy rains have passed." He was advised a more "cultural" version: "Heavy rainfall fell." This unreasonable predilection for generic names is all too common. Atmospheric precipitation they call rains, showers, drizzle, snow, blizzard; green spaces- lilac, jasmine, bird cherry. Expressions are used park area instead of park, square, grove, woods; suburban area instead of suburb, village, station. Such expressions make speech colorless, official.
Consistency- one of the essential features of communicatively full speech. Anyone who does not follow the development of thought makes mistakes that seriously impede communication. The inaccuracies caused by the wrong choice of words or expressions are due to different circumstances. This is a low culture of thinking, poor knowledge of the material presented, the use of words and expressions without understanding their meaning.
Alogism is a juxtaposition of incomparable concepts. Often illogism is the cause of speech impairment. For instance:
The syntax of encyclopedic articles is different from other scientific articles. It turns out that the syntax is compared with other scientific articles. You should write: The syntax of encyclopedic articles has a number of features that are not typical of the syntax of other scientific articles.
The test hydraulic pressure is usually higher compared to seamless pipes instead of The hydraulic pressure when testing welded pipes is usually slightly higher than when testing seamless pipes.
A breakdown in a car can be compared to an unhealthy person, and a locksmith is like a doctor. instead of A breakdown in a car can be compared to a human disease, and a locksmith is like a doctor.
The reason for the illogicality may be the substitution of the concept:
It's bad when the same movie title is shown in all the cinemas in the city. In fact, it is not the title that is shown, but the film.
Friendly hosts treat guests with a varied selection of national dishes(instead of various national dishes).
It's freezing cold, and the work is in full swing, because the airport workers are tired of such a long time of bad weather(instead of workers are tired of the forced inactivity during bad weather.
Our speech is made illogical by the unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept arising from the confusion of generic and species categories:
At any time of the day, medicine should come to the aid of the child.(instead of to help the patient, after all, not only children need medical care).
With good care of each animal, you can infuse 12 liters of milk(instead of from each cow).
Using words without taking into account their semantics can cause the expression to be illogical and even absurd:
I know that the ancestors of A.S. Pushkin are still alive(instead of descendants).
…And our Far Eastern birches stand in their wedding shroud(instead of veil).
It is necessary to eliminate defects in manufactured parts(instead of defects).
Distortion does not exceed 10%(instead of do not exceed).
The reason for the illogicality sometimes lies in the fuzzy distinction between concrete and abstract concepts:
Consider winter feed for public livestock(instead of for animals, for livestock).
We were told about the writer and read excerpts from his work(instead of from his works).
The New Year tree has become a favorite holiday of our childhood.(instead of our children).
Working on the style of a work is, first of all, working on its vocabulary, since the word is the basis for understanding speech. Lack of clarity of speech is an invariable sign of lack of clarity of thought. The stylistic approach to the study of vocabulary puts forward as the most important problem of choosing a word for the most accurate expression of thought. The correct use of words by the author is not only the dignity of the style, but also a necessary condition for the informative value of the work, the effectiveness of its content. The wrong choice of the word distorts the meaning of the statement, generating not only lexical, but also logical errors in speech.
Words should be used in strict accordance with their semantics, i.e. value. Each significant word has a lexical meaning, naming the phenomena and objects of reality, which in our mind correspond to certain concepts. With a clear statement of thought, the words used by the authors fully correspond to their subject-logical meaning. V.G. Belinsky wrote: "Each word in a poetic work must so far exhaust all the meaning of the whole work required by thought, so that it can be seen that there is no other word in the language that could replace it here."
Accuracy of speech is the merit of good speech, which lies in the correspondence between the semantic side of speech (content plan) and the system of expressed concepts (expression plan).
There are two types of accuracy: * Actual - this is an adequate reflection of the world in accordance with reality. * Communicative is the exact transmission of thought to the addressee using linguistic means.
Accuracy is achieved by the meaning and understanding of the exact lexical meanings of words, the meaning and precise delineation of polysemantic words (homonyms, paronyms are close, but not identical in sound, single-root words with an emphasis on the same syllable), taking into account the lexical compatibility (this is the ability of words to combine with each other in speech segment, while some words are freely combined with each other, while others have limited lexical compatibility), elimination of speech redundancy (pleonasm is the semantic redundancy of a combination of words, when the constituent parts mean the same thing or contain the same semantic component (May month, first debut, an unusual phenomenon) .Tautology is a combination in one phrase of several words of the same root), elimination of speech deficiency (Skipping a word can lead to the absurdity of a statement, cause alogism (comparison of incomparable concepts), as well as the cause of genuine concepts)
Speech can be recognized as good only when it is understood by the addressee. Therefore, compliance with the comprehensibility criterion is one of the main conditions, which must be taken into account when assessing the quality of speech.
Speech can be called comprehensible only if it fully reflects the communicative intention of the speaker, but at the same time the transmitted thought must also be adequately perceived by the listener. Therefore, the implementation of the "comprehensibility" criterion is provided by two qualities of good speech: accuracy and clarity (see the section "Speech clarity").
In order to get an initial idea of how accuracy is violated in speech, consider the following statements.
Your science fiction is bad.
It's too early for us to sing a memorandum.
In the examples given, the speaker, to express his thoughts, chose words that in the language are not assigned to the designation of the concept that needed to be named. So, in the first sentence, the speaker, judging by the context, evaluates not the representations and images created by the imagination, but the addressee's ability to invent, imagine something, therefore, to adequately convey his thoughts, he had to use the word fantasy, but not fantasy(cf. fantasy: ‘The ability to imagine, to imagine; creative imagination ', fantasy: ‘Representations, images created by the imagination, the depiction of the phenomena of reality in an exaggerated and supernatural form’).
The second sentence deals with the speaker's fears about unjustified enthusiasm, for which there is an expression in Russian sing praises, the speaker - by consonance - chooses from the lexical set provided to him by the language memorandum, which stands for "a diplomatic document setting out the government's views on an issue."
Thus, it is possible to state the violations of speech accuracy in these examples, since speech is accurate, in which the speaker's thoughts and feelings are conveyed using those linguistic means that in a given language are assigned to the designation of a certain reality of the surrounding reality. Therefore, in order for speech to be accurate, words should be used in full accordance with the meanings that are assigned to them in the language [Golovin: 126].
With a clear expression of thoughts, words fully correspond to their subject-logical meaning, and the wrong choice of a word distorts the meaning of the statement.
Hence, precision includes skills
accurately reflect reality in speech;
accurately express thoughts and form them using linguistic means.
Accuracy is the communicative quality of good speech, which predetermines the correspondence of the ways of expressing the described reality and manifests itself in the ability to explicate thought with the help of such a selection of linguistic means that would most fully correspond to the expressed concept.
Accuracy as the quality of speech is associated primarily with the lexical level in the language system, which means that accuracy can be understood as adherence to the norms of word use in speech. But in that case, you would have to classify accuracy as a variant of correctness (a completely different speech quality).
How to distinguish accuracy and right?
It should be noted that these qualities characterize speech in different aspects.
Right how speech quality represents the ratio language - speech... It relies exclusively on linguistic factors. Speech is correct, the structure of which corresponds to the norms of the literary language.
Accuracy how speech quality relies on other relationships: this category is based on communication speech is reality.
Conditions for creating accurate speech:
knowledge of the subject of speech (extralinguistic condition),
knowledge of the language system (linguistic condition),
the ability to correlate knowledge of a subject with knowledge of the language system and its capabilities in a specific act of communication.
These conditions presuppose a strict correspondence of words to the designated objects (phenomena) of reality. Consequently, the speaker must take care of the correct choice of a linguistic means (in particular, a word), which would most accurately correlate with the object or phenomenon of reality requiring designation.
Speech can be characterized as comprehensible if the speaker, in the process of pronouncing, has made the only correct choice from the possibilities provided to him by the language. When choosing the exact nomination, one should not only take into account the presence of several lexical paradigms, but also make an accurate choice of the desired option from the range offered by the language (for example, choosing a synonym from a synonymous series or choosing a paronym from a paronymic pair). The wrong choice of language option leads to a violation of actual or communicative accuracy.
Researchers distinguish several types of accuracy. In particular, BN Golovin proposes to distinguish between two of its varieties [Golovin: 129].
But the terms "subject accuracy" and "conceptual accuracy", with all their advantages (brevity, uniformity), also have disadvantages. An objection of this kind would be perfectly fair: is not objective accuracy at the same time conceptual? After all, the speaker in the process of communication conveys not a concept (separate, isolated, logically cleared of all inessential), but a complex-representation, which includes not only the signs of a concept, but also emotional, volitional aspirations, i.e. he broadcasts the content formed by him in the cognition of the realities of the surrounding world [Muchnik: 83]. Another term - "subject accuracy" - also narrows the area that it is intended to designate. After all, not only objects can be reflected, but, for example, processes.
It seems that AE Milchin's term “actual accuracy” will therefore be more adequate. Instead of the expressions "subject accuracy" - "conceptual accuracy" B.S. Muchnik suggests using a couple of terms: actual accuracy – communicative accuracy[Muchnik: 83].
Actual Accuracy- a property inherent in the correct (adequate, true) reflection of the world by the author's thought.
Communication Accuracy- a property that arises when the author's thought is expressed, when this thought is adequately captured by the word and transmitted to the addressee. This is a complete correspondence of a fragment of speech to the author's thought, even in the case when the word is used in a non-normative sense 20 (see how V. Lugovskoy examines an example from Gogol: ““ - I remembered, I remembered! - he shouted in terrible gaiety and, swinging the ax, sent it with all his might at the old woman. The ax ran two inches through the oak door”. Hear how the word ran in determines the terrible force of the blow; seemingly a strange word for an ax, but what significance does it attach to the whole phrase ").
Thus, one should not talk about the accuracy of word usage, but about the exact expression of thought, or about the communicative accuracy of speech. When achieving communicative accuracy, it is important to keep in mind how much the meaning of the statement, updated by the author, corresponds to the transmitted meaning [Muchnik: 87].
The difference between the two types of accuracy is shown in the following table.
|
The actual accuracy |
Communication Accuracy |
example |
a comment |
|
broken comm. accuracy |
Katerina jumped (vm. Rushed) off the cliff into the Volga. Obviously, the author did not mean that Katerina jumped off a cliff to, for example, swim. Therefore, the word he used jumped imprecisely conveys his (correct, accurate) thought. | ||
|
the fact is violated. accuracy |
I've got a real boomerang made in Australia by Bedouins 21 Thought is imprecise in relation to reality. | ||
|
There are no errors that compromise the accuracy of speech. |
Flawless reflection of reality and flawless expression of thought |
||
|
This combination is observed only in exceptional cases: Where the herbs are dead Did not throw the ears, Wheat will rustle By the sea of gold. Is it herbs throwing an ear? This can only be done by wheat, and even then - not tossing, but vs throw(‘To let out the shoot, inflorescence, etc.’), because throw- ‘throw, throw; throw to hit smb. |
Examples of
Today on TVcoronation the president will be shown(vm. inauguration). Violation of actual accuracy.
Meanwhilewere approaching joyful events(vm. were approaching). Violation of communicative accuracy.
Let us consider the reasons for the violation of accuracy in more detail.
The specified speech quality can be impaired as a result of an inaccurate choice of a lexeme from an antonymic paradigm.
This error is called confusion of antonyms .
Shesupine fell to the ground, only her quivering shoulder blades were visible.
From an antonymous pair supine – prone the speaker chose a nomination that incorrectly reflects reality, and this is clearly seen from the context: if the person fell on his back, that is, on his back, face up, then the observer would not be able to see the shuddering shoulder blades of the fallen. Therefore, for an accurate reflection of reality, the speaker had to choose from the antonymic pair supine – prone lexeme prone, i.e. ‘Face down’.
The described speech quality can also be impaired as a result of an inaccurate choice of a lexeme from a synonymous or paronymic paradigm, which entails the appearance of an error called inaccurate choice of synonym / paronym .
Knowledge of synonymous capabilities allows you to choose the right word from the synonymic range and thereby achieve a strict correspondence of speech to the transmitted content, and therefore achieve the accuracy of expression. It must be remembered: in order to choose the only correct word from the synonymic range, you need to take into account its semantic and stylistic shades.
So, in the sentence Ilya Murometsfought with Nightingale the Robber the speaker did not take into account the difference in meanings conveyed by words fight/fight: ‘Beat each other’ / ‘join the fight, in single combat’. It seems that in this context, in order to more accurately convey the meaning, it is necessary to use the lexeme fight since it, unlike the lexeme fight, belongs to the conceptual field hero, and implements many associative links of this concept. Wed: Tyoma fought so desperately with the negro, it was already breathtaking!
The mechanism for choosing a paronymic variant from the paradigm available in the language is similar. So, in the sentence If the strike takes place, the air traffic schedule will bebroken the speaker selected the wrong option from the paronymic pair broken / broken. Broken- participle of break(‘Overcome, defeat smb. Or suppress, overcome smth.’) - inaccurately reflects the thought of the author: it is impossible to suppress the schedule of air transportation, it can break... Therefore, in this proposal it was necessary to use the form broken- participle of break(‘Resolutely discard something entrenched, ingrained; destroy, destroy’).
A special case in a series of errors leading to a violation of accuracy is the speaker's wrong choice of a lexical unit from a set of units belonging to the same lexical-semantic group, explicating a certain conceptual space.
The reason for the error is that the speaker, in the process of spontaneous communication, makes an inaccurate choice from words that have nothing in common in sound, but refer to the same subject area. The main paradigmatic feature of such lexical units is that “in their meanings there is a single categorical-lexical seme. This seme constitutes the semantic basis of the group and is specified in each individual word with the help of differential semes ”[Kuznetsova: 75].
The mechanism of this error is as follows: the speaker must choose a certain word imposed on him by the extralinguistic and linguistic situation from a group of lexemes belonging to the same semantic field. These words are united by the fact that in their meanings there is a common integral seme, but the differentiating semes are different. A speaker in the process of communication (when he must simultaneously take into account many conditions, both extralinguistic and linguistic) mistakenly chooses a lexeme, the differentiating component of the meaning of which does not correspond to the given situation of the statement.
The resulting speech error is called confusion of words related to one conceptual area, as a result of incorrect actualization of the differentiating component of meaning .
Let us analyze a sentence in which the speaker violated accuracy by mistakenly choosing a word with an incorrect actualization of the differentiating seme.
V. Putin spoke about the elimination of the leader of the bandit formations Sh.Basaev: There are people who are worthy of such retribution. It is too little for him to be simply destroyed. It appears that the word worthy used by the speaker inaccurately: it is impossible to be worthy of retribution, since the lexeme worthy when implementing syntagmatic relations, it requires a token with a positive component of meaning. Should have said deserves such retribution.
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Working on the style of a work is, first of all, working on its vocabulary, since the word is the basis for understanding speech. Lack of clarity of speech is an invariable sign of lack of clarity of thought, argued L.N. Tolstoy; jokingly, the writer remarked: "If I were a king, I would have issued a law that a writer who uses a word, the meaning of which he cannot explain, is deprived of the right to write and receives 100 blows of the rods."
The stylistic approach to the study of vocabulary puts forward as the most important problem of choosing a word for the most accurate expression of thought. The correct use of words by the author is not only the dignity of the style, but also a necessary condition for the informative value of the work, the effectiveness of its content. The wrong choice of the word distorts the meaning of the statement, generating not only lexical, but also logical errors in speech.
Words should be used in strict accordance with their semantics, i.e. value. Each significant word has a lexical meaning, naming the phenomena and objects of reality, which in our mind correspond to certain concepts. With a clear statement of thought, the words used by the authors fully correspond to their subject-logical meaning. V.G. Belinsky wrote: "Every word in a poetic work must exhaust all the meaning of the whole work required by thought, so that it can be seen that there is no other word in the language that could replace it." The word should be used in the meaning (literally or figuratively) that it has and which is recorded in the explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language.
Speech errors occur when the speaker does not know the exact semantics of a word and uses it in an unusual meaning, which often leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement.
Let's look at some typical examples.
Sponsors made a significant contribution to the organization of the event.
The word mite is used here without taking into account its lexical meaning, since mite is a small coin, therefore it cannot be significant. It should be said: Sponsors made a significant contribution to the organization of the event.
When the curtain parted, the actor stood on the stage in his gilded role.
Amplua is an actor's specialization associated with the performance of roles of a certain orientation; it cannot be gilded. It will be correct: When the curtain parted, an actor in a gilded vestment was standing on the stage.
One cannot but agree with the basic pathos of the book.
Paphos is a certain emotional state; exhilaration, enthusiasm for smth. You can agree with the main idea of the book.
Find yourself at the epicenter of events.
The conceptual imprecision of the statement is caused by the fact that the word EPICENTER does not mean the very center at all. The geographical term epicenter, used in a figurative sense and is formed from the Greek epi in the meaning of `above, above" + center, means "an area on the Earth's surface located directly above the source, or hypocenter, of an earthquake." as it literally means 'to be out of the spotlight'. The event has only a center, and the statement should be structured like this: to be in the center of events.
Word - the basis for understanding the text, finding the right word. The search for the only necessary word in the text requires the exertion of creative forces and tireless work from the writer or journalist. This work is sometimes reflected in manuscripts, which allow us to familiarize ourselves with the lexical substitutions that the author made, polishing the style of the work. For example, in the draft of the story by A.S. Pushkin "Dubrovsky" we find the following revision: Members (of the court) greeted him (Troekurov) with expressions of deep respect [deep devotion; deep servility] - the last word most expressively characterized the behavior of the officials bribed by Troekurov, and the writer left it in the text. The desire to find the exact words prompts writers to edit the text, comparing the possible options for expressing thoughts. N.A. Nekrasov, we find such a stylistic correction in the description of the scene "at the front entrance", which so amazed the poet, who later wrote a famous poem: "- There is nothing to do, [let's go, let's go, stretch] turned into a tavern." As you can see, it was not so easy for the author to find a verb of movement that conveyed the mood of the offended peasants.
The stylistic editing of the writers in the manuscript reflects the last stage of work on the text, and what kind of work preceded this, how many drafts were written and then destroyed, how many times the author uttered this or that phrase "to himself" before writing it down - about this you can just guess.
Typically, during the editing process, writers eliminate lexical errors themselves. The editor can also perform stylistic editing of the manuscript. Authors, for whom literary work is an unusual occupation, need the help of an editor, although literary editing of the text is not a prerequisite for its publication.
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