Nuclear weapons have enormous power. During fission of uranium
a mass of about a kilogram releases the same amount of energy as
in an explosion of TNT weighing about 20 thousand tons. Fusion reactions are even more energy intensive. The explosion power of nuclear weapons is usually measured in units of TNT equivalent. TNT equivalent is the mass of trinitrotoluene that would provide an explosion equivalent in power to the explosion of a given nuclear weapon. It is usually measured in kilotons (kT) or megatons (MgT).
Depending on their power, nuclear weapons are divided into calibers:
Ultra small (less than 1kT)
Small (from 1 to 10 kT)
Medium (from 10 to 100 kT)
Large (from 100 kT to 1 MgT)
Extra large (over 1 MgT)
Thermonuclear charges are used for super-large, large
and medium calibers; nuclear - ultra-small, small and medium calibers,
neutron - ultra-small and small calibers.
1.5 Types of nuclear explosions
Depending on the tasks solved by nuclear weapons, on the type and location
objects against which nuclear strikes are planned, as well as the nature
upcoming hostilities, nuclear explosions can be carried out in
air, at the surface of the earth (water) and underground (water). According
distinguish with this the following types nuclear explosions:
Air (high and low)
Ground (surface)
Underground (underwater)
1.6 Damaging factors of a nuclear explosion.
A nuclear explosion can instantly destroy or incapacitate
unprotected people, openly standing equipment, structures and various
material resources. The main damaging factors nuclear explosion are:
Shock wave
Light radiation
Penetrating radiation
Radioactive contamination of the area
Electromagnetic pulse
Let's look at them:
a) The shock wave in most cases is the main damaging
factor of a nuclear explosion. It is similar in nature to a shock wave
normal explosion, but lasts longer and has
much larger destructive force. Shock wave of a nuclear explosion
can cause damage at a considerable distance from the center of the explosion
people, destroy structures and damage military equipment.
A shock wave is an area of strong air compression,
spreading at high speed in all directions from the center of the explosion.
The speed of its spread depends on the air pressure in the front
shock wave; near the center of the explosion it is several times higher
the speed of sound, but with increasing distance from the explosion site, drops sharply.
In the first 2 seconds the shock wave travels about 1000 m, in 5 seconds it travels 2000 m,
in 8 seconds - about 3000 m. This serves as a justification for the standard N5 ZOMP
“Actions in the event of a nuclear explosion”: excellent - 2 sec, good - 3 sec,
satisfactory - 4 sec.
The damaging effect of the shock wave on people and the destructive effect on
military equipment, engineering structures and materiel before
are determined entirely by excess pressure and air velocity in
her front. Excess pressure is the difference between the maximum pressure at the shock wave front and the normal atmospheric pressure ahead of it. It is measured in newtons per square meter (N/m2). This unit of pressure is called the pascal (Pa). 1 N/m 2 =1 Pa (1 kPa0.01 kgf/cm2).
With excess pressure of 20-40 kPa, unprotected people can suffer minor injuries (minor bruises and contusions). Exposure to a shock wave with an excess pressure of 40-60 kPa leads to moderate damage: loss of consciousness, damage to the hearing organs, severe dislocations of the limbs, bleeding from the nose and ears. Severe injuries occur when excess pressure exceeds 60 kPa and are characterized by severe contusions of the entire body, broken limbs and damage to internal organs. Extremely severe injuries, often fatal, are observed at excess pressure above 100 kPa.
Unprotected people may also be struck by flying
at enormous speed with shards of glass and fragments of destroyed buildings,
falling trees, as well as scattered parts of military equipment,
lumps of earth, stones and other objects set in motion
high-speed pressure of the shock wave. The greatest indirect damage will be observed in populated areas and in the forest; in these cases, troop losses may be greater than from the direct action of the shock wave.
The shock wave can also cause damage in enclosed spaces,
penetrating there through cracks and holes.
As the caliber of nuclear weapons increases, the shock wave damage radii
grow in proportion to the cube root of the explosion power. During an underground explosion, a shock wave occurs in the ground, and during an underwater explosion, it occurs in water.
In addition, with these types of explosions, part of the energy is spent on creating
shock wave and in the air. The shock wave, propagating in the ground,
causes damage to underground structures, sewerage, water supply;
when it spreads in water, damage to the underwater part is observed
ships located even at a considerable distance from the explosion site.
b) Light radiation from a nuclear explosion is a stream
radiant energy, including ultraviolet, visible and infrared
radiation. The source of light radiation is the luminous area,
consisting of hot explosion products and hot air. Brightness
light radiation in the first second is several times greater than the brightness
The absorbed energy of light radiation turns into heat, which
leads to heating of the surface layer of the material. Heating may be
so strong that charring or ignition of fuel is possible
material and cracking or melting of non-flammable material, which can lead to
to huge fires. In this case, the effect of light radiation from a nuclear explosion
equivalent to the massive use of incendiary weapons, which
discussed in the fourth study question.
The human skin also absorbs the energy of light radiation,
As a result, it can heat up to high temperatures and cause burns. IN
First of all, burns occur on open areas of the body facing
side of the explosion. If you look towards the explosion with unprotected eyes, then
Possible eye damage leading to complete loss of vision.
Burns caused by light radiation are no different from ordinary burns.
caused by fire or boiling water. They are stronger the shorter the distance to
explosion and the greater the power of the ammunition. In an air explosion, the damaging effect of light radiation is greater than in a ground explosion of the same power.
Depending on the perceived light pulse, burns are divided into three
degrees. First degree burns manifest themselves in superficial skin lesions: redness, swelling, pain. With second degree burns, blisters appear on the skin. With third degree burns, skin necrosis and ulceration occur.
With an air explosion of ammunition with a power of 20 kT and an atmospheric transparency of about 25 km, first-degree burns will be observed within a radius of 4.2
km from the center of the explosion; when a charge with a power of 1 MgT explodes, this distance
will increase to 22.4 km. Second degree burns appear over distances
2.9 and 14.4 km and third degree burns - at distances of 2.4 and 12.8 km
respectively for ammunition with a capacity of 20 kT and 1 MgT.
c) Penetrating radiation is an invisible flux of gamma
quanta and neutrons emitted from the nuclear explosion zone. Gamma rays
and neutrons spread in all directions from the center of the explosion for hundreds
meters. With increasing distance from the explosion, the number of gamma quanta and
neutrons passing through a unit surface area decreases. At
underground and underwater nuclear explosions, the effect of penetrating radiation
extends over distances significantly shorter than with ground and
air explosions, which is explained by the absorption of a flux of neutrons and gamma
quanta with water.
Zones affected by penetrating radiation during explosions of nuclear weapons
medium and high power are slightly smaller than the zones affected by the shock wave and light radiation. For ammunition with a small TNT equivalent (1000 tons or less), on the contrary, the damage zones of penetrating radiation exceed the zones of damage by shock waves and light radiation.
The damaging effect of penetrating radiation is determined by the ability
Gamma rays and neutrons ionize the atoms of the medium in which they propagate. Passing through living tissue, gamma rays and neutrons ionize the atoms and molecules that make up the cells, which lead to
disruption of the vital functions of individual organs and systems. Influenced
ionization in the body, biological processes of cell death and decomposition occur. As a result, affected people develop a specific disease called radiation sickness.
d) The main sources of radioactive contamination are fission products of a nuclear charge and radioactive isotopes formed as a result of the impact of neutrons on the materials from which nuclear weapons are made, and on some elements that make up the soil in the area of the explosion.
In a ground-based nuclear explosion, the glowing area touches the ground. Masses of evaporating soil are drawn inside it and rise upward. As they cool, vapors of soil fission products condense on solid particles. A radioactive cloud is formed. It rises to a height of many kilometers, and then moves with the wind at a speed of 25-100 km/h. Radioactive particles falling from the cloud to the ground form a zone of radioactive contamination (trace), the length of which can reach several hundred kilometers.
Radioactive contamination of people, military equipment, terrain and various
objects during a nuclear explosion is caused by fission fragments of the substance
charge and the unreacted part of the charge falling out of the explosion cloud,
as well as induced radioactivity.
Over time, the activity of fission fragments decreases rapidly,
especially in the first hours after the explosion. For example, general activity
fission fragments during the explosion of a nuclear weapon with a power of 20 kT through
one day will be several thousand times less than one minute after
When a nuclear weapon explodes, part of the charge substance is not exposed
division, but falls out in its usual form; its decay is accompanied by the formation of alpha particles. Induced radioactivity is caused by radioactive isotopes formed in the soil as a result of irradiation with neutrons emitted at the moment of explosion by the nuclei of atoms of chemical elements that make up the soil. The resulting isotopes are usually
beta-active, the decay of many of them is accompanied by gamma radiation.
The half-lives of most of the resulting radioactive isotopes are relatively short, from one minute to an hour. In this regard, induced activity can pose a danger only in the first hours after the explosion and only in the area close to its epicenter.
The bulk of long-lived isotopes are concentrated in radioactive
the cloud that forms after the explosion. Cloud rise height for
ammunition with a power of 10 kT is equal to 6 km, for ammunition with a power of 10 MgT
it is 25 km. As you move forward, the clouds fall out first
the largest particles, and then smaller and smaller ones, forming
movement paths, a zone of radioactive contamination, the so-called cloud trail.
The size of the trace depends mainly on the power of the nuclear weapon,
as well as on wind speed and can reach several hundred in length and
several tens of kilometers wide.
Internal radiation injuries occur as a result of
hits radioactive substances inside the body through the respiratory system and
gastrointestinal tract. In this case, radioactive radiation enters
into direct contact with internal organs and may cause
severe radiation sickness; the nature of the disease will depend on the amount of radioactive substances entering the body.
For weapons, military equipment and engineering structures, radioactive
substances do not have harmful effects.
e) An electromagnetic pulse is a short-term electromagnetic field that occurs during the explosion of a nuclear weapon as a result of the interaction of gamma rays and neutrons emitted by a nuclear explosion with atoms of the environment. The consequence of its impact is burnout or breakdown of individual elements of radio-electronic and electrical equipment.
People can only be harmed if they come into contact with long wire lines at the time of the explosion.
The most reliable means of protection against all damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are protective structures. In the field you should take cover behind strong local objects, reverse slopes of heights, and in folds of the terrain.
When operating in contaminated zones, to protect the respiratory organs, eyes and open areas of the body from radioactive substances, respiratory protective equipment (gas masks, respirators, anti-dust fabric masks and cotton-gauze bandages), as well as skin protection products, are used.
Features of the damaging effect of neutron ammunition.
Neutron munitions are a type of nuclear munition. They are based on thermonuclear charges, which use nuclear fission and fusion reactions. The explosion of such ammunition has a damaging effect primarily on people due to the powerful flow of penetrating radiation, a significant part (up to 40%) of which is so-called fast neutrons.
When a neutron munition explodes, the area affected by penetrating radiation exceeds the area affected by the shock wave by several times. In this zone, equipment and structures can remain unharmed, but people receive fatal injuries.
To protect against neutron munitions, the same means and methods are used as for protection against conventional nuclear munitions. In addition, when constructing shelters and shelters, it is recommended to compact and moisten the soil laid above them, increase the thickness of the ceilings, and arrange additional protection inputs and outputs. Protective properties techniques are enhanced by the use of combined protection consisting of hydrogen-containing substances (for example, polyethylene) and high-density materials (lead).
Let's look at a typical warhead (in reality, there may be design differences between warheads). This is a cone made of lightweight, durable alloys - usually titanium. Inside there are bulkheads, frames, a power frame - almost like in an airplane. The power frame is covered with durable metal casing. A thick layer of heat-protective coating is applied to the casing. It looks like an ancient Neolithic basket, generously coated with clay and fired in man's first experiments with heat and ceramics. The similarity is easy to explain: both the basket and the warhead have to resist external heat.
Warhead and its filling
Inside the cone, fixed to their “seats,” there are two main “passengers” for the sake of which everything was started: a thermonuclear charge and a charge control unit, or automation unit. They are amazingly compact. The automation unit is the size of a five-liter jar of pickled cucumbers, and the charge is the size of an ordinary garden bucket. Heavy and weighty, the union of a can and a bucket will explode three hundred fifty to four hundred kilotons. Two passengers are connected to each other by a connection, like Siamese twins, and through this connection they constantly exchange something. Their dialogue is ongoing all the time, even when the missile is on combat duty, even when these twins are just being transported from the manufacturing plant.
There is also a third passenger - a unit for measuring the movement of the warhead or generally controlling its flight. In the latter case, working controls are built into the warhead, allowing the trajectory to be changed. For example, actuating pneumatic systems or powder systems. And also an on-board electrical network with power supplies, communication lines with the stage, in the form of protected wires and connectors, protection against electromagnetic pulses and a thermostatting system - maintaining the required charge temperature.
The photo shows the breeding stage of the MX (Peacekeeper) rocket and ten warheads. This missile has long been removed from service, but combat units and now the same ones (and even older ones) are used. The Americans have ballistic missiles with multiple warheads installed only on submarines.
After leaving the bus, the warheads continue to gain altitude and simultaneously rush towards their targets. They rise to the highest points of their trajectories, and then, without slowing down their horizontal flight, they begin to slide down faster and faster. At an altitude of exactly one hundred kilometers above sea level, each warhead crosses the formally man-designated boundary of outer space. Atmosphere ahead!
Electric wind
Below in front of the warhead lies a huge, contrastingly shiny from the menacing high altitudes, covered in a blue oxygen haze, covered with aerosol suspensions, the vast and boundless fifth ocean. Slowly and barely noticeably turning from the residual effects of separation, the warhead continues its descent along a gentle trajectory. But then a very unusual breeze gently blew towards her. He touched it a little - and it became noticeable, covering the body with a thin, receding wave of pale white-blue glow. This wave is breathtakingly high-temperature, but it does not burn the warhead yet, since it is too ethereal. The breeze blowing over the warhead is electrically conductive. The speed of the cone is so high that it literally crushes air molecules with its impact into electrically charged fragments, and impact ionization of the air occurs. This plasma breeze is called hypersonic flow large numbers Mach, and its speed is twenty times the speed of sound.
Due to the high rarefaction, the breeze is almost unnoticeable in the first seconds. Growing and becoming denser as it goes deeper into the atmosphere, it initially heats more than puts pressure on the warhead. But gradually it begins to squeeze her cone with force. The flow turns the warhead nose first. It does not unfold immediately - the cone sways slightly back and forth, gradually slowing down its oscillations, and finally stabilizes.
Heat on hypersonic
Condensing as it descends, the flow puts more and more pressure on the warhead, slowing down its flight. As it slows down, the temperature gradually decreases. From huge values the beginning of the entrance, a blue-white glow of ten thousand degrees, to a yellow-white glow of five to six thousand degrees. This is the temperature of the surface layers of the Sun. The glow becomes dazzling because the air density quickly increases, and with it the heat flow into the walls of the warhead. The heat-protective coating becomes charred and begins to burn.
It does not burn from friction with the air, as is often incorrectly said. Because of the huge hypersonic speed movement (now fifteen times faster than sound) from the top of the body, another cone diverges in the air - a shock wave, as if enclosing a warhead. The incoming air, entering the shock wave cone, is instantly compacted many times over and pressed tightly against the surface of the warhead. From abrupt, instantaneous and repeated compression, its temperature immediately jumps to several thousand degrees. The reason for this is the crazy speed of what is happening, the extreme dynamism of the process. Gas-dynamic compression of the flow, and not friction, is what now warms up the sides of the warhead.
The worst part is the nose. There the greatest compaction of the oncoming flow is formed. The area of this seal moves slightly forward, as if disconnecting from the body. And it stays in front, taking the shape of a thick lens or pillow. This formation is called a “detached bow shock wave.” It is several times thicker than the rest of the surface of the shock wave cone around the warhead. The frontal compression of the oncoming flow is the strongest here. Therefore, the disconnected bow shock wave has the highest temperature and highest heat density. This little sun is burning bow warheads in a radiant way - highlighting, radiating heat directly into the nose of the hull and causing severe burning of the nose. Therefore, there is the thickest layer of thermal protection. It is the bow shock wave that illuminates dark night terrain for many kilometers around a warhead flying in the atmosphere.
It becomes very unsweetening for the sides. They are now also being fried by the unbearable radiance from the head shock wave. And it burns with hot compressed air, which has turned into plasma from the crushing of its molecules. However, at such a high temperature, the air is ionized simply by heating - its molecules fall apart from the heat. The result is a mixture of impact-ionization and temperature plasma. Through its frictional action, this plasma polishes the burning surface of the thermal protection, as if with sand or sandpaper. Gas-dynamic erosion occurs, consuming the heat-protective coating.
At this time the warhead passed upper limit stratosphere - stratopause - and enters the stratosphere at an altitude of 55 km. It is now moving at hypersonic speeds, ten to twelve times faster than sound.
Inhuman overloads
Severe burning changes the geometry of the nose. The stream, like a sculptor’s chisel, burns a pointed central protrusion into the nasal covering. Other surface features also appear due to uneven burnout. Changes in shape lead to changes in flow. This changes the distribution of compressed air pressure on the surface of the warhead and the temperature field. Variations in the force action of the air arise in comparison with the calculated flow, which gives rise to a deviation of the point of impact - a miss is formed. Even if it is small - say, two hundred meters, but the heavenly projectile will hit the enemy’s missile silo with a deflection. Or it won't hit at all.
In addition, the pattern of shock wave surfaces, bow waves, pressures and temperatures is constantly changing. The speed gradually decreases, but the air density quickly increases: the cone falls lower and lower into the stratosphere. Due to uneven pressures and temperatures on the surface of the warhead, due to the rapidity of their changes, thermal shocks can occur. They are able to break off pieces and pieces from the heat-protective coating, which introduces new changes into the flow pattern. And increases the deviation of the point of impact.
At the same time, the warhead can enter into spontaneous frequent swings with a change in the direction of these swings from “up-down” to “right-left” and back. These self-oscillations create local accelerations in different parts of the warhead. Accelerations vary in direction and magnitude, complicating the picture of the impact experienced by the warhead. It receives more loads, asymmetry of shock waves around itself, uneven temperature fields and other small delights that instantly grow into big problems.
But the oncoming flow does not exhaust itself with this either. Due to such powerful pressure from the oncoming compressed air, the warhead experiences an enormous braking effect. A large negative acceleration occurs. The warhead with all its internals is under rapidly increasing overload, and it is impossible to shield from overload.
Astronauts do not experience such overloads during descent. The manned vehicle is less streamlined and is not filled as tightly inside as the warhead. The astronauts are in no hurry to descend quickly. The warhead is a weapon. She must reach the target as quickly as possible before she is shot down. And the faster it flies, the more difficult it is to intercept it. The cone is the shape of the best supersonic flow. Maintaining high speed until lower layers atmosphere, the warhead encounters a very large deceleration there. This is why strong bulkheads and a load-bearing frame are needed. And comfortable “seats” for two riders - otherwise they will be torn from their seats by overload.
Dialogue of Siamese twins
By the way, what about these riders? The time has come to remember the main passengers, because they are not sitting passively now, but are going through their own difficult path, and their dialogue becomes most meaningful in these very moments.
The charge was disassembled into parts during transportation. When installed in a warhead, it is assembled, and when installing the warhead in a missile, it is equipped to a full combat-ready configuration (a pulsed neutron initiator is inserted, equipped with detonators, etc.). The charge is ready to travel to the target on board the warhead, but is not yet ready to explode. The logic here is clear: constant readiness a charge for an explosion is not needed and is theoretically dangerous.
It must be transferred to a state of readiness for explosion (near the target) by complex sequential algorithms based on two principles: reliability of movement towards the explosion and control over the process. The detonation system transfers the charge to ever higher levels of readiness in a strictly timely manner. And when the fully prepared charge comes from the control unit to detonate, the explosion will occur immediately, instantly. A warhead flying at the speed of a sniper’s bullet will only travel a couple of hundredths of a millimeter, not having time to move in space even the thickness of a human hair, when the thermonuclear reaction in its charge begins, develops, completely passes and is completed, releasing all the normal power.
Final Flash
Having changed greatly both outside and inside, the warhead passed into the troposphere - the last ten kilometers of altitude. She slowed down a lot. Hypersonic flight has degenerated to supersonic speed of three to four Mach units. The warhead is already shining dimly, fades away and approaches the target point.
An explosion on the surface of the Earth is rarely planned - only for objects buried in the ground, such as missile silos. Most targets lie on the surface. And for their greatest destruction, the detonation is carried out at a certain height, depending on the power of the charge. For tactical twenty kilotons this is 400-600 m. For a strategic megaton the optimal explosion height is 1200 m. Why? The explosion causes two waves to travel across the area. Closer to the epicenter, the blast wave will hit earlier. It will fall and be reflected, bouncing to the sides, where it will merge with the fresh wave that has just arrived here from above, from the point of explosion. Two waves - incident from the center of the explosion and reflected from the surface - add up, forming the most powerful wave in the ground layer shock wave, main factor defeats.
During test launches, the warhead usually reaches the ground unhindered. On board there is half a hundredweight of explosives, which are detonated when it falls. For what? First, the warhead is a secret object and must be securely destroyed after use. Secondly, this is necessary for the measuring systems of the test site - for prompt detection of the impact point and measurement of deviations.
A multi-meter smoking crater completes the picture. But before that, a couple of kilometers before the impact, an armored storage cassette is fired from the test warhead, recording everything that was recorded on board during the flight. This armored flash drive will protect against loss of on-board information. She will be found later, when a helicopter arrives with a special search group. And they will record the results of a fantastic flight.
The first intercontinental ballistic missile with a nuclear warhead
The world's first ICBM with a nuclear warhead was the Soviet R-7. It carried one three-megaton warhead and could hit targets at a range of up to 11,000 km (modification 7-A). The brainchild of S.P. Korolev, although it was adopted into service, was used as military missile turned out to be ineffective due to the inability to remain on combat duty for a long time without additional refueling with an oxidizer (liquid oxygen). But the R-7 (and its numerous modifications) played an outstanding role in space exploration.
First head part ICBMs with multiple warheads
The world's first ICBM with a multiple warhead was the American LGM-30 Minuteman III missile, the deployment of which began in 1970. Compared to the previous modification, the W-56 warhead was replaced by three light combat W-62 blocks installed on the dilution stage. Thus, the missile could hit three separate targets or concentrate all three warheads to strike one. Currently, only one warhead is left on all Minuteman III missiles as part of the disarmament initiative.
Variable yield warhead
Since the early 1960s, technologies have been developed to create thermonuclear warheads with variable yield. These include, for example, the W80 warhead, which was installed, in particular, on the Tomahawk missile. These technologies were created for thermonuclear charges built according to the Teller-Ulam scheme, where the fission reaction of uranium or plutonium isotopes triggers a fusion reaction (that is, a thermonuclear explosion). The change in power occurred by making adjustments to the interaction of the two stages.
PS. I would also like to add that up there, jamming units are also working on their task, false targets are released, and in addition, the booster units and/or the bus are blown up after disengagement in order to increase the number of targets on the radars and overload the missile defense system.
The entire bulk of an intercontinental ballistic missile, tens of meters and tons of super-strong alloys, high-tech fuel and advanced electronics are needed for only one thing - to deliver the warhead to its destination: a cone a meter and a half high and as thick at the base as a human torso.
Let's look at a typical warhead (in reality, there may be design differences between warheads). This is a cone made of lightweight durable alloys. Inside there are bulkheads, frames, a power frame - almost everything is like in an airplane. The power frame is covered with durable metal casing. A thick layer of heat-protective coating is applied to the casing. It looks like an ancient Neolithic basket, generously coated with clay and fired in man's first experiments with heat and ceramics. The similarity is easy to explain: both the basket and the warhead have to resist external heat.
Inside the cone, fixed to their “seats,” there are two main “passengers” for the sake of which everything was started: a thermonuclear charge and a charge control unit, or automation unit. They are amazingly compact. The automation unit is the size of a five-liter jar of pickled cucumbers, and the charge is the size of an ordinary garden bucket. Heavy and weighty, the union of a can and a bucket will explode three hundred fifty to four hundred kilotons. Two passengers are connected to each other by a connection, like Siamese twins, and through this connection they constantly exchange something. Their dialogue is ongoing all the time, even when the missile is on combat duty, even when these twins are just being transported from the manufacturing plant.
There is also a third passenger - a unit for measuring the movement of the warhead or generally controlling its flight. In the latter case, working controls are built into the warhead, allowing the trajectory to be changed. For example, actuating pneumatic systems or powder systems. And also an on-board electrical network with power supplies, communication lines with the stage, in the form of protected wires and connectors, protection against electromagnetic pulses and a thermostatting system to maintain the required charge temperature.
The technology by which warheads are separated from the missile and set on their own courses is separate big topic, about which you can write books.
First, let’s explain what “just a combat unit” is. This is a device that physically houses a thermonuclear charge on board an intercontinental ballistic missile. The rocket has a so-called warhead, which can contain one, two or more warheads. If there are several of them, the warhead is called a multiple warhead (MIRV).
Inside the MIRV there is a very complex unit (it is also called a breeding platform), which, after being launched by a launch vehicle outside the atmosphere, begins to perform whole line programmed actions for individual guidance and separation of warheads located on it; line up in space battle formations from blocks and decoys, which are also initially located on the platform. Thus, each block is placed on a trajectory that ensures it hits a given target on the Earth’s surface.
Combat units are different. Those that move along ballistic trajectories after separation from the platform, they are called uncontrollable. Controlled warheads, after separation, begin to “live their own lives.” They are equipped with attitude control engines to perform maneuvers in outer space, aerodynamic control surfaces for controlling flight in the atmosphere, they have an inertial control system on board, several computing devices, a radar with its own computer... And, of course, a combat charge.
A virtually controllable warhead combines the properties of an unmanned spaceship and hypersonic unmanned aircraft. This device must perform all actions both in space and during flight in the atmosphere autonomously.
After separation from the breeding platform, the warhead flies for a relatively long time at a very high altitude- in space. At this time, the control system of the unit carries out a whole series of reorientations in order to create conditions for accurately determining its own movement parameters, making it easier to overcome the zone of possible nuclear explosions of anti-missile missiles...
Before entering the upper atmosphere, the on-board computer calculates the required orientation of the warhead and carries it out. Around the same period, sessions are held to determine the actual location using radar, for which a number of maneuvers also need to be made. Then the locator antenna is fired, and the atmospheric part of the movement begins for the warhead.
Below in front of the warhead lies a huge, contrastingly shiny from the menacing high altitudes, covered in a blue oxygen haze, covered with aerosol suspensions, the vast and boundless fifth ocean. Slowly and barely noticeably turning from the residual effects of separation, the warhead continues its descent along a gentle trajectory. But then a very unusual breeze gently blew towards her. He touched it a little - and it became noticeable, covering the body with a thin wave of pale white-blue glow, extending back. This wave is breathtakingly high-temperature, but it does not burn the warhead yet, since it is too ethereal. The breeze blowing over the warhead is electrically conductive. The speed of the cone is so high that it literally crushes air molecules with its impact into electrically charged fragments, and impact ionization of the air occurs. This plasma breeze is called high Mach number hypersonic flow, and its speed is twenty times the speed of sound.
Due to the high rarefaction, the breeze is almost unnoticeable in the first seconds. Growing and becoming denser as it goes deeper into the atmosphere, it initially heats more than puts pressure on the warhead. But gradually it begins to squeeze her cone with force. The flow turns the warhead nose first. It doesn’t unfold right away—the cone sways slightly back and forth, gradually slowing down its oscillations, and finally stabilizes.
Condensing as it descends, the flow puts more and more pressure on the warhead, slowing down its flight. As it slows down, the temperature gradually decreases. From the enormous values of the beginning of the entry, the blue-white glow of tens of thousands of Kelvin, to the yellow-white glow of five to six thousand degrees. This is the temperature of the surface layers of the Sun. The glow becomes dazzling because the air density quickly increases, and with it the heat flow into the walls of the warhead. The heat-protective coating becomes charred and begins to burn.
It does not burn from friction with the air, as is often incorrectly said. Due to the enormous hypersonic speed of movement (now fifteen times faster than sound), another cone diverges in the air from the top of the body - a shock wave, as if enclosing a warhead. The incoming air, entering the shock wave cone, is instantly compacted many times over and pressed tightly against the surface of the warhead. From abrupt, instantaneous and repeated compression, its temperature immediately jumps to several thousand degrees. The reason for this is the crazy speed of what is happening, the extreme dynamism of the process. Gas-dynamic compression of the flow, and not friction, is what now warms up the sides of the warhead.
The worst part is the nose. There the greatest compaction of the oncoming flow is formed. The area of this seal moves slightly forward, as if disconnecting from the body. And it stays in front, taking the shape of a thick lens or pillow. This formation is called a “detached bow shock wave.” It is several times thicker than the rest of the surface of the shock wave cone around the warhead. The frontal compression of the oncoming flow is the strongest here. Therefore, the disconnected bow shock wave has the highest temperature and highest heat density. This small sun burns the nose of the warhead in a radiant way - highlighting, radiating heat directly into the nose of the body and causing severe burning of the nose. Therefore, there is the thickest layer of thermal protection. It is the bow shock wave that illuminates the area on a dark night for many kilometers around a warhead flying in the atmosphere.
Connected by one goal
The thermonuclear charge and the control unit continuously communicate with each other. This “dialogue” begins immediately after a warhead is installed on a missile, and it ends at the moment of a nuclear explosion. All this time, the control system prepares the charge for operation, like a trainer prepares a boxer for an important fight. And at the right moment he gives the last and most important command.
When a missile is placed on combat duty, its charge is equipped to its full configuration: a pulsed neutron activator, detonators and other equipment are installed. But he is not ready for the explosion yet. Keeping a nuclear missile in a silo or on a mobile launcher for decades, ready to explode at any moment, is simply dangerous.
Therefore, during flight, the control system puts the charge in a state of readiness for explosion. This happens gradually, using complex sequential algorithms based on two main conditions: reliability of movement towards the goal and control over the process. If one of these factors deviates from the calculated values, the preparation will be stopped. Electronics transfer charge to more and more high degree readiness to give a command to operate at the design point.
And when the fully prepared charge comes from the control unit to detonate, the explosion will occur immediately, instantly. A warhead flying at the speed of a sniper’s bullet will only travel a couple of hundredths of a millimeter, not having time to move in space even the thickness of a human hair, when the thermonuclear reaction in its charge begins, develops, completely passes and is completed, releasing all the normal power.
An explosion on the surface of the Earth is rarely planned - only for objects buried in the ground, such as missile silos. Most targets lie on the surface. And for their greatest destruction, the detonation is carried out at a certain height, depending on the power of the charge. For tactical twenty kilotons this is 400-600 m. For a strategic megaton the optimal explosion height is 1200 m. Why? The explosion causes two waves to travel across the area. Closer to the epicenter, the blast wave will hit earlier. It will fall and be reflected, bouncing to the sides, where it will merge with the fresh wave that has just arrived here from above, from the point of explosion. Two waves - incident from the center of the explosion and reflected from the surface - add up, forming the most powerful shock wave in the ground layer, the main factor of destruction.
During test launches, the warhead usually reaches the ground unhindered. On board there is half a hundredweight of explosives, which are detonated when it falls. For what? First, the warhead is a secret object and must be securely destroyed after use. Secondly, this is necessary for the measuring systems of the test site - for prompt detection of the impact point and measurement of deviations.
A multi-meter smoking crater completes the picture. But before that, a couple of kilometers before the impact, an armored storage cassette is fired from the test warhead, recording everything that was recorded on board during the flight. This armored flash drive will protect against loss of on-board information. She will be found later, when a helicopter arrives with a special search group. And they will record the results of a fantastic flight.
Atomic weapons - a device that receives enormous explosive power from the reactions of ATOMIC FISSION and NUCLEAR fusion.
About atomic weapons
Atomic weapons are the most powerful weapons today, in service with five countries: Russia, the USA, Great Britain, France and China. There are also a number of states that are more or less successfully developing atomic weapons, but their research is either not completed, or these countries do not have necessary means delivery of weapons to the target. India, Pakistan, North Korea, Iraq, Iran are developing nuclear weapons different levels, Germany, Israel, South Africa and Japan theoretically have the necessary capabilities to create nuclear weapons in a relatively short time.
It is difficult to overestimate the role of nuclear weapons. On the one hand, this is a powerful means of intimidation, on the other hand, it is the most effective tool strengthening peace and preventing military conflicts between powers that possess these weapons. 52 years have passed since the first use of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima. The world community has come close to realizing that nuclear war will inevitably lead to global environmental disaster, which will make the further existence of humanity impossible. Over the years, legal mechanisms have been created to defuse tensions and ease the confrontation between nuclear powers. For example, many agreements were signed to reduce nuclear potential powers, the Convention on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was signed, according to which the possessor countries pledged not to transfer the technology for the production of these weapons to other countries, and countries that do not have nuclear weapons pledged not to take steps to develop them; finally, quite recently, the superpowers agreed on a complete ban nuclear tests. It is obvious that nuclear weapons are the most important instrument that has become the regulatory symbol of an entire era in the history of international relations and in the history of mankind.
Atomic weapons
ATOMIC WEAPON, a device that receives enormous explosive power from the reactions of ATOMIC FISSION and NUCLEAR fusion. The first nuclear weapons were used by the United States against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. These atomic bombs consisted of two stable doctritic masses of URANIUM and PLUTONIUM, which upon violent collision caused the CRITICAL MASS to be exceeded, thereby provoking an uncontrolled CHAIN REACTION of fission of atomic nuclei. Such explosions release great amount energy and harmful radiation: the explosive power can be equal to the power of 200,000 tons of trinitrotoluene. Much more powerful hydrogen bomb ( thermonuclear bomb), first tested in 1952, consists of an atomic bomb which, when exploded, creates a temperature high enough to cause nuclear fusion in a nearby solid layer, usually in lithium deterrite. The explosive power can be equal to that of several million tons (megatons) of trinitrotoluene. The area of destruction caused by such bombs reaches large sizes: a 15 megaton bomb will explode all burning substances within 20 km. The third type of nuclear weapon, the neutron bomb, is a small hydrogen bomb, also called a high radiation weapon. It causes a weak explosion, which, however, is accompanied by an intense emission of high-speed NEUTRONS. The weakness of the explosion means that buildings are not damaged much. Neutrons cause serious radiation sickness in people within a certain radius of the explosion site, and kill everyone affected within a week.
Initially, the explosion of an atomic bomb (A) forms a fireball (1) with a temperature of millions of degrees Celsius and emits radiation (?). After a few minutes (B), the ball increases in volume and creates a shock wave with high pressure(3). The fireball rises (C), sucking up dust and debris, and forms a mushroom cloud (D), As the fireball increases in volume, it creates a powerful convection current (4), releasing hot radiation (5) and forming a cloud (6), When it explodes 15 megaton bomb destruction from the blast wave is complete (7) in a radius of 8 km, severe (8) in a radius of 15 km and noticeable (I) in a radius of 30 km Even at a distance of 20 km (10) all flammable substances explode, within two days after the bomb explodes, fallout continues to fall 300 km from the explosion with a radioactive dose of 300 roentgens. The accompanying photo shows how the explosion of a large nuclear weapon on the ground creates a huge mushroom cloud of radioactive dust and debris that can reach a height of several kilometers. Dangerous dust in the air is then freely transported by prevailing winds in any direction. Devastation covers a vast area.
Modern atomic bombs and shells
Radius of action
Depending on the power of the atomic charge, atomic bombs and shells are divided into calibers: small, medium and large . To obtain energy equal to the energy of the explosion of a small-caliber atomic bomb, you need to explode several thousand tons of TNT. The TNT equivalent of a medium-caliber atomic bomb is tens of thousands, and bombs large caliber– hundreds of thousands of tons of TNT. Thermonuclear (hydrogen) weapons can have even greater power; their TNT equivalent can reach millions and even tens of millions of tons. Atomic bombs, the TNT equivalent of which is 1-50 thousand tons, belong to the class of tactical atomic bombs and are intended to solve operational-tactical tasks. TO tactical weapons also include: artillery shells with an atomic charge with a power of 10 - 15 thousand tons and atomic charges (with a power of about 5 - 20 thousand tons) for anti-aircraft guided missiles and shells used to arm fighter aircraft. Atomic and hydrogen bombs with a yield of over 50 thousand tons are classified as strategic weapons.
It should be noted that such a classification of atomic weapons is only conditional, since in reality the consequences of the use of tactical atomic weapons can be no less than those experienced by the population of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and even greater. It is now obvious that the explosion of just one hydrogen bomb is capable of causing such severe consequences over vast territories that tens of thousands of shells and bombs used in past world wars did not carry with them. And several hydrogen bombs quite enough to turn vast territories into desert zones.
Nuclear weapons are divided into 2 main types: atomic and hydrogen (thermonuclear). IN atomic weapons The release of energy occurs due to the fission reaction of the nuclei of atoms of heavy elements uranium or plutonium. In a hydrogen weapon, energy is released by the formation (or fusion) of helium atom nuclei from hydrogen atoms.
Thermonuclear weapons
Modern thermonuclear weapons are strategic weapons that can be used by aviation to destroy the most important industrial and military facilities behind enemy lines. major cities as centers of civilization. Most known type Thermonuclear weapons are thermonuclear (hydrogen) bombs, which can be delivered to the target by aircraft. Thermonuclear charges can also be used to fill missile warheads. for various purposes, including intercontinental ballistic missiles. For the first time such a missile was tested in the USSR back in 1957, and is currently in service Rocket Forces Strategic Purpose missiles consist of several types based on mobile launchers, in silo launchers, on submarines.
Atomic bomb
The operation of thermonuclear weapons is based on the use thermonuclear reaction with hydrogen or its compounds. In these reactions, which occur at ultra-high temperatures and pressures, energy is released by the formation of helium nuclei from hydrogen nuclei, or from hydrogen and lithium nuclei. To form helium, mainly heavy hydrogen is used - deuterium, the nuclei of which have an unusual structure - one proton and one neutron. When deuterium is heated to temperatures of several tens of millions of degrees, its atom loses its electron shells during the first collisions with other atoms. As a result, the medium turns out to consist only of protons and electrons moving independently of them. The speed of thermal motion of particles reaches such values that deuterium nuclei can come closer due to the action of powerful nuclear forces combine with each other to form helium nuclei. The result of this process is the release of energy.
The basic diagram of a hydrogen bomb is as follows. Deuterium and tritium in a liquid state are placed in a tank with a heat-proof shell, which serves to preserve deuterium and tritium in a very cool state for a long time (to maintain it in a liquid state). state of aggregation). The heat-proof shell may contain 3 layers consisting of a hard alloy, solid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen. An atomic charge is placed near a reservoir of hydrogen isotopes. When an atomic charge is detonated, hydrogen isotopes are heated to high temperatures, creating conditions for a thermonuclear reaction to occur and a hydrogen bomb to explode. However, in the process of creating hydrogen bombs, it was found that it was impractical to use hydrogen isotopes, since in this case the bomb would acquire too much weight (more than 60 tons), which is why it was impossible to even think about using such charges on strategic bombers, and especially in ballistic missiles of any range. The second problem faced by the developers of the hydrogen bomb was the radioactivity of tritium, which made its long-term storage impossible.
Study 2 addressed the above issues. Liquid isotopes of hydrogen were replaced by solid chemical compound deuterium with lithium-6. This made it possible to significantly reduce the size and weight of the hydrogen bomb. In addition, lithium hydride was used instead of tritium, which made it possible to place thermonuclear charges on fighter bombers and ballistic missiles.
The creation of the hydrogen bomb did not mark the end of the development of thermonuclear weapons, more and more new samples appeared, the hydrogen-uranium bomb was created, as well as some of its varieties - heavy-duty and, conversely, small-caliber bombs. The last stage in the improvement of thermonuclear weapons was the creation of the so-called “clean” hydrogen bomb.
H-bomb
The first developments of this modification of the thermonuclear bomb appeared back in 1957, in the wake of US propaganda statements about the creation of some kind of “humane” thermonuclear weapon that would not cause as much harm to future generations as a conventional thermonuclear bomb. There was some truth in the claims to “humaneness.” Although the destructive power of the bomb was no less, at the same time it could be detonated so that strontium-90, which would normally hydrogen explosion We have been poisoning the earth's atmosphere for a long time. Everything within the range of such a bomb will be destroyed, but the danger to living organisms that are far from the explosion, as well as to future generations, will be reduced. However, these statements were refuted by scientists, who recalled that explosions of atomic or hydrogen bombs produce a large amount of radioactive dust, which rises with a powerful air flow to a height of 30 km, and then gradually settles to the ground over a large area, contaminating it. Research conducted by scientists shows that it will take 4 to 7 years for half of this dust to fall to the ground.
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On August 6th, 1945, the first nuclear weapon was used against the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later, the city of Nagasaki was subjected to a second strike, and currently the last in human history. They tried to justify these bombings on the grounds that they ended the war with Japan and prevented further losses of millions of lives. In total, the two bombs killed approximately 240,000 people and ushered in a new atomic age. From 1945 until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the world experienced cold war and constant anticipation of the possible nuclear strike between the United States and the Soviet Union. During this time, the parties built thousands of nuclear weapons, from small bombs and cruise missiles, to large intercontinental ballistic warheads (ICBMs) and Seaborne Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs). Britain, France and China have added their own nuclear arsenals to this stockpile. Today, the fear of nuclear annihilation is much less than in the 1970s, but several countries still possess large arsenals of these destructive weapons.
Despite agreements aimed at limiting the number of missiles, nuclear powers continue to develop and improve their inventory and delivery methods. Advances in the development of missile defense systems have led some countries to increase the development of new and more effective missiles. There is a threat of a new arms race between the world's superpowers. This list contains the ten most destructive nuclear missile systems currently in service in the world. Accuracy, range, number of warheads, warhead yield and mobility are the factors that make these systems so destructive and dangerous. This list is presented in no particular order because these nuclear missiles do not always share the same mission or purpose. One missile may be designed to destroy a city, while another type may be designed to destroy enemy missile silos. Additionally, this list does not include missiles currently being tested or not officially deployed. Thus, missile systems India's Agni-V and China's JL-2, which are being tested step-by-step and ready for service this year, are not included. Israel's Jericho III is also not included, since little is known about this missile at all. It is important to keep in mind when reading this list that the size of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs were equivalent to 16 kilotons (x1000) and 21 kilotons TNT respectively.
M51, France
After the United States and Russia, France is deploying the third largest nuclear arsenal in the world. In addition to nuclear bombs And cruise missiles, France relies on its SLBMs as its primary nuclear deterrent. The M51 missile is the most advanced component. It entered service in 2010 and is currently installed on the Triomphant class of submarines. The missile has a range of approximately 10,000 km and is capable of carrying 6 to 10 warheads per 100 kt. The circular excursion probable (CEP) of the missile is noted to be between 150 and 200 meters. This means that the warhead has a 50% chance of striking within 150-200 meters of the target. The M51 is equipped with a variety of systems that make attempts to intercept warheads much more difficult. 
DF-31/31A, China
The Dong Feng 31 is a road-mobile and bunker-series intercontinental ICBM system deployed by China since 2006. The original model of this missile carried a large 1 megaton warhead and had a range of 8,000 km. The probable deflection of the missile is 300 m. The improved 31 A has three 150 kt warheads and is capable of covering a distance of 11,000 km, with a probable deflection of 150 m. An additional fact is that these missiles can be moved and launched from a mobile launch vehicle, which makes them even more dangerous. 
Topol-M, Russia
Known as the SS-27 by NATO, the Topol-M was introduced into Russian service in 1997. Intercontinental missile based in bunkers, but several Poplars are also mobile. The missile is currently armed with a single 800 kt warhead, but can be equipped with a maximum of six warheads and decoys. With a maximum speed of 7.3 km per second, a relatively flat flight path and a probable deviation of approximately 200 m, the Topol-M is a very effective nuclear rocket, which is difficult to stop in flight. The difficulty of tracking mobile units makes it a more effective weapon system worthy of this list. 
RS-24 Yars, Russia
Bush Administration Plans to Develop the Network missile defense V Eastern Europe angered leaders in the Kremlin. Despite the claim that the shock shield was not intended against Russia, Russian leaders viewed it as a threat to their own security and decided to develop a new ballistic missile. The result was the development of the RS-24 Yars. This missile is closely related to the Topol-M, but delivers four warheads of 150-300 kilotons and has a deflection of 50 m. Sharing many of the features of the Topol, the Yars can also change direction in flight and carries decoys, making interception by missile defense systems extremely difficult . 
LGM-30G Minuteman III, USA
It is the only land-based ICBM deployed by the United States. First deployed in 1970, the LGM-30G Minuteman III was to be replaced by the MX Peacekeeper. That program was canceled and the Pentagon instead spent $7 billion to update and modernize the existing 450 Active systems LGM-30G over the past decade. With a speed of almost 8 km/s and a deviation of less than 200 m ( exact number highly classified) the old Minuteman remains a formidable nuclear weapon. This missile initially delivered three small warheads. Today, a single warhead of 300-475 kt is used. 
RSM 56 Bulava, Russia
The RSM 56 Bulava naval ballistic missile is in Russian service. From the point of view of naval missiles Soviet Union and Russia are somewhat behind the United States in performance and ability. To correct this shortcoming, the Bulava was created, a more recent addition to the Russian submarine arsenal. The missile was developed for the new Borei-class submarine. After numerous failures during the testing phase, Russia accepted the missile into service in 2013. The Bulava is currently equipped with six 150 kt warheads, although reports say it can carry as many as 10. Like most modern ballistic missiles, the RSM 56 carries multiple decoys to increase survivability in the face of missile defense. The range is approximately 8,000 km when fully loaded, with an estimated deviation of 300-350 meters. 
R-29RMU2 Liner, Russia
Latest development V Russian weapons The Liner has been in service since 2014. The missile is effectively an updated version of the previous Russian SLBM (Sineva R-29RMU2), designed to make up for the problems and some shortcomings of the Bulava. The liner has a range of 11,000 km and can carry a maximum of twelve warheads of 100 kt each. Warhead payload can be reduced and replaced with decoys to improve survivability. The warhead's deflection is kept secret, but is likely similar to the 350 meters of the Mace. 
UGM-133 Trident II, USA
The current SLBM of the US and British submarine forces is the Trident II. The missile has been in service since 1990 and has been updated and modernized since then. Fully equipped, Trident can carry 14 warheads on board. This number was later reduced, and the missile currently delivers 4-5 475 kt warheads. The maximum range depends on the warhead load and varies between 7,800 and 11,000 km. The US Navy required a deviation probability of no more than 120 meters in order for the missile to be accepted for service. Numerous reports and military journals often state that the Trident's deflection actually exceeded this requirement by a fairly significant factor. 
DF-5/5A, China
Compared to other missiles on this list, the Chinese DF-5/5A can be considered a gray workhorse. The rocket does not stand out either in appearance or in complexity, but at the same time it is capable of completing any given task. The DF-5 entered service in 1981 as a message to any potential enemies that China was not planning preemptive strikes but would punish anyone who attacked it. This ICBM can carry a huge 5 mt warhead and has a range of over 12,000 km. The DF-5 has a deflection of approximately 1 km, which means that the missile has one purpose - to destroy cities. The warhead's size, deflection and the fact that it only takes an hour to fully prepare for launch all mean that the DF-5 is a punitive weapon, designed to punish any would-be attackers. The 5A version has increased range, improved 300m deflection and the ability to carry multiple warheads. 
R-36M2 "Voevoda"
R-36M2 “Voevoda” is a missile that in the West is called nothing less than Satan, and there are good reasons for this. First deployed in 1974, the Dnepropetrovsk-developed R-36 has undergone many changes since then, including the relocation of the warhead. The latest modification of this missile, the R-36M2 can carry ten 750 kt warheads and has a range of approximately 11,000 km. With a maximum speed of almost 8 km/s and a probable deflection of 220 m, Satan is a weapon that has caused great concern to US military planners. There would have been much more concern if Soviet planners had been given the green light to deploy one version of this missile, which would have had 38 250 kt warheads. Russia plans to retire all of these missiles by 2019. 
In continuation, visit a selection of the most powerful weapons in history, which contains not only missiles.
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