The shell of gas that surrounds our planet Earth, known as the atmosphere, is made up of five main layers. These layers originate on the surface of the planet, from sea level (sometimes below) and rise to outer space in the following sequence:
- Troposphere;
- Stratosphere;
- Mesosphere;
- Thermosphere;
- Exosphere.
Diagram of the main layers of the Earth's atmosphere
In between each of these five main layers are transition zones called "pauses" where changes in temperature, composition and air density occur. Together with the pauses, the Earth's atmosphere includes a total of 9 layers.
Troposphere: where the weather happens
Of all the layers of the atmosphere, the troposphere is the one with which we are most familiar (whether you realize it or not), since we live at its bottom - the surface of the planet. It envelops the surface of the Earth and extends upwards for several kilometers. The word troposphere means "changing the globe." A very apt name, since this layer is where our daily weather takes place.
Starting from the surface of the planet, the troposphere rises to a height of 6 to 20 km. The lower third of the layer, closest to us, contains 50% of all atmospheric gases. This only part the whole composition of the atmosphere that breathes. Due to the fact that the air is heated from below by the earth's surface, which absorbs the thermal energy of the Sun, the temperature and pressure of the troposphere decrease with increasing altitude.
At the top is a thin layer called the tropopause, which is just a buffer between the troposphere and stratosphere.
Stratosphere: home of the ozone
Stratosphere - next layer atmosphere. It stretches from 6-20 km to 50 km above the earth's surface. This is the layer in which most commercial airliners fly and hot air balloons travel.
Here, the air does not flow up and down, but moves parallel to the surface in very fast air currents. Temperatures rise as you climb, thanks to the abundance of natural ozone (O 3), a byproduct of solar radiation and oxygen that has the ability to absorb the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays (any rise in temperature with altitude is known as "inversion" in meteorology) ...
Since the stratosphere has more warm temperatures below and cooler above, convection (vertical movement of air masses) is rare in this part of the atmosphere. In fact, you can view a storm raging in the troposphere from the stratosphere as the layer acts as a convection “cap” through which storm clouds cannot penetrate.
After the stratosphere, there is again a buffer layer, this time called the stratopause.
Mesosphere: middle atmosphere
The mesosphere is located approximately 50-80 km from the Earth's surface. The upper mesosphere is the coldest natural place on Earth, where temperatures can drop below -143 ° C.
Thermosphere: upper atmosphere
The mesosphere and mesopause are followed by the thermosphere, located between 80 and 700 km above the planet's surface, and contains less than 0.01% of all air in the atmospheric envelope. Temperatures here reach up to + 2000 ° C, but due to the strong rarefaction of the air and the lack of gas molecules for heat transfer, these high temperatures are perceived as very cold.
Exosphere: the border of the atmosphere and space
At an altitude of about 700-10,000 km above the earth's surface, there is an exosphere - the outer edge of the atmosphere, bordering on space. Here meteorological satellites revolve around the Earth.
How about the ionosphere?
The ionosphere is not a separate layer, but in fact the term is used to refer to the atmosphere at an altitude of 60 to 1000 km. It includes the uppermost parts of the mesosphere, the entire thermosphere and part of the exosphere. The ionosphere gets its name because in this part of the atmosphere, the radiation of the Sun is ionized when it passes magnetic fields Land on and. This phenomenon is observed from the ground like the northern lights.
Against the background of abnormal weather, when it snows and hails in June, and the temperature is more typical for the beginning of May, many people have a question about the causes of these phenomena.
And although cold summer months and snowy winters, remember those who are over 30 years old, there were not so many records then
Of course, the media are also to blame for the fact that heavy rain turns into an "Old Testament flood", and the temperature, 1.5-2 degrees below the long-term average, is "the beginning of the ice age" ... A significant part of the records refers to the "records of the day" - when the weather indicators of that particular day are compared. Within 20, in best case- hundreds of years. That is, there was hail on the neighboring days - but it is no longer included in the comparison set. We have new record and a reason, one to cry out about the upcoming "Maunder minimum" and a new ice age; others - about global warming. Third to announce the arrival of Nibiru.
Meteorologists just shrug their shoulders and try not to become extreme, in the face of clearly changed climatic and weather patterns.
So what happened, what global changes cause climate instability and frequent weather excesses?
To begin with, it would be nice to understand how it was before, to see what has changed.
And before there were stable climatic zones the contents of which did not mix very well. The Arctic itself, the North of Eurasia is already being heated by the Gulf Stream - as far as its air currents are enough ... Yes, you heard right. Water warm current The Gulf Stream transfers heat very slowly. Heated water from Gulf of Mexico, will reach the shores of Normandy in a few years, and not before.
Can it not cool down during this time? Could this critically affect the climate? Yes, and it will do warm water to the frozen mainland, only wash the shores. As is the case in Alaska and Greenland.
The main heat transfer occurs with air masses that circulate from heated Africa to the Gulf of Mexico, and then join the masses of a high-altitude jet stream that carries air from west to east. T. n. "western transfer". High-altitude jet stream is called differently, Jet Stream (jet stream). He crosses the Atlantic and brings warm air from the latitudes of Texas and South Carolina.
And it brings quickly! Storms on the east coast of the United States move eastward and reach Europe in 3-5 days.
Jet Stream divides climatic zones. From the north, it draws in and carries cool air, from the south, it carries away warm streams.
In many respects, thanks to him, the cold remains in the Arctic, and hot in the subtropics. If there was no Western Transport (and it depends on the rotation of the Earth), the temperature difference would tend to equalize.
One of the largest-scale links in the general circulation of the atmosphere is the circumpolar vortex. Its formation is due to foci of cold in polar region and hotbeds in the tropical zone. Circumpolar movement and its manifestation - western transport - are a stable and characteristic feature of the general atmospheric circulation.The concept of high-rise frontal zone(VFZ), and the associated strengths westerly winds began to be called jet streams or jets. The VFZ usually includes one or several fronts and is the place of occurrence of mobile frontal cyclones and anticyclones moving in the direction of the main (leading) flow. During periods of strong development of the meridionality of the processes, the VFZ "wriggles", as it were, bending around the high-altitude ridges from the north and hollows from the south.
But back to Jet Stream and its displacement. What happens when this huge atmospheric river of air masses bends far north or south?
Actually, the process is interdependent, air masses can move the jet stream (Jet), and it serves as a watershed between them, dividing climatic zones:
As you can see, hot air pushes the Jet stream upwards, cold air - downwards.
As a result, when cold air masses, it rains:
(green indicates the rain zone, dark green indicates heavy rainfall)
And when on the contrary, then too. The mixing of heated and cold air leads to precipitation and violent atmospheric activity, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, accompanied by the occurrence strong winds, mixing layers of the atmosphere with hail.
Sound familiar from the weather reports? :)
Let's take a look at how it looks on the maps of Western weather forecasters:(rain- rain, snow- snow, severe t-storms- severe thunderstorms, showers- precipitation, colder- colder, cool- chilly, milder- average weather, heavy rainfall- heavy rain, humid- moisture, windy- windy, ice- ice, frigid- cold)
So, you can see what a variety of critical weather phenomena give rise to a shift and mixing of atmospheric masses of different quality!
Simplicity and clarity of explanations did not arise in America by themselves, but under the pressure of necessity.
They came to the idea long ago that any instruction should be as clear as possible. Not for the one who composes it, but for the one who will use it ...
Therefore, army manuals on handling weapons can be drawn in the form of a comic strip. In the army there are many blacks and people from the uneducated strata of society. It is better to draw up instructions once, accessible to anyone, than to get broken rifles and injuries.
Well, our meteorologists make a product for themselves, apparently, and do not condescend simple explanations... Or maybe they themselves do not understand, judging by the complete disregard for such a weather-determining factor as a high-altitude jet stream.Let's see if it influenced in recent events, when it flooded Berlin, walked across Poland, flooded Vilnius and hit Moscow?
Continuation in the second part:
It was about the main weather processes that directly affect us. Including the jet stream Jet Stream, which is considered by meteorologists to be a generator of cyclones and anticyclones and a delimiter of climatic zones.
Unfortunately, domestic forecasters rarely remember about it, more and more in terms of derivative factors and momentary manifestations of weather changes. Hence, there are serious flaws in forecasting, including.
The adherence to the old methods is understandable, especially among the elderly, but science does not stand still and opens up new connections and reasons, new methods of high-quality forecasting.
In previous articles, I promised to tell you how Jet Stream affects not only the weather, but also the more frequent cataclysms around the world.
This is what an expert in the field says on the topic of current climate change and weather disasters advanced weapons, Doctor of Philosophy, Colonel Andrey Shalygin:
The main thing that is now happening with the climatic conditions on the planet, and what needs to be talked about regardless of the formulation of the causes that gave rise, is the weakening of the global latitudinal transfer and the strengthening of the meridian.
First of all, for us this means a weakening of the traditional trade winds and monsoons, as well as the emergence, activation and strengthening of breakthrough stagnant (blocking) anticyclones. This is associated with some discomfort for the residents of Russia, and possible damage.
Let's try to understand the unfamiliar terms. What does latitudinal and meridian transport mean?
Latitudinal - from West to East, and meridian - in the direction from one pole to another, along the meridians.
If the movement of atmospheric masses from west to east, in latitude, is carried out within the same climatic zone, then from south to north, and vice versa, air masses with different temperatures and humidity collide. That can lead not only to abundant precipitation, but also to catastrophic consequences.
A striking example of such processes is the "Tornado Alley" in North America. It is famous for the fact that huge tornadoes, called tornadoes, constantly arise on the territory of the plain, fenced by mountains from the west:
Tornadoes form when two air currents collide - a warm, wet, and cold, dry one. In Oklahoma, warm humid air comes from the Gulf of Mexico, while cold air descends from the north, from Canada. Air masses fall into a corridor formed by mountains stretching across the American continent from north to south, a "tornado alley", and collide in it, forming powerful vortices.
This is a typical meridian transfer of air masses, with characteristic consequences.
Thinking - it seems so even good, warm humid air comes to the plain, irrigates it, heats it up, creates conditions for plant growth ... Only here is a side effect in the form of a tornado, sweeping away everything in its path. Its pluses and minuses.
At the same time, the latitudinal transfer prevailing on the planet contributed to the maintenance of separate climatic regions: Arctic, zone temperate climate, subtropics ...
What happens if you take and mix air with different temperatures, like a mixer? In the Arctic, it will get warmer, and in other places it will get colder ... Plus, there are regular cataclysms, for the reasons described above.
(rain - rain, snow - snow, severe t-storms - severe thunderstorms, showers - precipitation, colder - colder, cool - cool, milder - average weather, heavy rainfall - heavy rain, humid - moisture, windy - windy, ice - ice, frigid - cold)
I suppose you will now take a different look at this example from the American weather portal Accuweather.
Jet Stream, its direction and properties of the air masses carried by it, are of key importance. Atmospheric front collide at its "watershed":
In Russia, as you know, the occurrence of a tornado is extremely a rare thing... It was, until recently.
Because the weather was determined by a powerful flow of air masses from the Atlantic, 600-800 km wide. It is he who warms the Russian Plain, and not the notorious Gulf Stream:
From the article "What Happened to the Gulf Stream".
Another important point, which I would like to emphasize: the seasonal mean anomalies of atmospheric circulation in temperate latitudes to a very small extent depend on anomalies of the ocean surface temperature, including such large ones that were observed in the summer of 2010 in European Russia. Experts in seasonal weather forecast argue that only 10-30% of deviations from the "norm" of the average seasonal temperature at any point in Russia are caused by anomalies in the ocean surface temperature, and the remaining 70-90% are the result of natural variability of the atmosphere, the root cause of which is unequal heating high and low latitudes, and it is almost impossible to predict which for a period of more than two or three weeks (see also Science and Life No. 12, 2010).
Therefore, all sorts of hurricanes come to Russia, mainly from places where atmospheric currents mix - from the Atlantic.
Using the example of the recent storm that captured the capital of Germany, Poland, Vilnius, Moscow and many smaller settlements, it is interesting to see the participation of different weather factors.
Images - wind maps on different heights, temperature, pressure and precipitation are taken from a public service.
Cyclone in in full swing, spins over Germany. Cold air enters it from the north, hot air is pumped from the south, from Africa. So the forecasters of the Hydrometeorological Center would say.
And here is the reason for the sudden mixing of air masses:
Pronounced meridian transfer. Jet Stream, instead of the usual direction from west to east, turned to the north. Height is about 10 km.
Here some streams can be seen better, the height is 2 km.
Having formed, this cyclone with its "blades" - thunderstorm fronts, covered the Baltic states and the European part of Russia.
Since by this time the territory of the Russian Plain was cooled by the "cold summer of the 17th", the hot air masses, moving eastward, caused violent thunderstorm activity.
So you see how easy it is to use different terminology without mentioning the significant factors of the weather kitchen.
The storm front is to blame. And where did it come from, why such a coating? So the cyclone is to blame that produced it. And where did the cyclone come from? Nervousness of the climate, sir ... Such a shitty summer ...
In fact, we witnessed a process similar to what is happening on the "Tornado Alley".
You listen to analysis from Phobos, and you hear: an anticyclone breaks through from the north, Atlantic cyclones bring a lot of moisture and heat ... An anticyclone from the south helps to pump Atlantic heat into Russia ...
It seems that enemies are everywhere, and there is no explanation for the reasons for what is happening. Where does all this come from and, most importantly, why?
The presenters talk about abnormal heat in Greece and Eastern Europe, and abnormal coolness with rains in the Russian Plain. Any conclusions, even the slightest, can be drawn from this? As they tell in America, they explain it in 2 minutes in such a way that even blacks understand what is happening today, and what to expect in a few days!
The most interesting thing is that forecasters use the same interactive maps - in any case, they appeared in forecasts in Lately:
But! As you can see, there is no Jet Stream on them. Because these are surface wind maps)) On which only local details are visible, but God forbid, no large-scale process.
Otherwise, the audience will have questions - what a huge vortex, and why its bends so suspiciously coincide with the places of cyclones and anticyclones!
We cannot assume that meteorologists do not know how to switch the map in height. Then why do they stubbornly continue to ignore the main weather factor - Jet Stream?
It is possible that this is sabotage through the use of backward technologies.
After all, not only viewers of TV channels receive a blizzard about the struggle and unity of atmospheric phenomena.
As follows from interviews with people from Roshydrometcenter, founders of the Gismeteo company, they supply their software not only to Roshydromet, but also to the army, special services ... Do you understand?
In 1984, businessmen, together with Yuri Yusupov, left their jobs at the main computing center of Roshydromet and created their own project. Shmelkin says that they are engaged in similar tasks almost all the time - finding software solutions for professional meteorologists.
The state has become an important client of the company. Map Maker sold the GIS Meteo software package to Roshydromet and other organizations (for example, the military). The complex includes software and computer systems- a couple of servers and a number of automated workstations (computers with installed programs). The cost of one workplace for a customer is about 50 thousand dollars.
On the this moment Roshydromet has purchased about 150 sets of GIS Meteo, military structures - more than 100. The FSB, railroad workers, aviation and other organizations use software packages from Map Maker.
However, this is not enough for enterprising businessmen ...
Over the past seven years the lion's share profit is generated by the site Gismeteo.
RBC offered to post links to their articles on the website. “They promised absolutely incredible money for those times - 500 thousand rubles a month,” says Shmelkin. - We ourselves did not always earn so much then. The contract with RBC made it possible to immediately increase the salaries of employees several times. "
it turned out that the site began to bring in more profit than the development and implementation of programs. The technological component is developing further, however, in terms of sales revenue, GIS Meteo cannot now be compared with the Gismeteo website.
As you can see, Gismeteo is more interested in selling advertising platforms on its Ukrainian and Belarusian websites. Where news regularly appears about "militants from Russia, who are once again being detained by brave cyborgs coming out," and "Donetsk gangs." It's time to ask the question of what kind of authority the suppliers work for Russian army... It looks like Ukrainian!
More information about the Gismeteo website and the placement of anti-Russian propaganda there - for good money, of course.
And in such an environment, when all services use software and models from one campaign, how can meteorologists from Phobos, whether from Hydromet, suddenly "discover" for viewers and customers who have been fed one thing for 20 years that in fact, everything is not at all so. This is fraught not only with shame, but also with lawsuits of considerable magnitude. Plus, professional pride does not allow us to admit the correctness of Western colleagues, who have not hidden from society for a long time the role and scale of influence of high-altitude jet streams (jet stream) on the weather.
However, given the anti-Russian activities of Gismeteo on their Ukrainian and Belarusian domains, one can expect direct sabotage.
But let's digress from the Ukrainian topic and return to the abnormal weather in Russia. Rains, cold, and sometimes snow, got the inhabitants of many regions of the country.
The mixing of cold and hot air masses in the process of meridian transport ensured the active formation of cyclones and abundant precipitation.
But how is Jet Stream connected with this?
We turn again to interactive maps, a little earlier:
This is the reason for the cold May and June. Bend of the Jet Stream, along the eastern edge of which Arctic air masses entered Russia.
Therefore, in the Urals and Siberia, it was abnormally warm, because along the lower edge of the Jet Stream, hot air was actively supplied from the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.
And since, I repeat again, the process proceeds in a pronounced meridian direction, the collision of air masses of different quality forms gigantic eddies - cyclones, with precipitation volumes unusual for place and time.
Here are the areas of high and low pressure, exactly where the jet stream turns, to the right (clockwise, an anticyclone is formed), or to the left (counterclockwise, a cyclone is formed):
That is, this yellow anticyclone in Europe, it is not "blocking" at all, which supposedly interferes with the passage of the jet stream along the usual route from west to east. It is formed due to the turbulence of the Jet Stream! And it was abnormally warm there, yes. Fires in Portugal, that's all. The air moves from south to north, hot from Africa is sucked in.
Here is the temperature map of that period, so as not to be unfounded. Admire the heating of Europe, and admire the influx of Arctic air into the Russian Plain, while heated masses enter Siberia from the southwest.
Clearly along the boundaries of the Jet Stream.
Those who have carefully read the article will certainly have a question: what is the reason for such a change in the behavior of high-altitude jet currents, why did they begin to bend so strongly to the north? There are only assumptions here. For example, the rotation of the Earth slows down, the speed of the Jet Stream decreases, it begins to behave more freely. Whether it is so or not is difficult to judge.
We can only state facts and accumulate observations.
Could high-altitude jet currents be influenced by experiments and the directional influence of American military stations on the atmosphere? Unambiguously, they affect - as well as the large-scale dispersion of various substances in the atmosphere. Otherwise, in the absence of results, the Pentagon and the US government would not have approved the budget for the construction of new and new stations, which, in fact, cover the entire Earth.
Millions of copper needles, sprayed into the upper layers of the atmosphere, to improve the reflection of powerful pulses from these stations, have changed its properties and serve as a "mirror" for the further application of military technologies not limited by any arms treaty.
At the same time, the military is a special, separate caste, which may not give a damn about the fact that their experiments are reflected in their own civilian population. After all, their goal is a superweapon.
And she justifies any sacrifice, as we know from history ...
Supplement for those who actively deny the existence of the above factors. Forecasters, apparently, have already received a scolding for poor-quality coverage of the situation, and were forced to crawl into textbooks to somehow explain the reasons. It's even funny how they try with all their might not to mention the "white elephant"!
Causes of the cold second half of spring and early summer
For the third month in a row, the atmospheric situation in Eurasia is determined by the large Rossby waves. Having increased in amplitude and become sedentary, they form large weather waves with different signs in adjacent regions. So, over Eastern Europe, the trough of this wave is located, which determines a prolonged period of unstable cool weather, and over Western Europe and Siberia - ridges (in these regions it is dry and very warm since April). When the large Rossby waves collapse, or their amplitude decreases, the atmosphere will begin to move and the weather will become normal for this time.
© Gismeteo Rossby Waves
The main driving force the atmosphere is the energy of the sun. However, its rays fall on the Earth at different angles. Because of this, large temperature contrasts arise between the equator and the poles. While at the equator the Sun is at its zenith almost all year round, the polar regions receive light and heat only during the summer season. But since the atmosphere tends to a thermal balance, then warm air from the equatorial regions is directed to the poles. This leads to the formation of low pressure areas in the temperate and high latitudes of the planet.
Typically, they occur on the polar front, where cold polar air masses from the north meet warm subtropical air from the south. The zone of separation of air masses is a narrow wavy ribbon, which was named Rossby waves after the scientist who described it.
Rossby waves are several thousand kilometers long. Usually 3-6 such waves fit around the circumference of the globe.
V common system circulation on the planet Rossby waves play important role... They correspond to the axis of tropospheric and stratospheric jet currents, which control the location of cyclones and anticyclones and thereby provide heat transfer between low and high latitudes.
Under certain conditions, Rossby waves can become stationary, blocking the usual westerly transport due to the Coriolis force, and even forming opposite - easterly waves. In this case, cold air from the polar regions flows to the subtropics, and the subtropical - to the pole. As a result, large weather anomalies with different signs appear in the adjacent regions of the planet.
»History of the Earth» How did the atmosphere come about?
The air we breathe is called the atmosphere and extends up to 500 km in height.
The wonderful world that we have lost. Part 5 / Atmospheric pressure
The atmosphere not only allows everyone living on planet Earth to breathe, but also protects us from harmful solar radiation... It contains nitrogen, oxygen and rare gases (helium, krypton, argon, etc.), however, surprisingly, at the "moment" of its appearance, the composition of the atmosphere was different. At the time of the formation of the Earth, which was a hot mixture of gases and rocks, it was surrounded by a gas cloud consisting of methane, ammonia and hydrogen.
Under the influence sun rays these gases first disintegrated and then reunited, thus forming completely different "combinations" - oxygen, water, ozone, carbon dioxide, and also liberated free nitrogen. Quite a long time passed before the resulting gas layer thickened so much that it became reliable protection of the Earth from harmful solar effects.
How did the Earth's atmosphere form?
Scientists over the years have tried to figure out how the Earth's atmosphere was formed and what its composition is. The most common theory is that initially the Earth's atmosphere had three different compositions.
At first, 4 billion years ago, it was composed of light gases that were captured from outer space.
At the second stage, as a result of active volcanic activity, the atmosphere was saturated with other gases - ammonia, carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Presumably this happened 3 billion years ago.
The subsequent formation of the atmosphere was determined by the leakage of light gases (helium and hydrogen) and chemical reactions occurring in the atmosphere as a result of ultraviolet radiation, lightning strikes and other factors.
When living organisms began to appear on the planet, the composition of the primary atmosphere of the Earth radically changed as a result of the release of oxygen and the absorption of carbon dioxide, that is, photosynthesis.
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has increased, which has led to the formation of a modern atmosphere with oxidizing properties... As a result, the processes taking place in the atmosphere, biosphere and lithosphere have changed dramatically. In science, this period was called the "oxygen catastrophe".
Today, the earth's atmosphere is made up of gases and all kinds of impurities.
The amount of atmospheric gases is practically constant. The exceptions are water and carbon dioxide.
Composition of the Earth's atmosphere in percent: 
Air is predominantly nitrogen. This is due to the oxidation of the hydrogen-ammonia atmosphere by oxygen molecules coming from the Earth's surface as a result of photosynthesis. What is the proportion of nitrogen in the Earth's atmosphere?
In percentage terms, its concentration is approximately 78%. The second place in terms of gas content is taken by oxygen - almost 21%, and the rarest gas in the Earth's atmosphere is radon.
What do you think the Earth would be like if there was no atmosphere? Share your opinion.
True color of the sky.
While it's hard to believe, the sky is actually purple. When light enters the atmosphere, air and water particles absorb the light, scattering it. At the same time, most of all dissipates purple that's why people see the blue sky.
An exclusive element in the Earth's atmosphere.
As many remember from school, the Earth's atmosphere consists of approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and small impurities of argon, carbon dioxide and other gases.
But few people know that our atmosphere is the only one currently discovered by scientists (besides comet 67P) that has free oxygen. Because oxygen is a highly reactive gas, it often reacts with other chemicals in space.
Its pure form on Earth makes the planet habitable.
White stripe in the sky.
Surely, some sometimes wondered why the jet plane in the sky remains white stripe... These white traces, known as contrails, are formed when hot, humid exhaust fumes from an aircraft engine mix with colder outside air.
The water vapor from the exhaust gas freezes and becomes visible.
The main layers of the atmosphere.
The Earth's atmosphere consists of five main layers, which make possible life on the planet.
The first of these, the troposphere, extends from sea level to an altitude of about 17 km to the equator. Most of weather phenomena occurs precisely in it.
Ozone layer.
The next layer of the atmosphere, the stratosphere, reaches an altitude of about 50 km at the equator.
It contains an ozone layer that protects people from dangerous ultraviolet rays. Even though this layer is above the troposphere, it may actually be warmer due to the absorbed energy from the sun's rays. Most jets and weather balloons fly in the stratosphere. Airplanes can fly faster in it because they are less affected by gravity and friction.
Weather balloons, on the other hand, can get a better idea of storms, most of which occur lower in the troposphere.
Mesosphere.
The mesosphere is the middle layer extending up to 85 km above the planet's surface.
The temperature in it fluctuates around -120 ° C. Most of the meteors that enter the Earth's atmosphere burn up in the mesosphere.
What's going on with the weather? Causes and consequences of climate change
The last two layers passing into space are the thermosphere and exosphere.
Disappearance of the atmosphere.
The earth has most likely lost its atmosphere several times. When the planet was covered in oceans of magma, massive interstellar objects crashed into it. These influences, which also formed the moon, may have formed the planet's atmosphere for the first time.
If there were no atmospheric gases ...
Without various gases in the atmosphere, the Earth would be too cold for human existence.
Water vapor, carbon dioxide and other atmospheric gases absorb heat from the sun and "distribute" it across the planet's surface, helping to create a climate suitable for habitation.
The formation of the ozone layer.
The notorious (and essential) ozone layer was created when oxygen atoms reacted with the sun's ultraviolet light to form ozone. It is ozone that absorbs most of the harmful radiation from the sun. Despite its importance, the ozone layer was formed relatively recently after enough life arose in the oceans to release the amount of oxygen necessary to create a minimum concentration of ozone into the atmosphere.
Ionosphere.
The ionosphere is so named because high-energy particles from space and from the Sun help form ions, creating an "electrical layer" around the planet.
When satellites did not exist, this layer helped to reflect radio waves.
Acid rain.
Acid rain that destroys entire forests and devastates aquatic ecosystems, is formed in the atmosphere when sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxide particles mix with water vapor and fall to the ground as rain. These chemical compounds are also found in nature: sulfur dioxide is produced when volcanic eruptions, and nitric oxide - during lightning strikes.
Lightning power
Lightning is so powerful that just one discharge can heat the surrounding air up to 30,000 ° C.
Rapid heating causes an explosive expansion of nearby air, which can be heard as sound wave called thunder.
Polar Lights.
Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis (northern and southern auroras) are caused by ionic reactions occurring in the fourth level of the atmosphere, the thermosphere. When highly charged particles from the solar wind collide with air molecules above the planet's magnetic poles, they glow and create magnificent light shows.
Sunsets.
Sunsets often look like burning skies, as small atmospheric particles scatter light, reflecting it in shades of orange and yellow.
The same principle underlies the formation of rainbows.
Inhabitants of the upper atmosphere.
In 2013, scientists discovered that tiny microbes can survive miles above the Earth's surface. At an altitude of 8-15 km above the planet, microbes were discovered that destroy organic chemical substances that float in the atmosphere, "feeding" on them.
Origin of the atmosphere
ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is the Earth's air shell (the outermost of the earth's shells), which is in continuous interaction with the rest of the shells of our planet, constantly experiencing the influence of space and, above all, the influence of the Sun. The mass of the atmosphere is equal to one millionth the mass of the Earth.
The lower boundary of the atmosphere coincides with the earth's surface. The atmosphere does not have a pronounced upper boundary: it gradually passes into interplanetary space.
Conventionally, 2–3 thousand km above the Earth's surface are taken as the upper boundary of the atmosphere. Theoretical calculations show that gravity can hold individual air particles that take part in the movement of the Earth at an altitude of 42,000 km at the equator and 28,000 km at the poles. Until recently, it was believed that at a great distance from the earth's surface, the atmosphere consists of rare gas particles that almost do not collide with themselves and are held by the gravity of the earth. Recent Research indicate that the density of particles in the upper atmosphere is much higher than it was assumed that the particles have electric charges and are held mainly not by the gravity of the Earth, but by its magnetic field.
The distance at which the geomagnetic field is capable of not only holding but also capturing particles from interplanetary space is very large (up to 90,000 km).
The study of the atmosphere is carried out both visually and with the help of numerous special instruments. Important data on the high layers of the atmosphere are obtained when launching special meteorological and geophysical rockets (up to 800 km), as well as artificial satellites Land (up to 2000 km).
Atmosphere composition
Clean and dry air is a mechanical mixture of several gases.
The main ones are: nitrogen-78%, oxygen-21%, argon-1%, carbon dioxide. The content of other gases (neon, helium, krypton, xenon, ammonia, hydrogen, ozone) is negligible.
The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere varies from 0.02 to 0.032%, it is more over industrial areas, less over the oceans, over a surface covered with snow and ice.
Water vapor enters the atmosphere in an amount of 0 to 4% by volume.
It enters the atmosphere as a result of moisture evaporation from the earth's surface, and therefore its content decreases with height: 90% of all water vapor is contained in the lower five-kilometer layer of the atmosphere, above 10-12 km of water vapor there is very little.
The importance of water vapor in the cycle of heat and moisture in the atmosphere is enormous.
Origin of the atmosphere
According to the most common theory, the Earth's atmosphere over time was in four different compositions.
It originally consisted of light gases (hydrogen and helium) captured from interplanetary space. This is the so-called primordial atmosphere (about four and a half billion years ago). At the next stage, active volcanic activity led to saturation of the atmosphere with gases other than hydrogen (carbon dioxide, ammonia, water vapor). This is how the secondary atmosphere was formed (about three and a half billion years to the present day).
The atmosphere was restorative. Further, in the process of leakage of light gases (hydrogen and helium) into interplanetary space and chemical reactions occurring in the atmosphere under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, lightning discharges and some other factors, a tertiary atmosphere was formed, characterized by a much lower content of hydrogen and much more nitrogen and carbon dioxide ( formed as a result of chemical reactions from ammonia and hydrocarbons).
Education a large number N2 is caused by the oxidation of the ammonia-hydrogen atmosphere by molecular O2, which began to flow from the planet's surface as a result of photosynthesis, starting from 3.8 billion years ago.
Nitrogen is oxidized by ozone to NO in the upper atmosphere.
Oxygen
The composition of the atmosphere began to change radically with the appearance of living organisms on Earth, as a result of photosynthesis, accompanied by the release of oxygen and the absorption of carbon dioxide.
Initially, oxygen was spent on the oxidation of reduced compounds - ammonia, hydrocarbons, the ferrous form of iron contained in the oceans, etc. this stage the oxygen content in the atmosphere began to rise. Gradually, a modern atmosphere with oxidizing properties was formed.
Carbon dioxide
Buried in the ocean, swamps and forests, organic matter is converted into coal, oil and natural gas.
In the layer of the atmosphere from the surface of the Earth to 60 km, ozone (O3) is present - triatomic oxygen, which arises as a result of the splitting of ordinary oxygen molecules and the redistribution of its atoms. In the lower layers of the atmosphere, ozone appears under the influence of random factors (lightning discharges, oxidation of some organic substances), in higher layers it is formed under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which it absorbs.
The ozone concentration is especially high at an altitude of 22–26 km. The total amount of ozone in the atmosphere is insignificant: at a temperature of 0С under conditions normal pressure at the surface of the Earth, all ozone will fit in a layer 3 mm thick.
It also delays the thermal radiation of the Earth, preventing its surface from cooling.
Besides gas component parts, in the atmosphere are always in suspension tiny particles of various origins, various in shape, size, chemical composition and physical properties (smoke, dust) - aerosols ..
Soil particles, rock weathering products, volcanic dust, sea salt, smoke, organic particles (microorganisms, spores, pollen) enter the atmosphere from the Earth's surface.
From interplanetary space, cosmic dust enters the earth's atmosphere.
The layer of the atmosphere up to an altitude of 100 km contains more than 28 million tons of cosmic dust, which slowly falls to the surface.
There is a point of view that the bulk of the dust is packed in special form organisms in the seas.
Aerosol particles play an important role in the development of a number of atmospheric processes. Many of them are condensation nuclei necessary for the formation of fog and clouds.
The phenomena of atmospheric electricity are associated with charged aerosols.
Up to an altitude of about 100 km, the composition of the atmosphere is constant. The atmosphere consists mainly of molecular nitrogen and molecular oxygen; in the lower layer, the amount of impurities decreases markedly with height. Above 100 km, molecules of oxygen and then nitrogen (above 220 km) are degraded by ultraviolet radiation. In the layer from 100 to 500 km, atomic oxygen predominates.
At an altitude of 500 to 2000 km, the atmosphere consists mainly of a light inert gas - helium, over 2000 km - of atomic hydrogen.
Ionization of the atmosphere
The atmosphere contains charged particles - ions and, due to their presence, is not an ideal insulator, but has the ability to conduct electricity. Ions are formed in the atmosphere under the influence of ionizers, which impart energy to atoms sufficient to remove an electron from the shell of an atom. The detached electron almost instantly joins another atom.
As a result, the first atom turns from neutral to positively charged, and the second acquires negative charge... Such ions do not exist for long, molecules of the surrounding air are attached to them, forming the so-called light ions.
Light ions attach to aerosols, give them their charge and form larger ions - heavy ones.
Ionizers of the atmosphere are: ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, cosmic radiation, radiation radioactive substances contained in the earth's crust and in the atmosphere. Ultraviolet rays do not have an ionizing effect on the lower atmosphere - their effect is dominant in the upper atmosphere.
The radioactivity of most rocks is very low, their ionizing effect is equal to zero even at an altitude of several hundred meters (with the exception of deposits of radioactive elements, radioactive sources, etc.). The importance of cosmic radiation is especially great. With a very high penetrating power, cosmic rays penetrate the entire thickness of the atmosphere and penetrate deep into the oceans and the earth's crust. Intensity cosmic rays fluctuates very little over time.
Their ionizing effect is lowest at the equator and greatest at about 20º latitude; with altitude, the intensity of ionization due to cosmic rays increases, reaching a maximum at an altitude of 12–18 km.
Ionization of the atmosphere is characterized by the concentration of ions (their content in 1 cubic cm); the concentration and mobility of light ions depends on the electrical conductivity of the atmosphere.
The concentration of ions increases with height. At an altitude of 3–4 km, it is up to 1000 pairs of ions, reaching its maximum values at an altitude of 100–250 km. Accordingly, the electrical conductivity of the atmosphere also increases. Since in clean air more light ions, it has a higher conductivity than dusty.
As a result of the combined action of the charges contained in the atmosphere and the charge of the earth's surface, an electric field of the atmosphere is created. In relation to the earth's surface, the atmosphere is positively charged.
Between the atmosphere and the earth's surface, currents of positive (from the earth's surface) and negative (to the earth's surface) ions arise. The electrical composition in the atmosphere is neutrosphere (up to an altitude of 80 km) - a layer with a neutral composition and ionosphere (over 80 km) - ionized layers.
The structure of the atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into five spheres, differing from each other primarily in temperature.
The spheres are separated by transitional layers - pauses.
Troposphere – bottom layer atmosphere, containing about ¾ of its entire mass. The troposphere contains almost all the water vapor in the atmosphere. Its upper boundary reaches its highest height - 17 km - at the equator and decreases to the poles to 8-10 km. In temperate latitudes, the average height of the troposphere is 10–12 km.
Fluctuations in the upper boundary of the troposphere depend on temperature: in winter this boundary is higher, in summer it is lower; and during the day, fluctuations in e can reach several kilometers.
The temperature in the troposphere from the earth's surface to the tropopause decreases by an average of 0.6 º for every 100 m. In the troposphere there is a continuous mixing of air, clouds are formed, precipitation falls. Horizontal air transport is dominated by movements from west to east.
The lower layer of the atmosphere, adjacent directly to the earth's surface, is called the surface layer.
The physical processes in this layer under the influence of the earth's surface are distinguished by their originality. Here, temperature changes are especially pronounced during the day and throughout the year.
Tropopause- the transitional layer from the troposphere to the stratosphere. The height of the tropopause and its temperature vary with latitude.
From the equator to the poles, the tropopause decreases, and this decrease occurs unevenly: at about 30–40º north and south latitude, a break in the tropopause is observed. As a result, it seems to be divided into two tropical and polar parts, located 35–40º above one another. The higher the tropopause, the lower its temperature. The exception is the polar regions, where the tropopause is low and cold. The most low temperature recorded in the tropopause - 92º.
Stratosphere- differs from the troposphere in its high rarefaction of air, almost complete absence of water vapor and a relatively high content of ozone, reaching a maximum at an altitude of 22–26 km.
The temperature in the stratosphere rises very slowly with height. At the lower boundary of the stratosphere above the equator, the temperature is about –76º all year round, in the northern polar region in January –65º, in July –42º.
Differences in temperature cause air movement. The wind speed in the stratosphere reaches 340 km / h.
In the middle stratosphere, thin clouds appear - nacreous, consisting of ice crystals and drops of supercooled water.
In the stratopause, the temperature is approximately 0 °
Mesosphere- characterized by significant changes in temperature with height.
Up to an altitude of 60 km, the temperature rises and reaches + 20º, at upper bound the sphere temperature drops to -75º. At an altitude of 75–80 km, the drop in t is replaced by a new increase. In summer, at this height, shiny, thin clouds are formed - silvery, probably consisting of supercooled water vapor.
The movement of noctilucent clouds testifies to the great variability of the direction and speed of air movement (from 60 to several hundred km / h), which is especially noticeable during periods of transition from one season to another.
V thermosphere - (in the ionosphere) the temperature rises with altitude, reaching at the upper boundary + 1000º.
The velocities of movement of gas particles are enormous, but with an extremely rarefied space, their collisions are very rare.
Along with neutral particles, the thermosphere contains free electrons and ions.
There are hundreds and thousands of them in one cubic centimeter of volume, and millions in the layers of maximum density. Thermosphere is a sphere of rarefied ionized gas, consisting of a series of layers. Ionized layers that reflect, absorb and refract radio waves have a huge impact on radio communications.
Ionization layers are well pronounced during the day. Ionization makes the thermosphere electrically conductive and powerful electric currents flow through it. In the thermosphere, depending on solar activity, the density (by a factor of a hundred) and temperature (by hundreds of degrees) change greatly. The appearance of auroras in the thermosphere is associated with the activity of the Sun.
Exosphere- the scattering zone, the outer part of the thermosphere, located above 700 km.
Gas in the exosphere is very rarefied, and from here comes the leakage of its particles into interplanetary space.
At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually passes into the so-called near-space vacuum, which is filled with highly rarefied particles of interplanetary gas, mainly hydrogen atoms. But this gas is only a fraction of the interplanetary matter. Another part is made up of dust-like particles of cometary and meteoric origin.
In addition to extremely rarefied dust-like particles, electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of solar and galactic origin penetrates into this space.
Hydrogen escaping from the exosphere forms the so-called earthly crown stretching up to an altitude of 20,000 km.
Solar radiation
The Earth receives 1.36 x 1024 calories of heat from the Sun per year.
In comparison with this amount of energy, the rest of the arrival of radiant energy to the surface of the Earth is negligible. That, the radiant energy of stars is one hundred millionth solar energy, cosmic radiation - two billionths of a fraction, the internal heat of the Earth at its surface is equal to one five-thousandth part solar heat.
Radiation from the Sun - solar radiation - is the main source of energy for almost all processes occurring in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and in the upper atmosphere.
Solar radiation- electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of the Sun.
The electromagnetic component of solar radiation propagates at the speed of light and penetrates into the earth's atmosphere.
Solar radiation reaches the earth's surface in the form of direct and scattered radiation. In total, the Earth receives from the Sun less than one two billionth of its radiation. The spectral range of the Sun's electromagnetic radiation is very wide - from radio waves to x-rays- however, its maximum intensity falls on the visible (yellow-green) part of the spectrum.
There is also a corpuscular part of solar radiation, consisting mainly of protons moving from the Sun at speeds of 300-1500 km / s.
During solar flares, high-energy particles are also formed (mainly protons and electrons), which form the solar component of cosmic rays.
The energy contribution of the corpuscular component of solar radiation to its total intensity is small in comparison with the electromagnetic one. Therefore, in a number of applications, the term "solar radiation" is used in a narrow sense, meaning only its electromagnetic part.
As a unit of measurement of the intensity of solar radiation, the number of calories of heat absorbed by 1 cm2 of an absolutely black surface perpendicular to the direction of the sun's rays is taken as 1in.
(cal / cm2 x min).
The flow of radiant energy from the Sun reaching earth's atmosphere, is very consistent.
I call its intensity the solar constant (I0) and take on average 1.88 kcal / cm2 x min.
The value of the solar constant fluctuates depending on the distance from the Earth to the Sun and on solar activity. Its fluctuations during the year are 3.4-3.5%.
If the sun's rays fell everywhere on earth surface steeply, then in the absence of atmosphere and with a solar constant of 1.88 kcal / cm2 x min, each square centimeter would receive 1000 kcal per year.
Thanks to Ohm, that the Earth is spherical, this amount decreases by 4 times, and 1 sq. cm receives an average of 250 kcal per year.
The amount of solar radiation received by a surface depends on the angle of incidence of the rays.
The maximum amount of radiation is received by the surface perpendicular to the direction of the sun's rays, because in this case all the energy is distributed over an area with a cross section equal to the cross section of the beam of rays - a.
With an oblique incidence of the same beam of rays, the energy is distributed over large area(section b) and the unit of surface receives less of it.
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The smaller the angle of incidence of the rays, the lower the intensity of solar radiation.
The dependence of the intensity of solar radiation on the angle of incidence of the rays is expressed by the formula:
I 1=I 0 sin h
I 1 is that much less I 0 how many times the section a less cuts b.
The angle of incidence of the sun's rays (the height of the Sun) is 90º only at latitudes between the tropics.
At other latitudes, it is always less than 90º. Accordingly to a decrease in the angle of incidence of the rays, the intensity of solar radiation entering the surface at different latitudes should also decrease. Since the height of the Sun does not remain constant throughout the year and during the day, the amount of solar heat received by the surface is constantly changing.
The air surrounds us from all sides. Every gap, hole, in general any space that is not occupied by anything else, is filled with air.
Each time you breathe in, you fill your lungs with air.
Despite the fact that you cannot see air, cannot taste or touch it (at least in calm weather), air is by no means empty.
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Air is part of the matter around us. Matter can be solid, liquid, or gaseous. Air is almost always gaseous.
However, air cannot be called a gas, because in reality it consists of a mixture of certain gases. Moreover, two of them account for 99 percent of the total air volume. Anywhere on Earth, air is 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen. In addition, a small amount of carbon dioxide is always present in it, which is emitted when breathing by living things, including humans.
The remainder - less than one percent - is occupied by rare gases: argon, helium, krypton, xenon and others.
A huge ocean of air stretches for many kilometers above the surface of the Earth. Since air is matter, the force of gravity holds it near the surface, preventing it from dissolving into outer space. So, although we don't feel it, air has weight. It manifests itself in the pressure that air exerts on our body from all sides.
The same would happen to you if you found yourself on the seabed, with the only difference that it was not air, but water, that would press on you.
If you rise above the surface of the Earth, for example, climb high mountain or take off in an airplane, you may find that as you move away from it, the air pressure decreases. At an altitude of about 13 km, it is 8 times less than above sea level. Well, at an altitude of more than 30 km, it is practically absent.
Against the background of abnormal weather, when it snows and hails in June, and the temperature is more typical for the beginning of May, many people have a question about the causes of these phenomena.
And although the cold summer months and snowy winters are remembered by those over 30, there were not so many records then.
Of course, the media are also to blame for the fact that heavy rain turns into an "Old Testament flood", and the temperature, 1.5-2 degrees below the long-term average, is "the beginning of the ice age" ... A significant part of the records refers to the "records of the day" - when the weather indicators of that particular day are compared. For 20, at best, hundreds of years. That is, there was hail on the neighboring days - but it is no longer included in the comparison set. We have a new record and a reason to cry out alone about the upcoming "Maunder minimum" and a new ice age; others - about global warming. Third to announce the arrival of Nibiru.
Meteorologists just shrug their shoulders and try not to become extreme, in the face of clearly changed climatic and weather patterns.
So what happened, what global changes cause climate instability and frequent weather excesses?
To begin with, it would be nice to understand how it was before, to see what has changed.
And before there were stable climatic zones, the contents of which did not mix very much. The Arctic itself, the North of Eurasia is already being heated by the Gulf Stream - as far as its air currents are enough ... Yes, you heard right. The warm water of the Gulf Stream transfers heat very slowly. Heated water from the Gulf of Mexico will reach the shores of Normandy in a few years, and not before.
Can it not cool down during this time? Could this critically affect the climate? And warm water will approach the frozen mainland, it will just wash the shores. As is the case in Alaska and Greenland.
The main heat transfer occurs with air masses that circulate from heated Africa to the Gulf of Mexico, and then join the masses of a high-altitude jet stream that carries air from west to east. T. n. "western transfer". High-altitude jet stream is called differently, Jet Stream (jet stream). It crosses the Atlantic and brings warm air from the latitudes of Texas and South Carolina.
And it brings quickly! Storms on the east coast of the United States move eastward and reach Europe in 3-5 days.
Jet Stream divides climatic zones. From the north, it draws in and carries cool air, from the south, it carries away warm streams.
So scientists confirm this:
Another important point that I would like to emphasize: the average seasonal anomalies of atmospheric circulation in temperate latitudes to a very small extent depend on anomalies of the ocean surface temperature, including such large ones that were observed this summer in European Russia. Experts in seasonal weather forecast argue that only 10-30% of deviations from the "norm" of the average seasonal temperature at any point in Russia are caused by anomalies in the ocean surface temperature, and the remaining 70-90% is the result of natural variability of the atmosphere, the root cause of which is unequal heating high and low latitudes, and it is almost impossible to predict which for a period of more than two or three weeks (see also Science and Life No. 12, 2010).
That is why it is erroneous to consider the observed weather anomalies in Europe in the summer of 2010 or else in any season as the result of only the influence of the ocean. If this were the case, seasonal or monthly deviations of the weather from "normal" would be easily predicted, since large anomalies in ocean temperature are usually inertial and last for at least several months. But so far not a single forecast center in the world succeeds in a good seasonal weather forecast.
In many respects, thanks to him, the cold remains in the Arctic, and hot in the subtropics. If there was no Western Transport (and it depends on the rotation of the Earth), the temperature difference would tend to equalize.
One of the largest-scale links in the general circulation of the atmosphere is the circumpolar vortex. Its formation is due to hot spots in the polar region and hot spots in the tropical zone. Circumpolar movement and its manifestation - western transport - are a stable and characteristic feature of the general atmospheric circulation.
the concept of a high-altitude frontal zone (VFZ) was introduced, and the strong westerly winds associated with it began to be called jet streams or jets. The VFZ usually includes one or several fronts and is the place of occurrence of mobile frontal cyclones and anticyclones moving in the direction of the main (leading) flow. During periods of strong development of the meridionality of the processes, the VFZ "wriggles", as it were, bending around the high-altitude ridges from the north and hollows from the south.
As you can see, these are the foundations of modern knowledge about the atmosphere. Key factors that determine the weather, cause cyclones and anticyclones.
And yet when you are in last time heard about the impact of Jet Stream (high-altitude jet stream) on the weather in your area? :)
If you read the weather news portals of Western countries, then every week you will see maps in videos, where their meteorologists popularly explain about the impact of Jet Stream on the weather in the region. We do not have this. As if thunderstorm fronts and cyclones arise by themselves, out of the blue!
An animated explanation of the jet stream from the Met Office (British School of Meteorology, considered one of the best in the world for forecast accuracy):
According to the announcer, Jet Stream experiences seasonal fluctuations, rising north or sinking south; together with it, the cold air masses of the Arctic air invade the territories of Europe and America, or the hot air of the subtropics rises to latitudes unusual for it.
The direction of movement of winds from west to east is called latitudinal; direction from north to south, or from south to north - meridian.
So everything is in Russian:
But back to Jet Stream and its displacement. What happens when this huge atmospheric river of air masses bends far north or south?
Actually, the process is interdependent, air masses can move the jet stream (Jet), and it serves as a watershed between them, dividing climatic zones:
As you can see, hot air pushes the Jet stream upwards, cold air - downwards.
As a result, when cold air masses come to a heated place, it rains:
(green indicates the rain zone, dark green indicates heavy rainfall)
And when on the contrary, then too. The mixing of heated and cold air leads to precipitation and violent atmospheric activity, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, accompanied by the emergence of strong winds, mixing of atmospheric layers with hail.
Sound familiar from the weather reports? :)
Let's take a look at how it looks on the maps of Western weather forecasters:
(rain - rain, snow - snow, severe t-storms - severe thunderstorms, showers - precipitation, colder - colder, cool - cool, milder - average weather, heavy rainfall - heavy rain, humid - moisture, windy - windy, ice - ice, frigid - cold)
So, you can see what a variety of critical weather phenomena creates a shift and mixing of atmospheric masses of different quality!
Simplicity and clarity of explanations did not arise in America by themselves, but under the pressure of necessity.
They came to the idea long ago that any instruction should be as clear as possible. Not for the one who composes it, but for the one who will use it ...
Well, our meteorologists make a product for themselves, apparently, and do not condescend to simple explanations. Or maybe they themselves do not understand, judging by the complete disregard for such a weather-determining factor as a high-altitude jet stream.
Let's see if it influenced in recent events, when it flooded Berlin, walked across Poland, flooded Vilnius and hit Moscow?
And some facts ... Weather digest:
A tornado was observed on the Volga
In the Verkhneuslonsky district of Tatarstan, vacationers on the banks of the Volga on July 2 witnessed the formation of a tornado. They managed to shoot a water tornado on video, which swept right in front of their eyes in the immediate vicinity of the pleasure boat.
Tornado in the steppes of Khakassia
Large hail fell in Bashkortostan
On the night of July 3, a hail the size of egg... Damage to rooftops and damaged agricultural land have been reported.
Spain flooded with hail
An abnormal amount of hail fell in the city of Girona in the Autonomous Community of Catalonia. In just 30 minutes, the streets were covered with snowdrifts from hail, which reached a height of up to half a meter.
Car traffic stopped, then the hail began to melt and real rivers flowed through the streets, rescuers to their waist in water evacuated people from cars jammed in snowdrifts and water.
A series of tornadoes hit Tatarstan
On the evening of June 1, a hurricane swept across Tatarstan and the appearance of several powerful tornadoes was recorded in different places. ...
Melting permafrost accelerates climate change
Monitoring changes in the number of wetlands in regions where melting occurs permafrost should occupy one of the most important places in the complex of efforts to predict future rates of climate change, new research shows.
The melting of permafrost is caused by global warming, which heats northern high latitudes faster than other parts of the Earth. The release of permafrost carbon into the atmosphere could accelerate the rate of climate change. If even a small fraction of the carbon is released as methane (CH4), a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, then the feedback becomes even greater.
And here is the weather forecast for July ...
Ministry of Emergency Situations warns of natural disasters in July.
Natural disasters await Russians in July - sudden temperature changes, strong winds, abnormal precipitation, said the head of the RF Ministry of Emergency Situations Vladimir Puchkov.
"June was difficult and tense. The weather forecast for July indicates that we will have cataclysms," he said at a conference call.
Puchkov explained that "somewhere there may be regular highs in temperatures, somewhere sharp temperature drops, high wind speeds, precipitation."
"We must professionally work out all the issues of protecting the life and health of people, the safety of citizens in this summer period", - stressed the head of the Ministry of Emergency Situations.
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