At the beginning of 1954, by a secret decision of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the order of the USSR Minister of Defense Marshal N. Bulganin, it was decided to hold secret corps exercises with real application at the Totsk training ground of the South Ural Military District atomic weapons... The leadership was entrusted to Marshal G.K. Zhukov. The exercise was solidly called "Breakthrough of the prepared tactical defense of the enemy with the use of nuclear weapons"But this is official, but the code name of the Totsk military exercises was peaceful and affectionate -" Snowball. " pillboxes, bunkers and dugouts.
The exercises were attended by military formations of the Belarusian and South Ural military districts. In June-July 1954, several divisions were transferred from the Brest region to the exercise area. Directly, judging by the documents, over 45,000 servicemen, 600 tanks and self-propelled artillery installations, 500 guns and rocket launchers"Katyusha", 600 armored personnel carriers, over 6000 various automotive vehicles, communications and rear services. Three Air Force divisions also took part in the exercise. A real atomic bomb was to be dropped on the defense area under the code name "Bath" (with a mark of 195.1). Two days before the start of the exercises, N. Khrushchev, N. Bulganin and a group of scientists headed by I. Kurchatov and Yu. Khariton came to the test site. They carefully examined the built fortifications and gave advice to commanders on how to protect servicemen from an atomic explosion.
Five days before the atomic explosion, all the troops were taken out of the eight-kilometer forbidden zone and took up their starting positions for offensive and defensive purposes.
On the eve of the exercises, the officers were shown secret movie on the action of nuclear weapons. For this, a special cinema pavilion was built, into which they were allowed to enter only by a list and an identity card in the presence of the regiment commander and a representative of the KGB. Then they heard: "You have had a great honor - for the first time in the world, to act in real conditions of the use of a nuclear bomb." In an old oak grove surrounded by mixed forest, a lime cross with a size of 100x100 m was applied. The deviation from the target should not exceed 500 m. The troops were located around.
On September 14, 1954, from 5 to 9 o'clock, the movement of single vehicles and persons was prohibited. Movement was allowed only in teams led by an officer. From 9 to 11, all movement was prohibited at all.
On Mount Medvezhya, 10.5 km from the intended epicenter of the explosion, an observation post was built by sapper units, which was a stationary observation tower as high as a three-story building. It had large open balconies as a viewing platform. Below were open trenches and a concrete bunker with embrasures. There were closed shelters and three more observation posts.
In the early morning of September 14, the high military command, headed by the first deputy minister of defense and the head of the exercises, Marshal Zhukov, drove out in 40 ZIM vehicles from Totskoye-2 to the main observation post. When the carrier aircraft approached the target, Zhukov went to an open viewing platform. All the marshals, generals and invited observers followed. Then Marshals A. Vasilevsky, I. Konev, R. Malinovsky, I. Baghramyan, S. Budyonny, V. Sokolovsky, S. Timoshenko, K. Vershinin, P. Peresypkin, V. Kazakov and academicians Kurchatov and Khariton climbed the tower in the right wing of the viewing platform.
In the left are the delegations of the armies of the commonwealth countries, headed by the ministers of defense and marshals, including Marshal of Poland K. Rokossovsky, Minister of Defense of the People's Republic of China Pin Te-Hui, Minister of Defense of Albania Enver Hoxha.
The observation platform was equipped with loudspeakers. Zhukov heard reports on the meteorological situation at the test site. The weather was clear, warm, and a moderate breeze.
The Marshal decided to start the exercise ... An order was given to the "Eastern" to break through the prepared defense of the "Western", for which to use the strategic aviation group bomber and fighter aircraft, artillery division and tanks. At 8 o'clock, the first stage of the breakthrough and offensive of the Vostochny began.
On loud-speaking installations located throughout the exercise area, it was announced that the aircraft - the atomic carrier TU-4, on board which was a bomb, took off from one of the airfields of the Volga Military District, located in the Saratov region. (Two crews were selected to participate in the exercises: Major Kutyrchev and Captain Lyasnikov. Until the very last moment, the pilots did not know who would be the main and who would be the backup. .)
On the day of departure for the exercises, both crews prepared in full: nuclear bombs were suspended on each of the aircraft, the pilots simultaneously started the engines, reported their readiness to complete the mission. The command to take off was received by the crew of Kutyrchev, where the scorer was Captain Kokorin, the second pilot was Romensky, the navigator was Babets.
10 minutes before the launch of an atomic strike on the signal "Lightning" (atomic alarm), all the troops located behind the restricted area (8 km) took shelters and shelters or lay face down in trenches, message trenches, put on gas masks, closed their eyes, that is took personal safety measures according to the memo. All those present at the Observatory "Bear Mountain" put on gas masks with dark protective films on the eyepieces.
At 0920, the carrier aircraft, accompanied by two Il-28 bombers and three MiG-17 fighters, flew up to the territory of the Totsk test site and made the first reconnaissance approach to the target.
Convinced of the correctness of all calculations based on the landmarks, the commander, Major V. Kutorchev, entered the plane into the designated corridor in zone number 5 and on the second approach lay down on a combat course.
The commander of the crew reported to Zhukov: "I see the object!" ukov on the radio gave the order: "Complete the task!" The answer was: "I cover it, I dropped it!"
So, at 9 hours 33 minutes, the crew of the carrier aircraft at a speed of almost 900 km / h from an altitude of 8000 meters dropped the Tatyanka atomic bomb ( beautiful name which became a symbol of death) weighing 5 tons, with a capacity of 50 kilotons. According to the memoirs of Lieutenant General Osin, a similar bomb was previously tested at the Semipalatinsk test site in 1951. After 45 seconds, at an altitude of 358 meters, an explosion occurred with a deviation from the planned epicenter in the square by 280 meters. By the way, in Japan, during the explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, bombs with a capacity of 21 and 16 kilotons were used, and the explosions were made at an altitude of 600 and 700 meters.
At the moment of the explosion of the thick steel shell of the bomb, a loud deafening sound (thunder) occurred, then a blinding flash in the form of a large fireball. The resulting superhigh pressure of several trillion atmospheres squeezed the surrounding air space around itself, so a vacuum arose in the center of the ball. At the same time, an ultra-high temperature from 8 to 25 thousand degrees was formed with ultra-high one-time all-pervading radiation in the air, on the surface and in the ground.
The explosive in the bomb turned into plasma and scattered in different directions. Trees uprooted, earthy soil with living vegetation, dust and soot weighing several thousand tons rose into the resulting vacuum hole from the surface of the earth.
As a result, a stem of a nuclear mushroom with a diameter of 2.5 - 3 km was formed. At this time, it became difficult for people and animals to breathe. At the same time, a high-power shock wave was formed in the center of the explosion. She hit the carrier plane and the planes accompanying it. They were thrown up 50-60 meters, although they had already moved 10 kilometers away from the explosion site. Shock sound wave swung the surface of the earth within a radius of up to 70 kilometers, first in one direction, and then in the other direction. The shaking of the earth within a radius of 20 kilometers from the epicenter of the explosion was the same as during an earthquake of 6-9 points. At this time, the reaction continued in the center of the explosion at an altitude of 358 meters. First, a cumulus white-gray swirling cloud formed around the fiery cloud, which began to turn into a huge mushroom cap, expanding like giant monster... Trees with a thickness of three girths "floated" in it. The cap of the mushroom shimmered with multi-colored flowers and at an altitude of 1.5-3 km its diameter was 3-5 km. Then it became white-gray, climbed up to 10 km and began to move eastward at a speed of 90 km / h. On the ground, within a radius of 3 km from the epicenter, arose fire tornado, which caused severe fires within a radius of 11 km from the explosion. The radiation started radioactive contamination of air, earth, water, experimental animals, equipment and, most importantly, people.
Zhukov and observers were at the observation post at the time of the explosion. A bright flash burned all faces. Then there were two powerful blows: one from a bomb explosion, and the second - reflected from the ground. The motion of the feather grass showed how the shock wave was going. Many had their caps torn off, but neither Zhukov nor Konev even looked back. Zhukov stared at the course and consequences of the nuclear explosion.
Artillery preparation began 5 minutes after the nuclear explosion, then a bomber attack was struck. Guns and mortars of various calibers, "Katyushas", tanks, self-propelled guns began to talk. More shells and bombs were fired that day than during the storming of Berlin.
An hour after the explosion, which changed the landscape of the landfill beyond recognition, infantry in gas masks and armored vehicles marched through the epicenter. To protect against light emission, the fighters were advised to put on an extra set of underwear. And that's it! Almost none of the participants in the tests knew then what the threat of radioactive contamination. No checks and examinations of the military and the population were carried out for reasons of secrecy. On the contrary, from all participants in the exercises, a subscription was taken not to disclose the state and military secrets for a period of 25 years.
The pilots who dropped the nuclear bomb were awarded a Pobeda car for the successful completion of this mission. During the analysis of the exercises, the crew commander Vasily Kutyrchev received the Order of Lenin from the hands of Bulganin and, ahead of schedule, the rank of colonel.
"... In accordance with the plan of research and experimental work in last days in the Soviet Union, a test of one of the types of atomic weapons was carried out, the purpose of which was to study the effects of a nuclear explosion. During the test, valuable results were obtained that will help Soviet scientists and engineers successfully solve the problems of protecting against an atomic attack. "
This TASS message was published in Pravda on September 17, 1954. Three days after the military exercises with the first use of atomic weapons, held at the Totsk training ground in the Orenburg region. It was these teachings that were hidden behind this vague wording.
And not a word about the fact that the tests, in fact, were carried out with the involvement of soldiers and officers, civilians who, in fact, committed an unprecedented sacrificial feat in the name of future peace and life on earth. But then they themselves still knew about it.
Now it is difficult to judge how justified such sacrifices were, because many people subsequently died from radiation sickness. But one thing is clear - they despised death, fear and saved the world from nuclear madness.
September 18th, 2017
One of the most controversial tests, which after some time caused heated discussions and criticism of the military, was the Operation Plumbbob series, implemented in Nevada from May to October 1957. Then, 29 charges of different power and properties were detonated. The military, among other things, studied the possibility of using warheads for intercontinental and medium range, tested the strength and effectiveness of shelters, and also examined the human reaction to an atomic explosion from the point of view of psychology. Rather, they tried to investigate. Such tests were conducted as part of the Desert Rock VII and VIII exercises.
The operation involved thousands of military personnel, among whom there were many volunteers who were ready to go to the bunker and feel the consequences of a nuclear explosion on their own skin (albeit protected with steel, concrete and equipment). The military was interested in learning not only about the physiological changes in the body of an exposed soldier - they had some information on this topic.
The experts wanted to understand how the soldier would behave, what was going on in his head, how perception was transformed and the psyche changed on the field of “nuclear battle”.
According to official data, 16 thousand (according to other sources - 14 and 18 thousand) employees took part in Plumbbob American army and staff. Some of them were placed as close to the epicenter of the explosions as possible - to practice actions in a possible future atomic war. “It’s completely harmless,” they were assured that to some extent explains the zeal with which the victims treated the mission of the command.
Almost immediately after the explosion on August 31 thermonuclear bomb Smoky (was the 19th charge in the series) with a capacity of 44 kt, the soldiers were sent to "see how it is there." In protective equipment from the middle of the last century and with film indicators of radiation levels. According to a number of organizations, more than 3 thousand people were affected by radiation at that time. It is this achievement that Smoky is still famous for, even though it had a record at that time ratio of "power per kilogram" - 6 kt equivalent. By the way, the fact that the bomb is not at all harmless became widely known only in the 70s, and in the next decade it was reported that the risk of leukemia among the participants in the exercises increased almost threefold.
And even before that, in 1954, as part of the Bravo project, the Americans dropped a nuclear bomb on the Marshall Islands, as a result of which 236 local residents were specially exposed to radiation. One of them died, the rest fell ill with radiation sickness.
In the USSR, these tests could not be ignored. If only because in 1953 the Americans overdid it a little and arranged radiation pollution in Utah, which caused a loud scandal.
The Soviet Union at that time did not yet have the means of delivering nuclear weapons capable of striking the United States. Nevertheless, already in last years Stalin's life began the preparation of such teachings. Specialized literature was created on the conduct of hostilities in conditions nuclear conflict, protection from damaging factors, etc.
By 1953, the USSR was already ready to conduct military trials... Now in one fell swoop it was possible to catch up and overtake the Americans. Those were limited to the participation of small groups of military personnel, numbering from 10 to 20 thousand people, half of whom did not participate at all in maneuvers in the affected area. The Soviet Ministry of Defense proposed to involve 45 thousand servicemen in the exercises at once.
Moreover, Soviet bomb RDS-2 had a power of 38 kt, which was more than twice the power of the bomb dropped on Hiroshima, and about 6-8 kt more than in American tests.
Training
The final decision to conduct military exercises using nuclear weapons was made in the fall of 1953. Initially, it was planned to use the Kapustin Yar landfill for these purposes. However, at that time it was the only Soviet proving ground for testing ballistic missiles and the plan was canceled. The search for a suitable place began.
In the spring of 1954, the Totsk test site in the Orenburg region was chosen as the final target. The military evaluating the training ground was based on several of its advantages. First, it was located in a relatively sparsely populated area. Secondly, the rugged terrain was of interest to researchers, since it was possible to assess its impact on damaging factors... Thirdly, the relief was closer to the European one. As already mentioned, the USSR then did not have delivery vehicles capable of reaching America, therefore Western Europe was considered as a potential target.
A few months before the start of the exercise, engineering troops arrived in the area. They had a lot of work to do. It was required to dig trenches 1.5-1.8 meters deep, build dugouts and fortifications, shelters for artillery, ammunition, fuel, etc. For tanks and armored personnel carriers, pit-type shelters were created. The whole situation had to fully correspond to the real combat situation.
A bombing target was created - a white square, each side of which reached 150 meters. A cross was drawn inside. For this purpose, the pilots were supposed to be guided. The pilots practiced daily by dropping blanks. Visual targeting was a prerequisite without which the exercise could not take place.
Troops began to arrive at the training ground. A total of about 45 thousand people. The soldiers did not know about the real purpose of the measures. Only a day before the start of the exercises, they were informed about the use of atomic weapons, warned about the secrecy of the event and took from them a non-disclosure agreement. The exercises also involved 600 tanks, a similar number of armored personnel carriers, more than three hundred aircraft and several thousand trucks and tractors.
Part of the equipment was deployed in the affected area, and another part in shelters. This not only had to simulate the situation on the battlefield, but also made it possible to assess the damaging potential of the explosion. In addition, both in cover and on open areas animals were housed.
The exercise was commanded by Marshal Zhukov. Defense ministers of the countries of the socialist camp arrived to observe the exercises.
All troops were divided into two groups: defending and attacking. After delivering an atomic strike and artillery preparation, the attackers had to break through the enemy's defenses. Of course, at the time of the strike, the team of the defenders was taken to a safe distance. Their participation was envisaged at the second stage of the exercises - they were supposed to counterattack the captured positions. It was planned to simultaneously work out both attacking actions in conditions of an atomic strike and defensive actions under similar circumstances.
Several settlements were located within a radius of 15 kilometers from the site of the future explosion, and their inhabitants were also supposed to become unwitting participants in the exercises. Residents of villages within a radius of eight kilometers from the explosion were evacuated. Residents of villages within a radius of 8 to 12 kilometers, at an hour of x, had to be ready to carry out the orders of the elders in the group of houses or the soldiers specially left there. By this time, they were supposed to collect things, open doors in houses, drive livestock to a predetermined place, etc. On a special command, they had to lie down on the ground and close their eyes and ears and remain in this position until the command "End". These residents usually took refuge in ravines and other natural shelters.
Residents of settlements within a radius of 12-15 kilometers did not leave them. All they had to do was move a few tens of meters away from their homes and, on command, lie down on the ground. Residents of more remote cities and towns were planned to be evacuated only if something did not go according to plan.
In addition to one real atomic explosion, two more fictitious ones were planned. Their role was played by barrels of fuel. All for the sake of greater realism of the combat situation and verification psychological qualities soldier.
The day before the events, the top military leadership arrived, as well as Nikita Khrushchev. They were located in the so-called government town, at a considerable distance from the epicenter of the explosion.
Explosion
At six in the morning on September 14, the Tu-4 bomber left the airfield. The weather was favorable, but the exercises could break down at any moment. If there was not the necessary visibility for visual aiming, the operation would have been canceled. In addition, it was required to take into account the direction of the wind (all southern and West wind). The "wrong" wind also put the exercise at risk. If the pilots missed, the consequences would be most serious. If the explosion were not airborne, but ground-based, a catastrophe would have happened. Then all participants in the exercises were subject to immediate emergency evacuation, and the surrounding settlements would probably have to be evacuated forever.
However, everything went well. At 9:34 am, the bomb was dropped and less than a minute later exploded at an altitude of 350 meters. 10 minutes before that, the soldiers took their places in the shelter. They were forbidden to look at the explosion. The officers were given special glass filters so as not to damage the eyes. The tankers took refuge in the vehicles, battening down the hatches.
Colonel Arkhipov was one of the few who saw the moment of explosion with his own eyes and described it in his memoirs: “Out of fright, I dropped the films from my hands and instantly turned my head to the side. 500 meters, the glow of which lasted for several seconds. It quickly rose upward, like hot air balloon... The fireball turned into a swirling radioactive cloud, in which crimson flames were visible. The command was received to lie down on the ground, as the shock wave was approaching. Her approach could be seen by the rapid "running" of the swaying grass. The arrival of a shock wave can be compared to a very sharp thunderbolt. After the impact, a storm of hurricane wind flew in. "
Immediately after the passage of the shock wave, the gunners left the shelters and began artillery preparation. Then the aircraft struck at the targets. Immediately after that, radiation reconnaissance went to the epicenter of the explosion. The scouts were in tanks, so the effect of radiation was reduced several times due to the armor. They measured the background radiation on the way to the epicenter of the explosion, setting special flags. Within a radius of 300 meters from the epicenter of the explosion, almost an hour after it, the background radiation was 25 r / h. Servicemen were prohibited from entering these borders. The area was guarded by chemical protection units.
Combat units followed the reconnaissance. The soldiers rode on armored personnel carriers. As soon as the units appeared in the area of radiation pollution, everyone was ordered to put on gas masks and special capes.
Almost all equipment located within a radius of one and a half to two kilometers from the epicenter of the explosion was very badly damaged or destroyed by the shock wave. Further damage was less significant. In the villages closest to the explosion, many houses were badly damaged.
As already mentioned, troops were forbidden to appear at the epicenter of the explosion, where the radiation level was still high. Having completed their training tasks, by 16:00 the troops left the range.
Radiation victims
Totsk military exercises were classified for three decades. About them became known only at the end of perestroika, already against the background of the recent Chernobyl disaster. This led to great amount myths that accompanied this topic. Chernobyl generated strong anti-nuclear sentiment, and against this background, the news of such exercises became shocking. It was rumored that death row inmates were at the epicenter of the explosion, and all participants in the exercise died of cancer within months of its completion.
Even then, two points of view were separated from each other on the consequences of atomic exercises, which still persist. The first says that the exercises were conducted in an exemplary manner, with the utmost attention to the safety of the participants, as well as the civilian population from the surrounding villages. No one received not only large, but even significant doses of radiation, and only one person became a victim of the exercises - an officer who died of a heart attack.
Their opponents believe that the exercises caused terrible harm to both the soldiers and the civilian population, not only of the surrounding villages, but of the entire Orenburg region.
The explosion at the Totsk test site was airborne. Air explosions differ from ground-based nuclear explosions in two ways. They have a much greater lethal force due to the shock wave, but at the same time they practically do not leave long-term radiation pollution. Ground explosions, on the other hand, are much less destructive, but they can permanently poison the surroundings, making them uninhabitable.
The main problem in assessing the consequences remains the fact that no serious studies have been carried out. In theory, the authorities should have carefully monitored possible consequences for all participants in the exercise and the civilian population. And to do this for decades. Only then would it be possible to confidently assess specific negative influences explosion.
However, nothing of the kind was done in the USSR. The main goal exercises was a practice of combat operations in conditions nuclear war, as well as psychological preparation troop personnel to such a conflict. For decades, no one was going to monitor the effects of radiation on the body of soldiers.
Even during perestroika, the surviving participants in the exercises tried to get compensation. They stated that out of 45 thousand by the time of the collapse of the USSR, no more than three thousand remained alive, and even those were mostly seriously ill. Their opponents argued that in the area adjacent to the epicenter of the explosion, there were no more than three thousand servicemen, and for the rest, the radiation doses were not greater than when undergoing fluorography. In addition, the presence of diseases that have appeared in them over a period of more than 30 years cannot be unambiguously associated with exposure to radiation.
Various studies in the Orenburg region also added fuel to the fire, which often, according to the researchers themselves, "gave rise to more questions than answers." The level of cancer in the Orenburg region is higher than the national average, but in Lately the region is not included in the top ten regional leaders. It is overtaken by regions where there are no atomic explosions and there have never been any productions.
In 1996, a full-fledged study of the doses received by the participants in the exercises was published in the bulletin of the national radiation and epidemiological register "Radiation and Life". The authors relied on documents from the Ministry of Defense that were declassified by that time. Taking into account the measurements of radiation pollution, the routes of military units, as well as the time they spent in the contaminated area, the radiation doses received by them were estimated.
The authors came to the study that most of the soldiers who participated in the exercise received doses external irradiation no more than two rem. This is an insignificant level that does not exceed the permissible for the personnel of nuclear power plants. As for the radiation reconnaissance, it received significantly higher doses. Potential exposure could range from 25 to 110 rem, depending on the routes. Signs of acute radiation sickness begin to be observed in a person who has received more than 100 rem. In smaller doses, a single exposure, as a rule, does not cause serious consequences. Thus, some of the scouts could receive very significant doses. However, the researchers make a reservation that we are talking about approximate calculations, and for more accurate it is necessary to conduct larger studies.
Unfortunately, after the successful conduct of the exercises, the Soviet leadership did not show significant interest in the subsequent fate of potential victims. No research has been done for nearly 40 years. Therefore, it is practically impossible to assess unambiguously the consequences of the Totsk explosion at the present time.
Meanwhile, it turns out that the French authorities also deliberately exposed their soldiers to radiation - during the first atomic bomb tests conducted in the Sahara Desert in the early 1960s. This is confirmed by a document provided to the Air Force by researchers at the Arms Observatory in Lyon.
France carried out its first nuclear explosion on February 13, 1960 at the Reggan test site in Algeria. And already the fourth nuclear test, which took place on April 25, 1961, was carried out specifically to study the impact of nuclear weapons on humans. The recruits were sent to the training ground - essentially as guinea pigs.
The infantrymen were ordered 45 minutes after the explosion to approach a distance of several hundred meters to its epicenter and dig in there for 45 minutes. They wore only the standard desert field uniforms.
"The authorities knew they were in danger when they sent them on these maneuvers, and at the very least they should have taken steps to protect their health," Arms Observatory officer Patrice Bouveret told the Air Force.
The French government has long argued that it had nothing to do with it, but in 2009 agreed to a law on compensation for veterans.
sources
https://tech.onliner.by/2017/02/03/plumbbob
https://life.ru/t/%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F/1043609/kak_v_sssr_riepietirovali_trietiu_mirovuiu_chto_proizoshlo_na_totsoniekom_pol
http://badgun159.livejournal.com/382056.html
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Koh Kambaran. Pakistan decided to conduct its first tests of nuclear charges in the province of Baluchistan. The charges were placed in an adit dug in Mount Koh Kambaran and detonated in May 1998. Locals hardly ever visit this area, with the exception of a few nomads and herbalists.
Maralinga. Terrain in South Australia, where atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons took place, was once considered local residents sacred. As a result, twenty years after the end of the tests, a second operation was organized to clean up Maralinga. The first was carried out after the final test in 1963. 
Pohran. In the Indian empty Tar of the state of Rajasthan, on May 18, 1974, an 8 kiloton bomb was tested. In May 1998, five charges were detonated at the Pohran test site, including a thermonuclear charge of 43 kilotons. 
Bikini Atoll. The Marshall Islands in the Pacific Ocean is home to Bikini Atoll, where the United States actively conducted nuclear tests... Other explosions rarely hit the film, but these were filmed quite often. Still - 67 tests in the interval from 1946 to 1958. 
Christmas Island. Christmas Island, also known as Kiritimati, stands out for the fact that both Britain and the United States tested atomic weapons on it. In 1957, the first British hydrogen bomb was detonated there, and in 1962, as part of the Dominic Project, the United States is testing 22 charges there. 
Lop Nor. In place of the dried salt lake in western China, about 45 warheads were detonated - both in the atmosphere and underground. The tests were discontinued in 1996. 
Mururoa. Atoll in the south The Pacific survived a lot - more precisely, 181 tests of French nuclear weapons from 1966 to 1986. The last charge got stuck in an underground mine and, when it exploded, formed a crack several kilometers long. After this, the tests were terminated. 
New Earth. The archipelago in the Arctic Ocean was selected for nuclear tests on September 17, 1954. Since then, 132 nuclear explosions have been carried out there, including the test of the most powerful hydrogen bomb in the world - the 58-megaton Tsar Bomb. 
Semipalatinsk. From 1949 to 1989, at least 468 nuclear tests were carried out at the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site. So much plutonium has accumulated there that from 1996 to 2012 Kazakhstan, Russia and the United States carried out a secret operation to search for and collect and dispose of radioactive materials. They managed to collect about 200 kg of plutonium. 
Nevada. The Nevada Proving Ground, which has existed since 1951, breaks all records - 928 nuclear explosions, of which 800 are underground. Given that the test site is located only 100 kilometers from Las Vegas, mushrooms were considered a completely normal part of entertainment for tourists half a century ago. 
July 29, 1985 general secretary The Central Committee of the CPSU Mikhail Gorbachev announced the decision of the USSR unilaterally to terminate any nuclear explosions before January 1, 1986. We decided to talk about five famous nuclear test sites that existed in the USSR.
Semipalatinsk test site
The Semipalatinsk test site is one of the largest nuclear test sites in the USSR. It also came to be known as SNTS. The landfill is located in Kazakhstan, 130 km north-west of Semipalatinsk, on the left bank of the Irtysh River. The area of the landfill is 18,500 square kilometers. The formerly closed city of Kurchatov is located on its territory. The Semipalatinsk test site is famous for the fact that the first test of a nuclear weapon in the Soviet Union was carried out here. The test was carried out on August 29, 1949. The power of the bomb was 22 kilotons.
On August 12, 1953, the RDS-6s thermonuclear charge with a capacity of 400 kilotons was tested at the test site. The charge was placed on a tower 30 m above the ground. As a result of this test, a part of the landfill was very heavily contaminated with radioactive explosion products, and there is still a small background in some places. On November 22, 1955, an RDS-37 thermonuclear bomb was tested over the test site. It was dropped by an airplane at an altitude of about 2 km. On October 11, 1961, the first underground nuclear explosion in the USSR was carried out at the test site. From 1949 to 1989, at least 468 nuclear tests were carried out at the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site, including 125 atmospheric, 343 underground nuclear test explosions.
Nuclear tests at the test site have not been carried out since 1989.
Polygon on Novaya Zemlya
The polygon on Novaya Zemlya was opened in 1954. Unlike the Semipalatinsk test site, it was removed from the settlements. Nearest major locality- the village of Amderma was located 300 km from the landfill, Arkhangelsk - more than 1000 km, Murmansk - more than 900 km.
From 1955 to 1990, 135 nuclear explosions were carried out at the test site: 87 in the atmosphere, 3 underwater and 42 underground. In 1961, the most powerful hydrogen bomb in the history of mankind was detonated on Novaya Zemlya - the 58-megaton Tsar Bomba, also known as the Kuzkina Mother.
In August 1963, the USSR and the USA signed an agreement banning nuclear tests in three environments: in the atmosphere, space and under water. Limitations on the power of the charges were also adopted. Underground explosions continued until 1990.
Totsk polygon
The Totsk test site is located in the Volga-Ural military district, 40 km east of the city of Buzuluk. In 1954, there were held tactical exercises troops codenamed "Snowball". Marshal Georgy Zhukov supervised the exercises. The purpose of the exercise was to test the capabilities of breaking through enemy defenses using nuclear weapons. The materials related to these exercises have not yet been declassified.
During the exercise on September 14, 1954, a Tu-4 bomber dropped an RDS-2 nuclear bomb with a capacity of 38 kilotons of TNT from a height of 8 km. The explosion was made at an altitude of 350 m. 600 tanks, 600 armored personnel carriers and 320 aircraft were sent to attack the contaminated area. Total number the number of servicemen who took part in the exercises amounted to about 45 thousand people. As a result of the exercise, thousands of its participants received different doses. radiation exposure... A nondisclosure agreement was taken from the participants in the exercises, which led to the fact that the victims could not tell doctors about the causes of the diseases and receive adequate treatment.
Kapustin Yar
The Kapustin Yar landfill is located in the northwestern part of the Astrakhan region. The proving ground was created on May 13, 1946 to test the first Soviet ballistic missiles.
Since the 1950s, at least 11 nuclear explosions have been carried out at the Kapustin Yar test site at an altitude of 300 m to 5.5 km, the total yield of which is approximately 65 atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima. On January 19, 1957, an anti-aircraft test was carried out at the test site. guided missile type 215. She had nuclear warhead with a capacity of 10 kilotons, designed to combat the main nuclear strike force of the United States - strategic aviation... The rocket exploded at an altitude of about 10 km, hitting target aircraft - two Il-28 bombers, controlled by radio control. This was the first high air nuclear explosion in the USSR.
Russia intends to resume non-nuclear explosive tests at the Central nuclear test site on the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. Such experiments do not run counter to the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and make it possible to assess the combat effectiveness of nuclear weapons as part of a program to extend their service lives. Probably also for this task Russian Ministry Defense intends to strengthen the military presence in the archipelago in the Arctic Ocean.
Information on plans for the military development of Novaya Zemlya and nuclear test site on this archipelago began to seep into the media in doses from the beginning of September 2012. So, on September 4, Colonel Yuri Sych, head of the 12th Main Directorate of the Russian Ministry of Defense, responsible for nuclear technical support and security, announced that the Novaya Zemlya test site is being maintained in readiness for non-nuclear explosive experiments and full-scale nuclear tests.
On September 28, Nezavisimaya Gazeta, referring to the state corporation Rosatom, wrote that non-nuclear explosive experiments on Novaya Zemlya would be resumed. The same information on October 4, also with reference to a source in Rosatom, was confirmed by the Jane’s agency. Against this background, the message about the intention of the Russian Ministry of Defense to strengthen the military presence in the archipelago received an additional logical explanation.
At the end of September, the troops of the Western Military District completed the exercises of the inter-service grouping of troops and forces of the Northern Fleet of Russia. They were attended by more than 7000 military personnel, about 20 ships and submarines, 30 aircraft and 150 units of military equipment. Various episodes of the exercise were practiced in the Barents and Kara seas, on the Sredny and Rybachy peninsulas, as well as off the coast of Novaya Zemlya.
Currently, about 70% of nuclear weapons in service with Russia are obsolete. produced in the days of the USSR. At the same time, the service life of a part of such weapons has already been extended several times, and will continue to be extended in the future. In particular, NPO Mashinostroyenia intends to extend the warranty period for the UR-100N UTTH liquid-propellant ballistic missiles to 35-36 years (currently it is 33 years). The missiles will serve as part of nuclear shield Russia is at least another 20 years.
Non-nuclear explosive tests on Novaya Zemlya will be resumed at the test site in the Matochkin Shar Strait separating the northern Novaya Zemlya island from the southern one. This strait has a depth of about 12 meters, a width of 600 meters, anchorages, as well as high, often steep shores. Such a landfill is considered the best place for conducting non-nuclear experiments.
EXPLOSION WITHOUT CONSEQUENCES
Life extension of strategic missile systems in fact, it is carried out in two main stages. The capabilities of the missiles themselves, which act as carriers of nuclear weapons, are periodically tested through test launches. Wherein warhead missiles are being replaced by a mass-dimensional model. Such control firing, in particular, is carried out at the Kura training ground in Kamchatka. The second stage is the assessment of the resource of warheads, and it is becoming increasingly important in the framework of existing programs to extend the service life of strategic missiles.
To assess the residual life of warheads and their combat effectiveness, Russia is conducting non-nuclear explosive experiments (they are also called subcritical or subcritical nuclear tests). They are not subject to the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), signed by Russia in 1996, since such experiments do not cause contamination. environment, radioactive emissions or powerful seismic vibrations.
Currently, two main options for non-nuclear explosive tests are being carried out - using isotopes of uranium or plutonium (235U and 239Pu), which have already passed a certain storage period, or fragments of nuclear charges. In such experiments, a chemical explosive is detonated, the blast wave from which compresses the materials under study (in the case of fragments of nuclear charges, compression does not occur from all sides in order to avoid the occurrence of a nuclear reaction).
In general, such experiments allow researchers to get an idea of the physical processes taking place in nuclear charges, determine the residual shelf life of warheads and confirm their reliability. In addition, thanks to such experiments, it becomes possible to assess the effect of long-term storage on the design of warheads and the materials used in them, as well as the possibility of replacing some materials with others.
There is no longer any need to study the destructive potential of a nuclear charge. In the course of previous nuclear explosions in 1954-1990 in the USSR, scientists received enough data to predict the consequences of a nuclear explosion of a given power produced on the ground, underground, in the air, on water or under water. 130 nuclear explosions were carried out at the test site alone on Novaya Zemlya (1 ground, 3 underwater, 85 air, 2 surface and 39 underground), including the test of the 58-megaton AN602 bomb.
In non-nuclear explosive tests, the fraction of energy released by the explosion of a nuclear substance directly does not exceed 0.1 micrograms in TNT equivalent or 0.0041 joule. Experiments carried out in Russia have four degrees of protection, which are believed to make it possible to completely exclude any Negative consequences such as seepage of radioactive material into soil or water. When conducting subcritical nuclear tests, researchers are no further than 30 meters from the epicenter.
In preparation for testing the layout nuclear device placed in a special container covered with bentonite clay. This container is lowered into a previously prepared adit, which is then concreted.
In an explosion, the container performs the main protective function, however, in the event of a breakthrough, bentonite clay becomes glassy under the influence of heat from a chemical explosive, clogging up possible cracks in the adit and clogging up parts of the nuclear device in the glass mass.
It is not clear why reports about the resumption of subcritical nuclear tests by Russia have begun to appear right now. It is curious that Russia has never announced the termination of such experiments. Moreover, in September 2010, Vladimir Verkhovtsev, who was then the head of the 12th Main Directorate of the Ministry of Defense, announced that non-nuclear explosive experiments were being carried out in the country.
« In the absence of full-scale nuclear tests, non-nuclear explosive experiments, which are not accompanied by the release of nuclear energy, serve as an obligatory tool for monitoring the performance, reliability and safety of nuclear charges.", - said Verkhovtsev, noting that such tests are carried out jointly by the Ministry of Defense of Russia and the state corporation" Rosatom "at the Central test site on Novaya Zemlya.
LAZEIKA IN LAW
Subcritical nuclear testing is essentially a loophole to circumvent the provisions of the CTBT. The relevance of such experiments in recent years has increased significantly not only in Russia, but also in the United States and other countries. nuclear club, which formed their main stocks of such weapons in 1960-1970.
Subcritical tests make it possible not only to extend the service life or to modernize existing nuclear warheads, but also to develop new ones. In the latter case, computer modeling is also actively used. However, not all experts are sure of the suitability of subcritical tests for the development of new weapons.
CTBT
The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty has been signed by 182 states to date. It was not signed by India, Pakistan and North Korea, which have nuclear weapons. The treaty was ratified by 157 countries, but the United States, China, Israel, Iran and Egypt refused to ratify it.The control over the execution of the contract, which has not yet entered into force, is carried out by international system monitoring, which includes 170 seismic stations, 60 infrasound, 80 radionuclide and 11 hydroacoustic laboratories located around the world. Such a system makes it possible to detect nuclear explosions with a yield of at least 0.1 kilotons in TNT equivalent, and for some regions of the Earth this threshold is 0.01 kilotons.
In November 2011, the British group Trident Commission, created by the American-British research organization BASIC, released a report according to which the cost of developing the nuclear arsenals of Russia and the United States in the next ten years will amount to about 770 billion dollars. Most of this amount - $ 700 billion - will be spent by the United States on its nuclear weapons. It is on the modernization of the W78 warheads, the extension of the service lives of the W76 warheads, the B61 bombs, the development of the new NGB bomber, the SSBN (X) strategic nuclear submarine and new missiles.
Russia will spend its $ 70 billion on deploying new mobile complexes, the adoption of modernized missiles (draft), new ICBMs, submarines of the project 955 "Borey", the development of a promising aviation complex long-range aviation(), as well as extending the service life of existing strategic weapons.
The budget for 2011-2013, approved by the State Duma of Russia at the end of 2010, provides for an increase in spending on nuclear complex almost 4 billion rubles. In 2010, expenditures on the Russian nuclear weapons complex amounted to 18.8 billion rubles, in 2011 this figure increased to 26.9 billion rubles, in 2012 - to 27.5 billion rubles, and in 2013 this the figure will already be 30.3 billion rubles.
The increase in the pace of non-nuclear explosive experiments is also evidence that the major world powers have entered a new phase of the race. nuclear weapons... Despite the desire to reduce the number of nuclear warheads legally enshrined in the START-3 Treaty, the United States and Russia have switched to a qualitative improvement of such weapons. This was facilitated, in particular, by the US decision to deploy the system missile defense in Europe.
In 2006, having visited New earth, Sergei Ivanov, who then held the post of Minister of Defense of Russia, said that the training ground on the archipelago is supported in constant readiness and nuclear testing can be resumed on it at any time. At the same time, he noted that some countries have not ratified the CTBT, which means that in the interests of its own security, if necessary, Russia will resume full-scale nuclear tests.
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