The S-125 low-altitude mobile anti-aircraft missile system is designed to engage air targets at low and medium altitudes. The complex is all-weather, capable of hitting targets on a collision course and in pursuit. The characteristics of the missile and the warhead make it possible to fire at both ground and surface radar-observed targets.
Testing of the complex began in 1961, at the same time it was adopted by the air defense forces of the Soviet Army. At the same time, shipborne versions of the M1 "Wave" and M1 "Wave M" complex were developed for the Navy. Soon, the new anti-aircraft missile system was tested in real combat conditions - in Vietnam and Egypt.
The 5V24 two-stage solid-propellant rocket is made according to the normal aerodynamic scheme. The rocket has a solid-propellant starting engine, the time of which before dropping is 2.6 seconds. The sustainer engine is also solid-propellant, it starts after the end of the starting one and runs for 18.7 seconds. If the missile does not hit the target, it will self-destruct.
A missile guidance station is used to detect and track air targets. The maximum target detection range is 110 km. The complex uses launchers 5P71 or 5P73. One 5P71 launcher accommodates 2 anti-aircraft guided missiles, 5P73 launcher - 4 anti-aircraft guided missiles. Loading time - 1 minute. For transportation and loading of missiles, a transport and loading vehicle based on a ZIL-131 or ZIL-157 off-road truck is used. For preliminary detection of targets, radar stations P-15 and P-18 are used.
The main combat test of the complex took place in 1973, when Syria and Egypt used a large number of complexes against Israeli aircraft. The S-125 anti-aircraft missile system was used by the Armed Forces of Iraq, Syria, Libya, and Angola. Eight S-125 divisions were used to defend Belgrade in repelling NATO air raids against Yugoslavia. The S-125 low-altitude missile system is in service with the armies and navies of the CIS countries, as well as many foreign countries, remaining today a formidable air defense weapon.
Anti-aircraft missile system S-75M "Desna"
The S-75 anti-aircraft missile system is designed to destroy air targets at medium and high altitudes, on a collision course and in pursuit. The transportable (towed) complex was developed to cover important administrative, political and industrial facilities, military units and formations. The S-75 is single-channel for a target and three-channel for a missile, that is, it is simultaneously capable of tracking one target and directing up to three missiles at it.
During its existence, the S-75 air defense system has been modernized many times. In 1957, a simplified version of the SA - 75 "Dvina" was adopted, in 1959 - the C - 75M "Desna". The next modification was the S-75M Volkhov complex. Rockets of all serial modifications are two-stage, made according to the normal aerodynamic configuration. The first stage (starting accelerator) is solid propellant, it is a powder jet engine operating for 4.5 s.
The second stage has a liquid-propellant jet engine running on a combination of kerosene and nitric acid. Warhead - high-explosive fragmentation weighing 196 kg. The maximum target engagement range for the S-75 Desna is 34 km. The maximum speed of the fired target towards - 1500 km / h.
The S-75 anti-aircraft missile system is in service with the anti-aircraft missile division, which includes a missile guidance station, an interface cabin with an automated control system, six launchers, power supply facilities, and airspace reconnaissance facilities. Typically, launchers are located in a circle at a distance of 60 - 100 meters around the missile guidance station. Elements of the complex can be located in open areas, in trenches or stationary concrete shelters. The combat crew of the complex consists of 4 people - one officer and three escort operators in angular coordinates.
In the USSR, the C-75's baptism of fire took place on May 1, 1960, when a high-altitude American reconnaissance aircraft U-2 Lockheed, piloted by CIA pilot Powers, was shot down near Sverdlovsk. The result of this use of the S-75 was that the United States stopped its reconnaissance flights over the territory of the USSR and thereby lost an important source of strategic intelligence information. Under the name "Volga" (export name), the complex was supplied to many countries of the world. Deliveries were made to Angola, Algeria, Hungary, Vietnam, Egypt, India, Iraq, Iran, China, Cuba, Libya and other countries.
Anti-aircraft missile system S - 300P
The S-300P anti-aircraft missile system was put into service in 1979 and is designed to defend the most important administrative, industrial and military facilities from air attacks, including non-strategic ballistic missiles. It replaced the S-25 Berkut air defense systems located around Moscow, as well as the S-125 and S-75 systems. The S-300P anti-aircraft missile system was in service with anti-aircraft missile regiments and brigades of the country's air defense forces.
In the S-300P complex, towed launchers with a vertical launch of 4 missiles and transport vehicles designed to transport missiles were used. In the S - 300P complex, the V - 500K rocket was originally used. The rocket has a solid propellant engine, at launch it was thrown out of the transport and launch container with the help of squibs to a height of 25 m, and then the rocket engine was started. The maximum range of destruction of an aerodynamic target was 47 km.
The S-300P complex includes: a radar for illumination and guidance, which aims up to 12 missiles at 6 simultaneously tracked targets, a low-altitude detector, up to 3 launch complexes, each of which can have up to 4 launchers, and each launcher - up to 4 missiles of type B - 500K or B - 500R.
During 1980 - 1990. The S-300 anti-aircraft missile system has undergone a number of deep upgrades that have significantly increased its combat capabilities.
Anti-aircraft missile system S-200V
The S-200 long-range anti-aircraft missile system is designed to combat modern and advanced air targets: early warning and control aircraft, high-altitude high-speed reconnaissance aircraft, jammers and other manned and unmanned air attack weapons in conditions of intense radio countermeasures. The system is all-weather and can be operated in various climatic conditions.
During its existence, the S-200 air defense system has been modernized many times: in 1970 it entered service with the S-200V (Vega) and in 1975 with the S-200D (Dubna). In the Soviet Union, the S - 200 was part of the anti-aircraft missile brigades or regiments of mixed composition, which also included S - 125 divisions. The S - 200 anti-aircraft guided missile was two-stage. The first stage consists of four solid propellant boosters. The sustainer stage is equipped with a liquid-propellant two-component rocket engine. The warhead is high-explosive fragmentation. The missile has a semi-active homing head.
The S-200 air defense system includes: control and target designation point K-9M; diesel - power plants; target illumination radar, which is a high-potential continuous-wave radar. It provides target tracking and generates information for missile launch. The complex has six launchers, which are located around the target illumination radar. They carry out storage, pre-launch preparation and launch of anti-aircraft missiles. For the early detection of air targets, the complex is equipped with an aerial reconnaissance radar of type P - 35.
S-200 air defense systems, served by Soviet crews, were supplied to Syria and used in combat operations in the winter of 1982/1983 against Israeli and American aircraft. The complex was delivered to India, Iran, North Korea, Libya, North Korea and other countries.
Since the mid 50s. 20th century Until now, the basis of the air defense of our state is anti-aircraft missile systems (SAM) and complexes (SAM), created in domestic design organizations of OAO NPO Almaz named after. academician A.A. Raspletin, OJSC NIEMI, OJSC MNIIRE Altair and OJSC NIIP im. Academician V.V. Tikhomirov. In 2002, all of them became part of the Almaz-Antey Air Defense Concern. And in 2010, in order to combine the scientific and production potential of developing enterprises and reduce the cost of creating anti-aircraft missile systems through the use of unified design and technical solutions based on the Almaz, NIEMI, Altair, MNIIPA and " NIIRP" JSC "Head System Design Bureau of the Almaz-Antey Air Defense Concern" was established. academician A.A. Raspletin (JSC GSKB Almaz-Antey).
At present, the Almaz-Antey Air Defense Concern is one of the leading corporations in the world in the field of creating anti-aircraft missile systems for air defense and anti-missile defense.
The main task that the air defense forces and military air defense solve is the defense of administrative and political centers, national economic and military facilities, as well as troops in places of permanent deployment and on the march.
Air defense systems and air defense systems of the first and second generations could effectively combat aircraft and had limited combat capabilities to defeat high-speed and small-sized unmanned attack vehicles. The representative of the third generation air defense system is the family of mobile multi-channel air defense systems of the S-300 type.
For the Air Defense Forces of the country, a mobile, multi-channel medium-range anti-aircraft missile system S-300P was created, capable of hitting modern and advanced air attack weapons at all altitudes. The requirements for the implementation of long-term round-the-clock duty by combat crews at workplaces led to the creation of combat cabins with the necessary overall dimensions, placed on a wheeled chassis. The ground forces put forward as the main requirement to ensure high cross-country ability of the air defense system and to place the system on a tracked chassis for this purpose, which required the use of design solutions that provide a special layout of electronic equipment.
In the early 1990s the creation of a deeply modernized system of the S-300P type - S-300PMU1 air defense system was completed. It is capable of repelling massive strikes from both modern and advanced air attack weapons, including those manufactured using stealth technology, in the entire range of their combat use and in the presence of intense active and passive interference. The main means of this system are also used to build the air defense system of the ships of the Navy. The system was delivered to a number of foreign countries.
In recent years, the most advanced modification of the air defense system of this series has been created and is being mass-produced - the air defense system "Favorite" as part of 83M6E2 controls and S-300PMU2 air defense systems. The air defense system S-300PMU2 ("Favorite") includes:
83M6E2 controls, consisting of: 54K6E2 unified command and control center, 64N6E2 detection radar, a set of single spare equipment (ZIP-1);
Up to 6 S-300PMU2 air defense systems, each as part of the 30N6E2 on-load tap-changer, up to 12 launchers (PU) 5P85SE2, 5P85TE2 with the possibility of placing four SAMs of the 48N6E2, 48N6E type on each;
Anti-aircraft guided missiles (hardware and software construction of the S-300PMU2 air defense system allows the use of missiles of the 48N6E2, 48N6E type);
Means of technical support of the system, means of technical operation and storage of missiles 82Ts6E2;
A set of group spare property (SPTA-2).
The Favorit system may include repeaters 15YA6ME for telecode and voice communications to ensure territorial separation (up to 90 km) of the command post of the system and anti-aircraft missile systems (up to two repeaters for each direction).
All combat assets of the system are placed on self-propelled off-road wheeled chassis, have built-in autonomous power supply, communications and life support systems. To ensure long-term continuous operation of the system means, the possibility of power supply from external power supply means is provided. It is planned to use the system facilities in special engineering shelters with the removal of the on-load tap-changer, PBU, SART from the self-propelled chassis. At the same time, it is possible to install an OLTC antenna post on a 40V6M type tower and install a SRS antenna post on a 8142KM type tower.
As a result of the modernization, the Favorit air defense system, in comparison with the S-300PMU1 and SU 83M6E air defense systems, has the following improved characteristics:
Increased far boundary of the limiting zone of destruction of aerodynamic targets on head-on and overtaking courses up to 200 km against 150 km;
The approximate near boundary of the zone of destruction of aerodynamic targets is up to 3 km versus 5 km;
Increased effectiveness of the destruction of ballistic missiles, including OTBR with a launch range of up to 1000 km, with the provision of undermining the combat charge of ballistic missiles on the flight trajectory;
Increased probability of hitting aerodynamic targets;
Increased noise immunity from active cover noise interference;
Improved performance and ergonomics.
The implementation of new technical solutions is ensured by the following modifications of the S-300PMU1 system and 83M6E controls to the level of the characteristics of the Favorit air defense system:
Introduction of a new ZUR 48N6E2 with modified combat equipment;
Entering a new high-performance computing complex "Elbrus-90 micro" into the hardware container;
Introduction into the hardware container of new jobs for the commander and launch operator, made on a modern element base;
Modernization of the digital phase computer (DPC), which ensures the implementation of a new algorithm with independent control of the orientation of the beams of compensation antennas;
Use of a new input low-noise microwave amplifier in the on-load tap-changer;
Introduction into the RPN of new highly reliable communication equipment and the Orientir navigation complex, which uses satellite and odometer channels, as well as radio navigation information;
Refinement of the equipment of the antenna post and launchers, ensuring the implementation of the above measures and increasing the reliability of its operation.
Improvements to SU 83M6E:
Introduction to the control system of the newly developed unified combat control center (PBU) 54K6E2, unified in terms of equipment composition with the PBU 55K6E ZRS S-400 "Triumph" and made on the basis of the URAL-532361 chassis. PBU 54K6E2 was created by entering:
VK "Elbrus-90 micro" with software (SW), including software for control of SART 64N6E2;
Unified workplaces with the use of modern computers and liquid crystal matrices;
Upgraded telecode communication equipment with the ability to transmit voice information;
Radio relay station mm-range "Luch-M48" to provide radio communication between the PBU and SART;
Data transmission equipment 93Ya6-05 for communication with SRS, VKP and external sources of radar information.
The Favorit system is easily integrated into various air defense systems. The dimensions of the area of defense of the Favorit air defense system from attacks by various air attack weapons are determined by the corresponding characteristics of the S-300PMU2 air defense systems, the number of air defense systems in the Favorit air defense system and their mutual location on the ground.
Introduced in the late 1980s new classes of aerospace attack weapons and the increase in the combat capabilities and quantitative composition of the SVNK, which are in service, has led to the need to develop a new generation (“4+”) of more advanced universal and unified anti-aircraft missile weapons - mobile long-range and medium-range air defense systems 40Р6Е "Triumph" for the effective solution of the tasks of the aerospace defense of our state at the beginning of the XXI century.
The new quality characteristics of the 40P6E "Triumph" air defense system are:
Solving the tasks of non-strategic missile defense, including the fight against medium-range ballistic missiles;
High security against all types of interference, recognition of false targets;
Using the basic-modular principle of construction;
Information interface with the main types of existing and developed sources of information;
Integration into existing and future control systems for air defense groupings of the Air Force, military air defense and anti-aircraft missile systems of the Navy.
By Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of April 28, 2007, the 40R6 Triumph system was adopted by the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. The first serial sample of the air defense system was put on combat duty on August 6, 2007. The air defense system 40R6 "Triumph" is being created in various versions (modifications).
The composition of the air defense system "Triumph" includes:
30K6E controls, consisting of: combat control center (PBU) 55K6E, radar complex (RLK) 91N6E;
Up to six anti-aircraft missile systems 98Zh6E, each consisting of: multifunctional radar (MRLS) 92N6E, up to 12 launchers of the 5P85SE2, 5P85TE2 types with the ability to place four SAMs of the 48N6EZ, 48N6E2 types on each;
Ammunition for anti-aircraft guided missiles (hardware and software construction of the 98Zh6E air defense system allows the use of missiles of the 48N6EZ, 48N6E2 type);
The complex of means of technical support of the 30Ts6E system, the means of technical operation and storage of missiles 82Ts6ME2.
All combat air defense systems are placed on self-propelled wheeled off-road chassis, have built-in autonomous power supply, orientation and geolocation, communications and life support systems. To ensure long-term continuous operation of the system means, the possibility of power supply from external power supply means is provided. The use of air defense systems in special engineering shelters is envisaged with the removal of hardware containers for MRLS, PBU, RLC from self-propelled chassis. The main type of communication between the means of the system is radio communication; communication is provided via wired and standard telephone communication channels.
The system may include repeaters of telecode and voice communication to ensure the territorial separation of PBU 55K6E and SAM 98ZH6E at distances up to 100 km, as well as portable towers of the 40V6M (MD) type for raising the antenna post of the MRLS 92N6E to a height of 25 (38) m when conducting combat operations in wooded and rough terrain.
The size of the area of defense of the S-400E "Triumph" air defense system from strikes by various means of air attack is determined by the corresponding characteristics of the zones of destruction of the air defense system, the number of air defense systems in the composition of the air defense system and their mutual location on the ground.
The advantages of the export version of the S-400E "Triumph" air defense system in comparison with the S-300PMU1 / -2 air defense system are as follows:
The class of hit targets has been expanded to flight speeds of 4800 m/s (medium-range ballistic missiles with a flight range of up to 3000-3500 km);
Increased impact zones of small targets and targets such as "stealth", due to the increase in the energy potential of the RLC 91N6E and MRLS 92N6E;
The noise immunity of the system has been significantly increased through the introduction of new means of noise protection;
The reliability of the hardware and software complex has been significantly increased, the volume and power consumption of the system's resources have been reduced through the use of more advanced electronic equipment and element base, new equipment for autonomous power supply, and new vehicles.
The main performance characteristics of the S-400 "Triumph" air defense system
At the end of XX - beginning of XXI centuries. new trends in the development of means of aerospace attack appeared:
The mastering by "third" countries of technologies for the creation of rocket weapons, ballistic missiles with a range of more than 2000 km have appeared in service with a number of countries;
Development of unmanned reconnaissance and weapon delivery vehicles with a wide range of flight times and ranges;
Creation of hypersonic aircraft and cruise missiles;
Increasing the combat capabilities of jamming equipment.
In addition, during this period, our state carried out the reform of the Armed Forces, one of the directions of which was the reduction in the number of personnel of the branches and branches of the armed forces.
Parrying the emerging threats required in the current political and economic conditions to solve the problems of reducing the costs of developing, manufacturing and operating weapons in the process of creating modern air defense systems, such as:
1. Reducing the type of air defense and missile defense information and fire weapons, including interceptor missiles and launchers, while increasing their combat capabilities to detect and destroy new types and classes of air defense systems.
2. Increasing the potential of radar facilities while maintaining their mobility or redeployability.
3. Ensuring high throughput and noise immunity of communication and data transmission systems when implementing the principles of their network construction.
4. Increasing the technical resource and time between failures of air defense and missile defense systems in the absence of full-scale serial production of electrical and radio products (ERI).
5. Reducing the number of service personnel.
The analysis of scientific and technical groundwork has shown that the solution of the tasks of creating a new generation of air defense-missile defense anti-aircraft missiles, taking into account overcoming the above problems, should be based on the design of block-modular information and fire systems with an open architecture, using unified hardware components in their composition. (this approach is used by international cooperation of developers and manufacturers of weapons and military equipment). At the same time, the comprehensive unification of newly created weapons systems, as well as the use of unified hardware and software functionally complete devices for the modernization of weapons and military equipment operated by the troops, ensures a reduction in budget allocations and an increase in the competitiveness of promising air defense and missile defense systems in the foreign market.
In 2007, design work was launched a promising unified air defense missile defense system of the fifth generation (EU ZRO), the creation of which should ensure the effective defense of our state facilities from attacks by promising air defense systems while reducing the range of anti-aircraft missile weapons being developed, increasing the interspecific unification of combat weapons, reducing the cost of equipping troops and fleet forces with air defense systems and their maintenance, as well as reducing the required number of personnel.
The creation of a promising fifth-generation EU DRO is carried out on the basis of the following principles:
To reduce the cost of developing and equipping troops with advanced air defense systems, the concept of the basic-modular principle of constructing the EU air defense system is being implemented, which makes it possible, with a minimum type (basic set) of the means (modules) included in it, to equip air defense formations of various purposes and types;
High efficiency and combat stability of air defense systems in the conditions of predictable fire and electronic suppression due to the possibility of operational reconfiguration depending on the evolving operational-tactical situation, as well as providing maneuver with fire and information resources;
The multifunctionality of the EU ZRO, which consists in the ability to deal with various types of targets - aerodynamic (including those located behind the radio horizon line), aeroballistic, ballistic. At the same time, not only the defeat by fire weapons is ensured, but also a decrease in the effectiveness of their impact by the use of appropriate weapons from the unified defense system from the EU ZRO;
Interspecific and intrasystem unification, which makes it possible to significantly reduce the range of developed anti-aircraft missile weapons and consists in the use of the same means (modules) from the EU ADRO in the air defense systems of the Air Force, military air defense and the Navy. The required type of chassis for the means of the system is determined based on the physical and geographical features of the area of possible use, the development of the road network and other factors;
implementation of the specifics of the use of anti-aircraft missiles on surface ships of the Navy (rolling, exposure to sea waves, increased requirements for explosion and fire safety, a complex system for storing and loading missiles, etc.), requiring the development of EU anti-aircraft defense systems for the Navy in a special design (at the same time, the level of unification means of air defense systems should be at least 80 - 90% and be provided through the use of unified standard elements and devices of hardware and software and air defense systems of the EU air defense system, complete unification of missiles, communications equipment and other elements);
Mobility, which makes it possible for units and subunits equipped with the means of the EU ZRO to conduct maneuverable combat operations without loss of communication and control, to deploy in battle formation from the march to unprepared positions and bring them to combat readiness without laying cable communication lines and power supply;
The network structure of the construction of the control system of the EU ZRO, which ensures the receipt of information from various sources and the exchange of data between the consumers of the system, as well as the timely issuance of target designations for the necessary means of destruction and countermeasures in real time; integration of the EU ZRO with electronic warfare systems, aviation air defense systems;
High operational reliability throughout the life of the system;
High competitiveness in the world market and high export potential.
In addition, when creating command and control means of the EU ADAM in the software and hardware systems of these tools, the possibility of controlling and information support of air defense systems and air defense systems of early developments is laid, which in the conditions of the phased rearmament of air defense groups on air defense systems and air defense systems of the EU ADAM will ensure the preservation of the combat capabilities of such groups, as well as the adaptation of the means of the EU ZRO to the existing structure of any air defense zone (region) (VKO) without prior organizational and technical preparation.
The following new technical solutions and technologies are being implemented during the creation of the fifth-generation EU ZRO air defense-missile defense system:
The use of active phased arrays in air defense radars;
Unification of the components of the system (receiving and transmitting modules, signal processing devices, computers, workplaces, chassis);
Automation of the processes of combat work, functional control and troubleshooting;
Use of built-in electronic intelligence channels;
Application of base-correlation methods for determining the coordinates of active jammers;
Creation of missiles with inertial-active trajectory guidance and high-precision gas-dynamic control in the final section of the trajectory, equipped with an active-semi-active seeker (for hitting priority targets at medium and long ranges) or optoelectronic seeker (for intercepting ballistic missiles at high altitudes).
All of the above systems, their further modifications and air defense systems (ADMS) of the EU ZRO PVO-PRO will form the basis of the groupings of the fire subsystem of the Russian aerospace defense system being created.
Classification and combat properties of anti-aircraft missile systems
Anti-aircraft missile weapons are classified as ground-to-air missiles and are designed to destroy enemy air attack means with anti-aircraft guided missiles (SAMs). It is represented by various systems.
An anti-aircraft missile system (anti-aircraft missile system) is a combination of an anti-aircraft missile system (SAM) and means that ensure its use.
Anti-aircraft missile system - a set of functionally related combat and technical means designed to destroy air targets with anti-aircraft guided missiles.
The air defense system includes means of detection, identification and target designation, means of flight control of missiles, one or more launchers (PU) with missiles, technical means and electrical power sources.
The technical basis of the air defense system is the control system of the missile defense system. Depending on the adopted control system, there are systems for remote control of missiles, homing missiles, combined control of missiles. Each air defense system has certain combat properties, features, the totality of which can serve as classification features that allow it to be attributed to a certain type.
The combat properties of air defense systems include all-weather, noise immunity, mobility, versatility, reliability, degree of automation of combat operations, etc.
Vsepogodnost - the ability of air defense systems to destroy air targets in all weather conditions. There are all-weather and non-all-weather air defense systems. The latter ensure the destruction of targets under certain weather conditions and time of day.
Interference immunity - a property that allows the air defense system to destroy air targets in the conditions of interference created by the enemy to suppress electronic (optical) means.
Mobility is a property that manifests itself in transportability and the time of transition from traveling to combat and from combat to traveling. A relative indicator of mobility can be the total time required to change the starting position under given conditions. An integral part of mobility is maneuverability. The most mobile is the complex, which has greater transportability and requires less time to complete the maneuver. Mobile complexes can be self-propelled, towed and portable. Non-mobile air defense systems are called stationary.
Versatility is a property that characterizes the technical capabilities of air defense systems to destroy air targets in a wide range of ranges and heights.
Reliability - the ability to function normally under specified operating conditions.
According to the degree of automation, anti-aircraft missile systems are distinguished as automatic, semi-automatic and non-automatic. In automatic air defense systems, all operations for detecting, tracking targets and guiding missiles are performed automatically without human intervention. In semi-automatic and non-automatic air defense systems, a person takes part in solving a number of tasks.
Anti-aircraft missile systems are distinguished by the number of target and missile channels. Complexes that provide simultaneous tracking and firing of one target are called single-channel, and several targets are called multi-channel.
According to the firing range, the complexes are divided into long-range air defense systems (RD) with a firing range of more than 100 km, medium-range (SD) with a firing range of 20 to 100 km, short-range (MD) with a firing range of 10 to 20 km and short-range ( BD) with a range of up to 10 km.
Tactical and technical characteristics of the anti-aircraft missile system
The performance characteristics (TTX) determine the combat capabilities of the air defense system. These include: the appointment of an air defense system; range and height of destruction of air targets; the possibility of destroying targets flying at different speeds; the probability of hitting air targets in the absence and presence of interference, when firing at maneuvering targets; number of target and missile channels; noise immunity of ADMS; working hours of ADMS (reaction time); the time of transfer of the air defense system from the traveling position to the combat position and vice versa (the time of deployment and collapse of the air defense system at the starting position); movement speed; missile ammunition; power reserve; mass and overall characteristics, etc.
Performance characteristics are set in the tactical and technical specifications for the creation of a new type of air defense system and are specified in the process of field tests. The values of performance characteristics are due to the design features of the ADMC elements and the principles of their operation.
Appointment of the air defense system- a generalized characteristic indicating the combat missions solved by means of this type of air defense system.
Range(shooting) - the range at which targets are hit with a probability not lower than the specified one. There are minimum and maximum ranges.
Defeat Height(shooting) - the height at which targets are hit with a probability not lower than a given one. There are minimum and maximum heights.
The ability to destroy targets flying at different speeds is a characteristic indicating the maximum allowable value of the flight speeds of targets destroyed in given ranges of ranges and altitudes of their flight. The value of the target flight speed determines the values of the required rocket overloads, dynamic guidance errors, and the probability of hitting the target with one missile. At high target speeds, the required rocket overloads, dynamic guidance errors increase, and the probability of hitting decreases. As a result, the values of the maximum range and height of target destruction are reduced.
Target hit probability- a numerical value characterizing the possibility of hitting a target under given firing conditions. Expressed as a number between 0 and 1.
The target can be hit by firing one or more missiles, therefore, the corresponding hit probabilities P are considered. ; and R P .
Target channel- a set of elements of an air defense system that provides simultaneous tracking and firing of one target. There are single- and multi-channel air defense systems in terms of purpose. The N-channel target complex allows you to simultaneously fire at N targets. The composition of the target channel includes a sight and a device for determining the coordinates of the target.
rocket channel- a set of elements of the air defense system, which simultaneously provides preparation for the launch, launch and guidance of one missile at the target. The structure of the missile channel includes: a launcher (launcher), a device for preparing for the launch and launch of missiles, a sighting device and a device for determining the coordinates of the rocket, elements of the device for generating and transmitting missile control commands. An integral part of the missile channel is the missile defense system. Air defense systems in service are single- and multi-channel. Single-channel portable complexes are performed. They allow only one missile to be aimed at the target at a time. Multi-channel missile defense systems provide simultaneous shelling of one or more targets with several missiles. Such air defense systems have great capabilities for sequential shelling of targets. To obtain a given value of the target destruction probability, the air defense system has 2-3 missile channels per one target channel.
As an indicator of noise immunity, the following are used: the noise immunity coefficient, the permissible interference power density at the far (near) border of the affected area in the area of the jammer, which ensures timely detection (opening) and destruction (defeat) of the target, the range of the open zone, the range, starting from which the target is detected (revealed) against the background of interference when the jammer sets up the interference.
Working hours of the air defense system(reaction time) - the time interval between the moment an air target is detected by air defense systems and the launch of the first missile. It is determined by the time spent searching for and capturing the target and preparing the initial data for firing. The working time of the air defense system depends on the design features and characteristics of the air defense system and the level of training of the combat crew. For modern air defense systems, its value ranges from units to tens of seconds.
The time of the transfer of air defense systems from traveling to combat- the time from the moment the command is given to transfer the complex to a combat position until the complex is ready to open fire. For MANPADS, this time is minimal and amounts to several seconds. The time of the SAM transfer to the combat position is determined by the initial state of its elements, the transfer mode and the type of power supply.
The time of the transfer of air defense systems from a combat position to a marching one- the time from the moment the command is given to transfer the air defense system to the marching position until the end of the formation of the elements of the air defense system in the marching column.
Combat kit(bq) - the number of missiles installed on one air defense system.
Power reserve- the maximum distance that an air defense vehicle can travel after consuming a full refueling of fuel.
Mass characteristics- limiting mass characteristics of elements (cabins) of air defense systems and missiles.
Dimensions- limiting external outlines of elements (cabins) of air defense systems and missiles, determined by the largest width, length and height.
ZRK affected area
The zone of destruction of the complex is a region of space within which the destruction of an air target by an anti-aircraft guided missile is ensured under the calculated firing conditions with a given probability. Taking into account the effectiveness of firing, it determines the reach of the complex in terms of height, range and heading parameter.
Estimated firing conditions- conditions under which the closing angles of the ADMC position are equal to zero, the characteristics and parameters of the target's movement (its effective reflective surface, speed, etc.) do not go beyond the specified limits, atmospheric conditions do not interfere with the observation of the target.
Realized affected area- part of the kill zone, in which the defeat of a target of a certain type is ensured in specific firing conditions with a given probability.
fire zone- the space around the air defense system, in which the missile is guided to the target.
Rice. 1. SAM affected area: vertical (a) and horizontal (b) section
The affected area is depicted in a parametric coordinate system and is characterized by the position of the far, near, upper and lower boundaries. Its main characteristics are: horizontal (slant) range to the far and near borders d d (D d) and d(D), minimum and maximum heights H mn and H max , limit heading angle q max and maximum elevation angle s max . The horizontal range to the far boundary of the affected area and the limit heading angle determine the limiting parameter of the affected area P pre , i.e., the maximum target parameter at which its defeat is ensured with a probability not lower than a given one. For multi-channel target ADMS, a characteristic value is also the parameter of the affected area Р stro, up to which the number of firing at the target is not less than at zero parameter of its movement. A typical section of the affected area by the vertical bisector and horizontal planes is shown in the figure.
The position of the boundaries of the affected area is determined by a large number of factors related to the technical characteristics of individual elements of the air defense system and the control loop as a whole, the firing conditions, the characteristics and parameters of the movement of an air target. The position of the far boundary of the affected area determines the required range of the SNR.
The position of the implemented far and lower boundaries of the zone of destruction of the air defense system may also depend on the terrain.
SAM launch zone
In order for the missile to meet the target in the affected area, the missile must be launched in advance, taking into account the flight time of the missile and the target to the meeting point.
Missile launch zone - a region of space, when a target is located in which, at the time of missile launch, their meeting in the zone of destruction of the air defense system is ensured. To determine the boundaries of the launch zone, it is necessary to set aside from each point of the affected zone to the side opposite to the target's course, a segment equal to the product of the target's speed V ii for the flight time of the rocket to this point. In the figure, the most characteristic points of the launch zone are respectively indicated by the letters a, 6, c, d, e.
Rice. 2. SAM launch zone (vertical section)
When tracking a CHP target, the current coordinates of the rendezvous point are usually calculated automatically and displayed on the indicator screens. The missile is launched when the meeting point is within the boundaries of the affected area.
Guaranteed launch zone- a region of space, when the target is located in which, at the time of the missile launch, it is ensured that it meets the target in the affected area, regardless of the type of anti-missile maneuver of the target.
Composition and characteristics of elements of anti-aircraft missile systems
In accordance with the tasks to be solved, the functionally necessary elements of the air defense system are: means of detection, identification of aircraft and target designation; SAM flight controls; launchers and launchers; anti-aircraft guided missiles.
Portable anti-aircraft missile systems (MANPADS) can be used to combat low-flying targets.
When used as part of the Patriot, S-300 air defense systems, multifunctional radars act as means of detection, identification, tracking devices for aircraft and missiles aimed at them, control command transmission devices, as well as target illumination stations to ensure the operation of airborne direction finders.
Detection tools
In anti-aircraft missile systems, radar stations, optical and passive direction finders can be used as means of detecting aircraft.
Optical means of detection (OSO). Depending on the location of the source of radiation of radiant energy, optical detection means are divided into passive and semi-active. As a rule, in passive TOs, radiant energy is used, due to the heating of the aircraft skin and operating engines, or the light energy of the Sun, reflected from the aircraft. In semi-active OSOs, an optical quantum generator (laser) is located at the ground control station, the energy of which is used to probe space.
Passive OSO is a television-optical sight, which includes a transmitting television camera (PTC), a synchronizer, communication channels, a video monitoring device (VCU).
The television-optical sight converts the flow of light (radiant) energy coming from the aircraft into electrical signals that are transmitted over a cable communication line and used in the VKU to reproduce the transmitted image of the aircraft, which is in the field of view of the PTK lens.
In the transmitting television tube, the optical image is converted into an electrical image, while a potential relief appears on the photomosaic (target) of the tube, reflecting the distribution of brightness of all points of the aircraft in electrical form.
The reading of the potential relief occurs by the electron beam of the transmitting tube, which, under the action of the field of the deflecting coils, moves synchronously with the electron beam of the VCU. A video image signal appears on the load resistance of the transmitting tube, which is amplified by the preamplifier and fed to the VCU via a communication channel. The video signal after amplification in the amplifier is fed to the control electrode of the receiving tube (kinescope).
Synchronization of the movement of the electronic beams of the PTK and VKU is carried out by horizontal and vertical scanning pulses, which are not mixed with the image signal, but are transmitted via a separate channel.
The operator observes on the kinescope screen the images of the aircraft that are in the field of view of the reticle lens, as well as the target marks corresponding to the position of the optical axis of the TO in azimuth (b) and elevation (e), as a result of which the azimuth and elevation angle of the aircraft can be determined.
Semi-active OSOs (laser sights) in their structure, construction principles and functions are almost completely similar to radar ones. They allow you to determine the angular coordinates, range and speed of the target.
A laser transmitter is used as a signal source, which is triggered by a synchronizer pulse. The laser light signal is emitted into space, reflected from the aircraft and received by the telescope.
Radar detection tools
A narrow-band filter that stands in the way of the reflected pulse reduces the effect of extraneous light sources on the work of the reticle. The light pulses reflected from the aircraft fall on a photosensitive receiver, are converted into video frequency signals and used in units for measuring angular coordinates and range, as well as for displaying on the indicator screen.
In the unit for measuring the angular coordinates, signals are generated to control the drives of the optical system, which provide both an overview of the space and automatic tracking of the aircraft along the angular coordinates (continuous alignment of the axis of the optical system with the direction to the aircraft).
Aircraft identification means
Identification tools allow you to determine the nationality of the detected aircraft and classify it as "friend or foe". They can be combined and standalone. In combined devices, request and response signals are emitted and received by radar devices.
Detection radar antenna "Top-M1" Optical means of detection
Radar-optical means of detection
A receiver of interrogation signals is installed on "its" aircraft, which receives encoded interrogation signals sent by the detection (identification) radar. The receiver decodes the interrogation signal and, if this signal corresponds to the set code, issues it to the response signal transmitter installed on board "its" aircraft. The transmitter generates a coded signal and sends it in the direction of the radar, where it is received, decoded and, after conversion, is displayed on the indicator in the form of a conditional label, which is displayed next to the mark from "its" aircraft. The enemy aircraft does not respond to the radar interrogation signal.
Means of target designation
Target designation means are designed to receive, process and analyze information about the air situation and determine the sequence of shelling of detected targets, as well as transmit data about them to other combat means.
Information about detected and identified aircraft, as a rule, comes from the radar. Depending on the type of terminal device of target designation means, the analysis of information about the aircraft is carried out automatically (when using a computer) or manually (by the operator when using screens of cathode ray tubes). The results of the decision of the computer (calculating device) can be displayed on special consoles, indicators or in the form of signals for the operator to make a decision about their further use, or transmitted to other air defense systems automatically.
If a screen is used as terminal devices, then the marks from the detected aircraft are displayed as light marks.
Target designation data (decisions to fire targets) can be transmitted both via cable lines and radio links.
Means of target designation and detection can serve both one and several ZRV units.
SAM flight controls
When an aircraft is detected and identified, the operator analyzes the air situation, as well as the procedure for firing targets. At the same time, devices for measuring range, angular coordinates, speed, generating control commands and transmitting commands (command control radio link), an autopilot and a missile steering path are involved in the operation of the SAM flight controls.
The range measuring device is designed to measure the slant range to aircraft and missiles. The determination of the range is based on the straightness of the propagation of electromagnetic waves and the constancy of their speed. Range can be measured by radar and optical means. For this, the time of signal propagation from the radiation source to the aircraft and back is used. Time can be measured by the delay of the pulse reflected from the aircraft, the amount of change in the frequency of the transmitter, the amount of change in the phase of the radar signal. Information about the range to the target is used to determine the moment of launch of the SAM, as well as to develop control commands (for systems with telecontrol).
The device for measuring angular coordinates is designed to measure the elevation (e) and azimuth (b) of aircraft and missiles. The measurement is based on the property of rectilinear propagation of electromagnetic waves.
The speed measurement device is designed to measure the radial speed of the aircraft. The measurement is based on the Doppler effect, which consists in changing the frequency of the reflected signal from moving objects.
The control command generating device (UFC) is designed to generate electrical signals, the magnitude and sign of which correspond to the magnitude and sign of the missile's deviation from the kinematic trajectory. The magnitude and direction of deviation of the SAM from the kinematic trajectory are manifested in the violation of the links determined by the nature of the movement of the target and the method of aiming the SAM at it. The measure of violation of this connection is called the mismatch parameter A(t).
The value of the mismatch parameter is measured by means of ADMC tracking, which, based on A(t), form the corresponding electrical signal in the form of voltage or current, called the mismatch signal. The error signal is the main component in the formation of the control command. To improve the accuracy of pointing the missile at the target, some correction signals are introduced into the control team. In telecontrol systems, when implementing the three-point method, in order to reduce the time of launching the missile to the meeting point with the target, as well as to reduce errors in pointing the missile at the target, a damping signal and a signal for compensating dynamic errors due to the movement of the target, the mass (weight) of the missile can be introduced into the control command .
Device for transmitting control commands (command radio control lines). In telecontrol systems, the transmission of control commands from the point of guidance to the on-board device of the missile defense system is carried out by means of the equipment that forms the command radio control link. This line provides the transmission of rocket flight control commands, one-time commands that change the operating mode of the onboard equipment. The command radio link is a multi-channel communication line, the number of channels of which corresponds to the number of commands transmitted while simultaneously controlling several missiles.
The autopilot is designed to stabilize the angular movements of the rocket relative to the center of mass. In addition, the autopilot is an integral part of the missile flight control system and controls the position of the center of mass itself in space in accordance with the control commands.
launchers, launchers
Launchers (PU) and launchers are special devices designed for placement, aiming, pre-launch preparation and missile launch. PU consists of a starting table or guides, aiming mechanisms, leveling devices, test and starting equipment, and power supplies.
Launchers are distinguished by the type of missile launch - with vertical and inclined launch, by mobility - stationary, semi-stationary (collapsible), mobile.
Stationary launcher C-25 with vertical launch
Portable anti-aircraft missile system "Igla"
Launcher of the Blowpipe man-portable anti-aircraft missile system with three guides
Stationary launchers in the form of launch tables are mounted on special concreted platforms and cannot be moved.
Semi-stationary launchers, if necessary, can be disassembled and, after transportation, installed in another position.
Mobile launchers are placed on special vehicles. They are used in mobile air defense systems and are carried out in self-propelled, towed, wearable (portable) versions. Self-propelled launchers are placed on tracked or wheeled chassis, providing a quick transition from traveling to combat position and back. Towed launchers are installed on caterpillar or wheeled non-self-propelled chassis, transported by tractors.
Portable launchers are made in the form of launch tubes into which a rocket is installed before launch. The launch tube may have a sighting device for pre-targeting and a trigger mechanism.
By the number of missiles on the launcher, single launchers, twin launchers, etc. are distinguished.
Anti-aircraft guided missiles
Anti-aircraft guided missiles are classified according to the number of stages, aerodynamic scheme, guidance method, type of warhead.
Most missiles can be single- and two-stage.
According to the aerodynamic scheme, missiles are distinguished, made according to the normal scheme, according to the “rotary wing” scheme, and also according to the “duck” scheme.
According to the method of guidance, self-guided and remote-controlled missiles are distinguished. A homing missile is one that has flight control equipment on board. Remote-controlled missiles are called missiles controlled (guided) by ground-based controls (guidance).
According to the type of combat charge, missiles with conventional and nuclear warheads are distinguished.
Self-propelled launcher SAM "Buk" with an inclined start
Semi-stationary launcher S-75 SAM with inclined launch
Self-propelled launcher S-300PMU with vertical launch
Man-portable air defense systems
MANPADS are designed to deal with low-flying targets. The construction of MANPADS can be based on a passive homing system (“Stinger”, “Strela-2, 3”, “Igla”), a radio command system (“Blowpipe”), a laser beam guidance system (RBS-70).
MANPADS with a passive homing system include a launcher (launch container), a trigger mechanism, identification equipment, and an anti-aircraft guided missile.
The launcher is a sealed fiberglass tube in which the missile is stored. The pipe is sealed. Outside the pipe are sighting devices for preparing the launch of the rocket and the trigger mechanism.
The launcher (“Stinger”) includes an electric battery for powering the equipment of both the mechanism itself and the homing head (before the missile is launched), a refrigerant cylinder for cooling the receiver of thermal radiation of the seeker during the preparation of the missile for launch, a switching device that provides the necessary sequence passage of commands and signals, indicator device.
The identification equipment includes an identification antenna and an electronic unit, which includes a transceiver, logic circuits, a computing device, and a power source.
Rocket (FIM-92A) single-stage, solid propellant. The homing head can operate in the infrared and ultraviolet ranges, the radiation receiver is cooled. The alignment of the axis of the optical system of the GOS with the direction to the target in the process of tracking it is carried out using a gyroscopic drive.
A rocket is launched from a container using a launch booster. The sustainer engine is turned on when the rocket moves away to a distance that prevents the anti-aircraft gunner from being hit by a jet of a running engine.
The radio command MANPADS include a transport and launch container, a guidance unit with identification equipment and an anti-aircraft guided missile. The conjugation of the container with the missile located in it and the guidance unit is carried out in the process of preparing MANPADS for combat use.
Two antennas are placed on the container: one - command transmission devices, the other - identification equipment. Inside the container is the rocket itself.
The guidance unit includes a monocular optical sight that provides target acquisition and tracking, an IR device for measuring the deviation of a missile from the target’s line of sight, a device for generating and transmitting guidance commands, a launch preparation and production software device, and a friend or foe identification equipment interrogator. On the body of the block there is a controller used when aiming a missile at a target.
After launching the SAM, the operator accompanies it along the radiation of the tail IR tracer using an optical sight. The launch of the missile on the line of sight is carried out manually or automatically.
In automatic mode, the deviation of the missile from the line of sight, measured by the IR device, is converted into guidance commands transmitted to the missile defense system. The IR device is turned off after 1-2 seconds of flight, after which the missile is guided to the meeting point manually, provided that the operator achieves alignment of the image of the target and the missile in the field of view of the sight by changing the position of the control switch. Control commands are transmitted to the missile defense system, ensuring its flight along the required trajectory.
In the complexes that provide guidance of missiles by a laser beam (RBS-70), laser radiation receivers are placed in the tail compartment of missiles to guide the missile to the target, which generate signals that control the flight of the missile. The guidance unit includes an optical sight, a device for forming a laser beam with a focus that changes depending on the distance of the SAM.
Anti-aircraft missile control systems Telecontrol systems
Telecontrol systems are those in which the movement of a missile is determined by a ground guidance point that continuously monitors the parameters of the target and missile trajectory. Depending on the place of formation of commands (signals) for controlling the missile's rudders, these systems are divided into beam guidance systems and telecontrol command systems.
In beam guidance systems, the direction of missile movement is set using directed radiation of electromagnetic waves (radio waves, laser radiation, etc.). The beam is modulated in such a way that when the missile deviates from a given direction, its on-board devices automatically detect mismatch signals and generate appropriate missile control commands.
An example of the use of such a control system with teleorientation of a missile in a laser beam (after it is launched into this beam) is the ADATS multi-purpose missile system developed by the Swiss company Oerlikon together with the American Martin Marietta. It is believed that such a method of control, compared with the command telecontrol system of the first type, provides a higher accuracy of pointing the missile at the target at long ranges.
In command telecontrol systems, missile flight control commands are generated at the guidance point and transmitted to the missile via a communication line (telecontrol line). Depending on the method of measuring the coordinates of the target and determining its position relative to the missile, command telecontrol systems are divided into telecontrol systems of the first type and telecontrol systems of the second type. In systems of the first type, the measurement of the current coordinates of the target is carried out directly by the ground guidance point, and in systems of the second type, by the onboard missile coordinator with their subsequent transmission to the guidance point. The development of missile control commands in both the first and second cases is carried out by a ground guidance point.
Rice. 3. Command telecontrol system
The determination of the current coordinates of the target and the missile (for example, range, azimuth and elevation) is carried out by the tracking radar. In some complexes, this task is solved by two radars, one of which accompanies the target (target sighting radar 7), and the other - a missile (missile sighting radar 2).
Target sighting is based on the principle of active radar with a passive response, i.e., on obtaining information about the current coordinates of the target from the radio signals reflected from it. Target tracking can be automatic (AC), manual (PC) or mixed. Most often, target sights have devices that provide various types of target tracking. Automatic tracking is carried out without the participation of the operator, manual and mixed - with the participation of the operator.
To sight a missile in such systems, as a rule, radar lines with an active response are used. A transceiver is installed on board the missile, emitting response pulses to the request pulses sent by the guidance point. This method of sighting the missile ensures its stable automatic tracking, including when firing at considerable distances.
The measured values of the coordinates of the target and the missile are fed into the command generation device (UVK), which can be performed on the basis of an electronic digital computer or in the form of an analog computing device. Commands are formed in accordance with the selected guidance method and the accepted mismatch parameter. The control commands generated for each guidance plane are encrypted and the command radio transmitter (RPK) is issued on board the missile. These commands are received by the onboard receiver, amplified, decoded, and through the autopilot in the form of certain signals that determine the magnitude and sign of the deflection of the rudders, they are issued to the rudders of the rocket. As a result of turning the rudders and the appearance of angles of attack and slip, lateral aerodynamic forces arise that change the direction of the rocket's flight.
The missile control process is carried out continuously until it meets the target.
After the launch of the missile to the target area, as a rule, with the help of a proximity fuse, the problem of choosing the moment of detonation of the warhead of an anti-aircraft guided missile is solved.
The command telecontrol system of the first type does not require an increase in the composition and mass of onboard equipment, and has greater flexibility in the number and geometry of possible missile trajectories. The main drawback of the system is the dependence of the magnitude of the linear error in pointing the missile at the target on the firing range. If, for example, the value of the angular guidance error is assumed to be constant and equal to 1/1000 of the range, then the miss of the missile at firing ranges of 20 and 100 km, respectively, will be 20 and 100 m. In the latter case, to hit the target, an increase in the mass of the warhead, and therefore launch mass of the rocket. Therefore, the telecontrol system of the first type is used to destroy missile targets at short and medium ranges.
In the telecontrol system of the first type, the target and missile tracking channels and the radio control line are subject to interference. The solution to the problem of increasing the noise immunity of this system is associated by foreign experts with the use, including in a complex way, of channels of sighting of the target and the missile (radar, infrared, visual, etc.) that are different in frequency range and principles of operation, as well as radar stations with a phased antenna array ( FAR).
Rice. 4. Command telecontrol system of the second type
The target coordinator (radio direction finder) is installed on board the missile. It tracks the target and determines its current coordinates in a moving coordinate system associated with the missile. The target coordinates are transmitted over the communication channel to the guidance point. Therefore, the airborne radio direction finder generally includes a target signal receiving antenna (7), a receiver (2), a device for determining target coordinates (3), an encoder (4), a signal transmitter (5) containing information about the target coordinates, and a transmitting antenna ( 6).
The target coordinates are received by the ground guidance point and fed into the device for generating control commands. The current coordinates of the anti-aircraft guided missile are also sent to the UVK from the tracking station (radio sight) of the missile. The command generating device determines the mismatch parameter and generates control commands, which, after appropriate transformations, are issued by the command transmission station to the rocket. To receive these commands, convert them and work out by the rocket, the same equipment is installed on its board as in the telecontrol systems of the first type (7 - command receiver, 8 - autopilot). The advantages of the telecontrol system of the second type are the independence of the missile guidance accuracy from the firing range, the increase in resolution as the missile approaches the target and the possibility of targeting the required number of missiles.
The disadvantages of the system include an increase in the cost of an anti-aircraft guided missile and the impossibility of manual target tracking modes.
According to its structural scheme and characteristics, the telecontrol system of the second type is close to homing systems.
homing systems
Homing is the automatic guidance of a missile to a target, based on the use of energy coming from the target to the missile.
The missile homing head autonomously carries out target tracking, determines the mismatch parameter and generates missile control commands.
According to the type of energy that the target radiates or reflects, homing systems are divided into radar and optical (infrared or thermal, light, laser, etc.).
Depending on the location of the primary energy source, homing systems can be passive, active and semi-active.
In passive homing, the energy radiated or reflected by the target is created by the sources of the target itself or by the target's natural irradiator (Sun, Moon). Therefore, information about the coordinates and parameters of the target's movement can be obtained without special target exposure to energy of any kind.
The active homing system is characterized by the fact that the energy source that irradiates the target is installed on the missile and the energy of this source reflected from the target is used for homing the missiles.
With semi-active homing, the target is irradiated by a primary energy source located outside the target and the missile (Hawk ADMS).
Radar homing systems are widely used in air defense systems due to their practical independence of action from meteorological conditions and the possibility of guiding a missile to a target of any type and at various ranges. They can be used on the entire or only on the final section of the trajectory of an anti-aircraft guided missile, i.e. in combination with other control systems (telecontrol system, program control).
In radar systems, the use of the passive homing method is very limited. Such a method is possible only in special cases, for example, when homing missiles to an aircraft that has on its board a continuously operating jamming radio transmitter. Therefore, in radar homing systems, special irradiation (“illumination”) of the target is used. When homing a missile throughout the entire section of its flight path to the target, as a rule, semi-active homing systems are used in terms of energy and cost ratios. The primary source of energy (target illumination radar) is usually located at the point of guidance. In combined systems, both semi-active and active homing systems are used. The limitation on the range of the active homing system occurs due to the maximum power that can be obtained on the rocket, taking into account the possible dimensions and weight of the onboard equipment, including the homing head antenna.
If homing does not begin from the moment the missile is launched, then with an increase in the firing range of the missile, the energy advantages of active homing in comparison with semi-active ones increase.
To calculate the mismatch parameter and generate control commands, the tracking systems of the homing head must continuously track the target. At the same time, the formation of a control command is possible when tracking the target only in angular coordinates. However, such tracking does not provide target selection in terms of range and speed, as well as protection of the homing head receiver from spurious information and interference.
Equal-signal direction finding methods are used for automatic tracking of the target in angular coordinates. The angle of arrival of the wave reflected from the target is determined by comparing the signals received in two or more mismatched radiation patterns. The comparison may be carried out simultaneously or sequentially.
Direction finders with instantaneous equisignal direction, which use the sum-difference method for determining the angle of deviation of the target, are most widely used. The appearance of such direction-finding devices is primarily due to the need to improve the accuracy of automatic target tracking systems in the direction. Such direction finders are theoretically insensitive to amplitude fluctuations of the signal reflected from the target.
In direction finders with equisignal direction created by periodically changing the antenna pattern, and, in particular, with a scanning beam, a random change in the amplitudes of the signal reflected from the target is perceived as a random change in the angular position of the target.
The principle of target selection in terms of range and speed depends on the nature of the radiation, which can be pulsed or continuous.
With pulsed radiation, target selection is carried out, as a rule, in range with the help of strobe pulses that open the receiver of the homing head at the moment the signals from the target arrive.
Rice. 5. Radar semi-active homing system
With continuous radiation, it is relatively easy to select the target by speed. The Doppler effect is used to track the target in speed. The value of the Doppler frequency shift of the signal reflected from the target is proportional to the relative velocity of the missile approach to the target during active homing, and to the radial component of the target velocity relative to the ground-based irradiation radar and the relative velocity of the missile to the target during semi-active homing. To isolate the Doppler shift during semi-active homing on a missile after target acquisition, it is necessary to compare the signals received by the irradiation radar and the homing head. The tuned filters of the receiver of the homing head pass into the angle change channel only those signals that are reflected from the target moving at a certain speed relative to the missile.
As applied to the Hawk-type anti-aircraft missile system, it includes a target irradiation (illumination) radar, a semi-active homing head, an anti-aircraft guided missile, etc.
The task of the target irradiation (illumination) radar is to continuously irradiate the target with electromagnetic energy. The radar station uses directional radiation of electromagnetic energy, which requires continuous tracking of the target in angular coordinates. To solve other problems, target tracking in range and speed is also provided. Thus, the ground part of the semi-active homing system is a radar station with continuous automatic target tracking.
The semi-active homing head is mounted on the rocket and includes a coordinator and a calculating device. It provides capture and tracking of the target in terms of angular coordinates, range or speed (or in all four coordinates), determination of the mismatch parameter and generation of control commands.
An autopilot is installed on board an anti-aircraft guided missile, which solves the same tasks as in command telecontrol systems.
The composition of an anti-aircraft missile system using a homing system or a combined control system also includes equipment and apparatus for preparing and launching missiles, pointing the radiation radar at the target, etc.
Infrared (thermal) homing systems for anti-aircraft missiles use a wavelength range, usually from 1 to 5 microns. In this range is the maximum thermal radiation of most air targets. The possibility of using a passive homing method is the main advantage of infrared systems. The system is made simpler, and its action is hidden from the enemy. Before launching a missile defense system, it is more difficult for an air enemy to detect such a system, and after launching a missile, it is more difficult to create active interference with it. The receiver of the infrared system can be structurally made much simpler than the receiver of the radar seeker.
The disadvantage of the system is the dependence of the range on meteorological conditions. Thermal rays are strongly attenuated in rain, in fog, in clouds. The range of such a system also depends on the orientation of the target relative to the energy receiver (on the direction of reception). The radiant flux from the nozzle of an aircraft jet engine significantly exceeds the radiant flux from its fuselage.
Thermal homing heads are widely used in short-range and short-range anti-aircraft missiles.
Light homing systems are based on the fact that most aerial targets reflect sunlight or moonlight much stronger than their surrounding background. This allows you to select a target against a given background and direct an anti-aircraft missile at it with the help of a seeker that receives a signal in the visible range of the electromagnetic wave spectrum.
The advantages of this system are determined by the possibility of using a passive homing method. Its significant drawback is the strong dependence of the range on meteorological conditions. Under good meteorological conditions, light homing is also impossible in directions where the light of the Sun and Moon enters the field of view of the goniometer of the system.
Combined control
Combined control refers to the combination of different control systems when aiming a missile at a target. In anti-aircraft missile systems, it is used when firing at long ranges to obtain the required accuracy of aiming a missile at a target with allowable mass values of missiles. The following sequential combinations of control systems are possible: telecontrol of the first type and homing, telecontrol of the first and second type, autonomous system and homing.
The use of combined control makes it necessary to solve such problems as pairing trajectories when switching from one control method to another, ensuring that the target is captured by the missile's homing head in flight, using the same on-board equipment devices at various stages of control, etc.
At the moment of transition to homing (telecontrol of the second type), the target must be within the radiation pattern of the receiving antenna of the GOS, the width of which usually does not exceed 5-10 °. In addition, guidance of tracking systems should be carried out: GOS in range, in speed or in range and speed, if target selection is provided for given coordinates to increase the resolution and noise immunity of the control system.
Guidance of the GOS on the target can be carried out in the following ways: by commands transmitted to the missile from the point of guidance; the inclusion of an autonomous automatic search for the GOS target by angular coordinates, range and frequency; a combination of preliminary command guidance of the GOS on the target with the subsequent search for the target.
Each of the first two methods has its advantages and significant disadvantages. The task of ensuring reliable guidance of the seeker to the target during the flight of the missile to the target is quite complex and may require the use of a third method. Preliminary guidance of the seeker allows you to narrow the range of the search for the target.
With a combination of telecontrol systems of the first and second types, after the start of operation of the onboard radio direction finder, the device for generating commands of the ground guidance point can receive information simultaneously from two sources: a target and missile tracking station and an onboard radio direction finder. Based on the comparison of the generated commands according to the data of each source, it seems possible to solve the problem of conjugation of trajectories, as well as to increase the accuracy of pointing the missile at the target (reduce random error components by choosing a source, weighing the variances of the generated commands). This way of combining control systems is called binary control.
Combined control is used in cases where the required characteristics of the air defense system cannot be achieved using only one control system.
Autonomous control systems
Autonomous control systems are those in which flight control signals are generated on board the rocket in accordance with a predetermined (before launch) program. During the flight of a missile, the autonomous control system does not receive any information from the target and the control point. In a number of cases, such a system is used in the initial section of the rocket's flight path to bring it into a given region of space.
Elements of missile control systems
A guided missile is an unmanned aircraft with a jet engine designed to destroy air targets. All onboard devices are located on the rocket airframe.
Glider - the supporting structure of the rocket, which consists of a body, fixed and movable aerodynamic surfaces. The body of the airframe is usually cylindrical in shape with a conical (spherical, ogive) head.
The aerodynamic surfaces of the airframe serve to create lift and control forces. These include wings, stabilizers (fixed surfaces), rudders. According to the mutual arrangement of the rudders and fixed aerodynamic surfaces, the following aerodynamic schemes of missiles are distinguished: normal, "tailless", "duck", "rotary wing".
Rice. b. Layout diagram of a hypothetical guided missile:
1 - rocket body; 2 - non-contact fuse; 3 - rudders; 4 - warhead; 5 - tanks for fuel components; b - autopilot; 7 - control equipment; 8 - wings; 9 - sources of onboard power supply; 10 - sustainer stage rocket engine; 11 - launch stage rocket engine; 12 - stabilizers.
Rice. 7. Aerodynamic schemes of guided missiles:
1 - normal; 2 - "tailless"; 3 - "duck"; 4 - "rotary wing".
Guided missile engines are divided into two groups: rocket and air-breathing.
A rocket engine is an engine that uses the fuel that is completely on board the rocket. It does not require the intake of oxygen from the environment for its operation. According to the type of fuel, rocket engines are divided into solid propellant rocket engines (SRM) and liquid propellant rocket engines (LRE). Rocket gunpowder and mixed solid propellant are used as fuel in solid propellant rocket engines, which are poured and pressed directly into the engine combustion chamber.
Air-jet engines (WJ) are engines in which oxygen taken from the surrounding air serves as an oxidizing agent. As a result, only fuel is contained on board the rocket, which makes it possible to increase the fuel supply. The disadvantage of VRD is the impossibility of their operation in rarefied layers of the atmosphere. They can be used on aircraft at flight altitudes up to 35-40 km.
The autopilot (AP) is designed to stabilize the angular movements of the rocket relative to the center of mass. In addition, the AP is an integral part of the missile flight control system and controls the position of the center of mass itself in space in accordance with the control commands. In the first case, the autopilot plays the role of a rocket stabilization system, in the second, it plays the role of an element of the control system.
To stabilize the rocket in the longitudinal, azimuth planes and when moving relative to the longitudinal axis of the rocket (roll), three independent stabilization channels are used: in pitch, heading and roll.
The onboard flight control equipment of the rocket is an integral part of the control system. Its structure is determined by the adopted control system implemented in the anti-aircraft and aircraft missile control complex.
In command telecontrol systems, devices are installed on board the rocket that make up the receiving path of the command radio control link (KRU). They include an antenna and a radio signal receiver for control commands, a command selector, and a demodulator.
The combat equipment of anti-aircraft and aircraft missiles is a combination of a warhead and a fuse.
The warhead has a warhead, a detonator and a body. According to the principle of action, warheads can be fragmentation and high-explosive fragmentation. Some types of missiles can also be equipped with nuclear warheads (for example, in the Nike-Hercules air defense system).
The striking elements of the warhead are both fragments and finished elements placed on the surface of the hull. High-explosive (crushing) explosives (TNT, mixtures of TNT with RDX, etc.) are used as combat charges.
Missile fuses can be non-contact and contact. Proximity fuses, depending on the location of the energy source used to trigger the fuse, are divided into active, semi-active and passive. In addition, proximity fuses are divided into electrostatic, optical, acoustic, radio fuses. In foreign samples of missiles, radio and optical fuses are more often used. In some cases, the optical and radio fuses work simultaneously, which increases the reliability of undermining the warhead in conditions of electronic suppression.
The operation of the radio fuse is based on the principles of radar. Therefore, such a fuse is a miniature radar that generates a detonation signal at a certain position of the target in the fuse antenna beam.
According to the device and principles of operation, radio fuses can be pulsed, Doppler and frequency.
Rice. 8. Structural diagram of a pulsed radio fuse
In a pulse fuse, the transmitter generates high-frequency pulses of short duration, emitted by the antenna in the direction of the target. The antenna beam is coordinated in space with the area of expansion of the fragments of the warhead. When the target is in the beam, the reflected signals are received by the antenna, pass through the receiving device and enter the coincidence cascade, where a strobe pulse is applied. If they coincide, a signal is given to detonate the detonator of the warhead. The duration of the strobe pulses determines the range of possible firing ranges of the fuse.
Doppler fuses often operate in the continuous beam mode. The signals reflected from the target and received by the antenna are fed to the mixer, where the Doppler frequency is extracted.
At given speeds, the Doppler frequency signals pass through the filter and are fed to the amplifier. At a certain amplitude of current fluctuations of this frequency, an undermining signal is generated.
Contact fuses can be electric and percussion. They are used in short-range missiles with high firing accuracy, which ensures the detonation of the warhead in the event of a direct missile hit.
To increase the probability of hitting a target with fragments of the warhead, measures are being taken to coordinate the areas of operation of the fuse and the expansion of fragments. With good coordination, the region of fragmentation, as a rule, coincides in space with the region where the target is located.
Svyatoslav Petrov
Russia celebrated the Day of Military Air Defense on Tuesday. Control over the sky is one of the most urgent tasks for ensuring the security of the country. Air defense units of the Russian Federation are replenished with the latest radar and anti-aircraft systems, some of which have no analogues in the world. As the Ministry of Defense expects, the current pace of rearmament will allow by 2020 to significantly increase the combat capabilities of the units. Due to what Russia has become one of the leaders in the field of air defense, RT understood.
- The calculation of the self-propelled firing system alerts the Buk-M1-2 air defense system
- Kirill Braga / RIA Novosti
On December 26, Russia celebrates Military Air Defense Day. The formation of this type of troops began with the decree of Nicholas II, signed exactly 102 years ago. Then the emperor ordered to send an automobile battery to the front in the Warsaw region, designed to destroy enemy aircraft. The first air defense system in Russia was created on the basis of the chassis of the Russo-Balt T truck, on which a 76-mm Lender-Tarnovsky anti-aircraft gun was installed.
Now the Russian air defense forces are divided into military air defense, whose units are part of the ground forces, airborne forces and navy, as well as object air defense / missile defense, parts of which belong to the aerospace forces.
Military air defense is responsible for covering military infrastructure, groupings of troops at permanent deployment points and during various maneuvers. Objective air defense / missile defense performs strategic tasks related to protecting Russia's borders from air attack and covering some of the most important objects.
The military air defense is armed with medium and short-range complexes, a military expert, director of the air defense museum in Balashikha, Yuri Knutov, said in an interview with RT. At the same time, the site air defense/missile defense systems are provided with systems that allow monitoring airspace and hitting targets at long distances.
“Military air defense should have high mobility and cross-country ability, fast deployment time, enhanced survivability and the ability to work as autonomously as possible. Objective air defense is included in the overall defense control system and can detect and hit the enemy at long distances, ”Knutov said.
According to the expert, the experience of local conflicts of recent decades, including the Syrian operation, demonstrates the urgent need to cover ground forces from air threats. Airspace control is critical in a theater of operations (theatre).
So, in Syria, the Russian military deployed the S-300V4 anti-aircraft missile system (SAM) (military air defense weapon) to protect the naval support point in Tartus, and the S-400 Triumph system (refers to the object air defense / missile defense system) is responsible for the air defense of the Khmeimim airbase. ).
- Self-propelled launcher ZRS S-300V
- Evgeny Biyatov / RIA Novosti
“Who owns the sky wins the battle on earth. Without air defense systems, ground equipment becomes an easy target for aviation. Examples are the military defeats of Saddam Hussein's army in Iraq, the Serbian army in the Balkans, terrorists in Iraq and Syria," Knutov explained.
In his opinion, the lag in the aviation sector from the United States became an incentive for the rapid development of anti-aircraft technology in the USSR. The Soviet government accelerated the development of air defense systems and radar stations (RLS) in order to neutralize the superiority of the Americans.
“We were forced to defend ourselves against threats from the air. However, this historical lag has led to the fact that our country has been creating the best air defense systems in the world for the last 50-60 years, which have no equal, ”the expert emphasized.
far frontier
On December 26, the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation reported that at present the military air defense is at the stage of rearmament. The military department expects that the arrival of the latest air defense systems will allow by 2020 to significantly increase the combat capabilities of the air defense forces. Earlier, plans were announced to increase the share of modern equipment in military air defense to 70% in 2020.
“This year, the anti-aircraft missile brigade of the Western Military District received the Buk-MZ medium-range anti-aircraft missile system, and the anti-aircraft missile regiments of the combined arms formations received the Tor-M2 short-range anti-aircraft missile systems, the air defense units of the combined arms formations received the latest anti-aircraft missile systems.” Willow,” the Ministry of Defense noted.
The main developers of air defense systems in Russia are NPO Almaz-Antey and the Design Bureau of Mechanical Engineering. Air defense systems are divided among themselves according to a number of characteristics, one of the main ones is the range of interception of an air target. There are complexes of long-range, medium and small ranges.
In military air defense, the S-300 air defense system is responsible for the long line of defense. The system was developed in the USSR in the 1980s, but has undergone many upgrades, which improved its combat effectiveness.
The most modern version of the complex is the S-300V4. The air defense system is armed with three types of guided hypersonic two-stage solid-propellant missiles: light (9M83M), medium (9M82M) and heavy (9M82MD).
C-300B4 provides simultaneous destruction of 16 ballistic missiles and 24 aerodynamic targets (aircraft and drones) at ranges up to 400 km (heavy missile), 200 km (medium missile) or 150 km (light missile), at an altitude of up to 40 km. This air defense system is capable of hitting targets whose speed can reach up to 4500 m/s.
The S-300V4 includes launchers (9A83 / 9A843M), radar systems for software (9S19M2 "Ginger") and all-round visibility (9S15M "Obzor-3"). All machines have tracked chassis and therefore are all-terrain vehicles. The S-300V4 is capable of long-term combat duty in the most extreme natural and climatic conditions.
The C-300V4 entered service in 2014. The Western Military District was the first to receive this missile system. The latest anti-aircraft missile systems were used to protect the Olympic facilities in Sochi in 2014, and later the air defense system was deployed to cover Tartus. In the future, the C-300V4 will replace all long-range military systems.
“The S-300V4 is capable of fighting both aircraft and missiles. The main problem of our time in the field of air defense is the fight against hypersonic missiles. S-300V4 air defense missiles, due to the dual homing system and high flight performance, are capable of hitting almost all types of modern ballistic, tactical and cruise missiles, ”said Knutov.
According to the expert, the United States was hunting for S-300 technologies - and at the turn of the 1980-1990s they managed to get several Soviet air defense systems. On the basis of these complexes, the United States developed the THAAD air defense / missile defense system and improved the characteristics of the Patriot air defense system, but the Americans could not completely repeat the success of Soviet specialists.
"Shoot and forget"
In 2016, the Buk-M3 medium-range anti-aircraft missile system entered service with the military air defense. This is the fourth generation of the Buk air defense system created in the 1970s. It is designed to destroy maneuvering aerodynamic, radio-contrast ground and surface targets.
The air defense system provides simultaneous shelling of up to 36 air targets flying from any direction at a speed of up to 3 km / s, at a distance of 2.5 km to 70 km and an altitude of 15 m to 35 km. The launcher can carry both six (9K317M) and 12 (9A316M) missiles in transport and launch containers.
The Buk-M3 is equipped with 9M317M two-stage solid-propellant anti-aircraft guided missiles, which are capable of hitting a target in conditions of active radio suppression by the enemy. To do this, the 9M317M design provides for two homing modes at the end points of the route.
The maximum flight speed of the Buk-M3 rocket is 1700 m/s. This allows it to hit almost all types of operational-tactical ballistic and aeroballistic missiles.
The Buk-M3 divisional set consists of an air defense system command post (9S510M), three detection and target designation stations (9S18M1), an illumination and guidance radar (9S36M), at least two launchers, and also transport-loading vehicles (9T243M). All military medium-range air defense systems are planned to be replaced by Buk-M2 and Buk-M3.
“In this complex, a unique rocket with an active warhead has been implemented. It allows you to implement the "fire and forget" principle, since the missile has the ability to homing on a target, which is especially important in conditions of radio suppression by the enemy. Moreover, the updated Buk complex is capable of tracking and firing at several targets at the same time, which significantly increases its effectiveness, ”said Knutov.
fire on the march
Since 2015, the Tor-M2 short-range air defense systems began to enter the Russian army. There are two versions of this technique - "Tor-M2U" for Russia on caterpillar tracks and export "Tor-M2E" on a wheeled chassis.
The complex is designed to protect motorized rifle and tank formations from air-to-ground missiles, corrected and guided bombs, anti-radar missiles and other new generation high-precision weapons.
"Tor-M2" can hit targets at a distance of 1 km to 15 km, at an altitude of 10 m to 10 km, flying at speeds up to 700 m/s. The capture and tracking of the target in this case occur in automatic mode with the ability to conduct almost continuous fire at several targets in turn. In addition, the unique air defense system has increased noise immunity.
According to Knutov, the Tor-M2 and the Pantsir anti-aircraft gun-missile system are the only vehicles in the world capable of firing on the march. Along with this, Thor has implemented a number of measures to automate and protect the complex from interference, which greatly facilitates the crew's combat mission.
“The machine itself selects the most suitable targets, while people can only give a command to open fire. The complex can partly solve the issues of combating cruise missiles, although it is most effective against enemy attack aircraft, helicopters and drones, ”the RT interlocutor emphasized.
Technology of the future
Yuri Knutov believes that Russian air defense systems will continue to improve, taking into account the latest trends in the development of aviation and missile technology. SAM systems of the future generation will become more versatile, will be able to recognize subtle targets and hit hypersonic missiles.
The expert drew attention to the fact that the role of automation has increased significantly in military air defense. It not only allows you to unload the crew of combat vehicles, but also insures against possible errors. In addition, the Air Defense Forces implement the principle of network-centrism, that is, interspecific interaction in the theater of operations within the framework of a single information field.
“The most effective means of air defense will manifest themselves when a common network of interaction and control appears. This will bring the combat capabilities of vehicles to a completely different level - both in joint operations as part of a joint link, and in the presence of a global intelligence and information space. The efficiency and awareness of the command will increase, as well as the overall coherence of the formations, ”explained Knutov.
Along with this, he noted that air defense systems are often used as an effective weapon against ground targets. In particular, the Shilka anti-aircraft artillery system proved to be excellent in the fight against the armored vehicles of terrorists in Syria. Military air defense units, according to Knutov, may in the future receive a more universal purpose and be used in the protection of strategic facilities.
Anti-aircraft missile system (SAM) - a set of functionally related combat and technical means that ensure the solution of tasks to combat the means of aerospace attack of the enemy.
The composition of the SMC in the general case includes:
- means of transporting anti-aircraft guided missiles (SAM) and loading the launcher with them;
- missile launcher;
- anti-aircraft guided missiles;
- means of reconnaissance of an air enemy;
- ground interrogator of the system for determining the state ownership of an air target;
- missile controls (may be on the missile - when homing);
- means of automatic tracking of an air target (may be located on a missile);
- means of automatic missile tracking (homing missiles are not required);
- means of functional control of equipment;
Classification
By theater of war:
- shipborne
- land
Land air defense systems by mobility:
- stationary
- sedentary
- mobile
According to the way of movement:
- portable
- towed
- self-propelled
By range
- short range
- short range
- medium range
- long range
- ultra-long range (represented by a single sample of CIM-10 Bomarc)
By the method of guidance (see methods and methods of guidance)
- with radio command control of a rocket of the 1st or 2nd kind
- with guided missiles by radio beam
- homing missile
By way of automation
- automatic
- semi-automatic
- non-automatic
By subordination:
- regimental
- divisional
- army
- district
Ways and methods of targeting missiles
Guidance methods
- Telecontrol of the first kind
- Telecontrol of the second kind
- The target tracking station is on board the missile and the coordinates of the target relative to the missile are transmitted to the ground
- A flying missile is accompanied by a missile sighting station
- The necessary maneuver is calculated by the ground computing device
- Control commands are transmitted to the rocket, which are converted by the autopilot into control signals to the rudders
- TV beam guidance
- The target tracking station is on the ground
- A ground-based missile guidance station creates an electromagnetic field in space, with an equi-signal direction corresponding to the direction to the target.
- The calculating device is located on board the missile defense system and generates commands for the autopilot, ensuring the flight of the rocket along the equisignal direction.
- homing
- The target tracking station is on board the SAM
- The calculating device is located on board the missile defense system and generates commands for the autopilot, ensuring the convergence of the missile defense system with the target
Types of homing:
- active - SAM uses an active target location method: it emits probing pulses;
- semi-active - the target is irradiated with a ground-based illumination radar, and the missile system receives an echo signal;
- passive - SAM locates the target by its own radiation (thermal trace, operating airborne radar, etc.) or contrast against the sky (optical, thermal, etc.).
Guidance methods
1. Two-point methods - guidance is carried out on the basis of information about the target (coordinates, velocity and acceleration) in the associated coordinate system (missile coordinate system). They are used for telecontrol of the 2nd kind and homing.
- Proportional rendezvous method - the angular rate of rotation of the rocket's velocity vector is proportional to the angular rate of turn
lines of sight ("missile-target" lines): d ψ d t = k d χ d t (\displaystyle (\frac (d\psi )(dt))=k(\frac (d\chi )(dt))),
Where dψ/dt is the angular velocity of the rocket's velocity vector; ψ - rocket path angle; dχ/dt - angular speed of rotation of the line of sight; χ - azimuth of the line of sight; k - coefficient of proportionality.
The proportional approach method is a general homing method, the rest are its special cases, which are determined by the value of the proportionality coefficient k:
K = 1 - chase method; k = ∞ - parallel approach method;
- Chase method en en - rocket velocity vector is always directed to the target;
- Direct guidance method - the missile's axis is directed to the target (close to the chase method with an accuracy of attack angle α and slip angle β, by which the missile's velocity vector is rotated relative to its axis).
- Parallel approach method - the line of sight on the guidance trajectory remains parallel to itself, and with a straight-line target flight, the missile also flies in a straight line.
2. Three-point methods - guidance is carried out on the basis of information about the target (coordinates, velocities and accelerations) and about the missile aimed at the target (coordinates, velocities and accelerations) in the starting coordinate system, most often associated with a ground control point. They are used for telecontrol of the 1st kind and teleguidance.
- Three-point method (combination method, target covering method) - the missile is on the line of sight of the target;
- The three-point method with the parameter - the missile is on a line leading the line of sight by an angle that depends on the difference between the ranges of the missile and the target.
Story
First experiences
The first attempt to create a controlled remote projectile to destroy air targets was made in the UK by Archibald Low. His "air target" (Aerial Target), so named to mislead German intelligence, was a radio-controlled propeller with a piston engine ABC Gnat. The projectile was intended to destroy zeppelins and heavy German bombers. After two unsuccessful launches in 1917, the program was closed due to little interest in it from the Air Force command.
The world's first anti-aircraft guided missiles brought to the stage of pilot production were the Reintochter, Hs-117 Schmetterling and Wasserfall missiles created since 1943 in the Third Reich (the latter was tested by the beginning of 1945 and is ready to be launched into production production, which never started).
In 1944, faced with the threat of Japanese kamikazes, the US Navy initiated the development of anti-aircraft guided missiles designed to protect ships. Two projects were launched, the long-range anti-aircraft missile Lark and the simpler KAN. None of them had time to take part in the hostilities. Development of the Lark continued until 1950, but although the missile was successfully tested, it was considered morally too obsolete and was never installed on ships.
The first missiles in service
Initially, in post-war developments, considerable attention was paid to German technical experience.
In the United States immediately after the war, there were three de facto independent anti-aircraft missile development programs: the Nike Army program, the US Air Force SAM-A-1 GAPA program, and the Navy's Bumblebee program. American engineers also attempted to create an anti-aircraft missile based on the German Wasserfall as part of the Hermes program, but abandoned this idea at an early stage of development.
The first anti-aircraft missile developed in the US was the MIM-3 Nike Ajax, developed by the US Army. The missile had a certain technical similarity with the S-25, but the Nike-Ajax complex was much simpler than the Soviet counterpart. At the same time, the MIM-3 Nike Ajax was much cheaper than the S-25, and, put into service in 1953, was deployed in huge numbers to cover cities and military bases in the United States. In total, more than 200 MIM-3 Nike Ajax batteries were deployed by 1958.
The third country to deploy its own air defense systems in the 1950s was Great Britain. In 1958, the Royal Air Force of Great Britain adopted the Bristol Bloodhound air defense system, equipped with a ramjet engine and designed to protect air bases. It turned out to be so successful that its improved versions were in service until 1999. The British Army created the English Electric Thunderbird complex, similar in layout, but differing in a number of elements, to cover their bases.
In addition to the USA, the USSR and Great Britain, Switzerland created its own air defense system in the early 1950s. The Oerlikon RSC-51 complex developed by her entered service in 1951 and became the first commercially available air defense system in the world (although its purchases were mainly undertaken for research purposes). The complex never participated in hostilities, but served as the basis for the development of rocket science in Italy and Japan, which purchased it in the 1950s.
At the same time, the first sea-based air defense systems were created. In 1956, the US Navy adopted the RIM-2 Terrier medium-range air defense system, designed to protect ships from cruise missiles and torpedo bombers.
SAM second generation
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the development of jet military aviation and cruise missiles led to the widespread development of air defense systems. The appearance of aircraft moving faster than the speed of sound finally pushed heavy cannon anti-aircraft artillery into the background. In turn, the miniaturization of nuclear warheads made it possible to equip anti-aircraft missiles with them. The radius of destruction of a nuclear charge effectively compensated for any conceivable error in missile guidance, making it possible to hit and destroy an enemy aircraft even with a strong miss.
In 1958, the United States adopted the world's first long-range air defense system, the MIM-14 Nike-Hercules. Being a development of the MIM-3 Nike Ajax, the complex had a much longer range (up to 140 km) and could be equipped with a nuclear charge W31 with a capacity of 2-40 kt. Massively deployed on the basis of the infrastructure created for the previous Ajax complex, the MIM-14 Nike-Hercules complex remained the most effective air defense system in the world until 1967 [ ] .
At the same time, the US Air Force developed its own, the only ultra-long-range anti-aircraft missile system CIM-10 Bomarc. The missile was a de facto unmanned fighter-interceptor with a ramjet engine and active homing. To the target, it was displayed using the signals of a system of ground-based radars and radio beacons. The effective radius of the "Bomark" was, depending on the modification, 450-800 km, which made it the most long-range anti-aircraft system ever created. "Bomark" was intended to effectively cover the territories of Canada and the United States from manned bombers and cruise missiles, but due to the rapid development of ballistic missiles, it quickly lost its significance.
The Soviet Union in 1957 adopted its first mass-produced S-75 anti-aircraft missile system, roughly similar in performance to the MIM-3 Nike Ajax, but more mobile and adapted for forward deployment. The S-75 system was produced in large quantities, becoming the basis of air defense both on the territory of the country and the troops of the USSR. The complex was most widely exported in the history of the air defense system, becoming the basis of air defense systems in more than 40 countries, and was successfully used in military operations in Vietnam.
The large dimensions of Soviet nuclear warheads prevented them from arming anti-aircraft missiles. The first Soviet long-range air defense system S-200, which had a range of up to 240 km and was capable of carrying a nuclear charge, appeared only in 1967. During the 1970s, the S-200 air defense system was the most long-range and effective air defense system in the world [ ] .
By the early 1960s, it became clear that the existing air defense systems had a number of tactical shortcomings: low mobility and inability to hit targets at low altitudes. The advent of supersonic battlefield aircraft like the Su-7 and the Republic F-105Thunderchief made conventional anti-aircraft artillery an insufficiently effective means of defense.
In 1959-1962, the first anti-aircraft missile systems were created, designed to provide advanced cover for troops and combat low-flying targets: the American MIM-23 Hawk of 1959, and the Soviet S-125 of 1961.
Air defense systems of the navy also actively developed. In 1958, the US Navy first adopted the RIM-8 Talos long-range naval air defense system. The missile with a range of 90 to 150 km was intended to withstand massive raids by naval missile-carrying aircraft and could carry a nuclear charge. Due to the extreme cost and huge dimensions of the complex, it was deployed to a relatively limited extent, mainly on rebuilt cruisers from the Second World War (the only carrier specially built for the Talos was the nuclear-powered missile cruiser USS Long Beach).
The main air defense system of the US Navy remained the actively modernized RIM-2 Terrier, the capabilities and range of which were greatly increased, including the creation of modifications of missiles with nuclear warheads. In 1958, the RIM-24 Tartar short-range air defense system was also developed, designed to arm small ships.
The program for the development of air defense systems to protect Soviet ships from aviation was launched in 1955, short-range, medium, long-range air defense systems and air defense systems for the direct protection of the ship were proposed for development. The first Soviet Navy anti-aircraft missile system created under this program was the M-1 Volna short-range air defense system, which appeared in 1962. The complex was a naval version of the S-125 air defense system, using the same missiles.
The attempt of the USSR to develop a more long-range marine complex M-2 "Volkhov" based on the S-75 was unsuccessful - despite the effectiveness of the B-753 missile itself, the limitations caused by the significant dimensions of the original missile, the use of a liquid engine on the sustainer stage of the missile defense system and the low fire performance of the complex , led to a halt in the development of this project.
In the early 1960s, the UK also created its own naval air defense systems. Adopted in 1961, the Sea Slug turned out to be insufficiently effective, and by the end of the 1960s, the British Navy developed to replace it with a much more advanced Sea Dart air defense system capable of hitting aircraft at a distance of up to 75-150 km. At the same time, the world's first short-range self-defense system Sea Cat was created in the UK, which was actively exported due to its highest reliability and relatively small dimensions [ ] .
The era of solid fuel
The development of high-energy mixed solid rocket fuel technologies in the late 1960s made it possible to abandon the use of difficult-to-operate liquid fuel on anti-aircraft missiles and create efficient and long-range solid-propellant anti-aircraft missiles. Given the absence of the need for pre-launch refueling, such missiles could be stored completely ready for launch and effectively used against the enemy, providing the necessary fire performance. The development of electronics made it possible to improve missile guidance systems and use new homing heads and proximity fuses to significantly increase the accuracy of missiles.
The development of a new generation of anti-aircraft missile systems began almost simultaneously in the United States and the USSR. A large number of technical problems that had to be solved led to the development programs being significantly delayed, and only in the late 1970s did new air defense systems enter service.
The first ground-based air defense system that fully meets the requirements of the third generation was the Soviet C-300 anti-aircraft missile system, developed and put into service in 1978. Developing the line of Soviet anti-aircraft missiles, the complex for the first time in the USSR used solid fuel for long-range missiles and a mortar launch from a transport and launch container, in which the missile was constantly stored in a sealed inert atmosphere (nitrogen), completely ready for launch. The absence of the need for lengthy pre-launch preparations significantly reduced the response time of the complex to an air threat. Also, due to this, the mobility of the complex has significantly increased, its vulnerability to enemy influence has decreased.
A similar complex in the USA - MIM-104 Patriot, began to be developed back in the 1960s, but due to the lack of clear requirements for the complex and their regular changes, its development was extremely delayed and the complex was put into service only in 1981. It was assumed that the new air defense system would have to replace the obsolete MIM-14 Nike-Hercules and MIM-23 Hawk systems as an effective means of hitting targets both at high and low altitudes. When developing the complex, from the very beginning it was planned to use both against aerodynamic and ballistic targets, that is, it was supposed to be used not only for air defense, but also for theater missile defense.
Significant development (especially in the USSR) was received by air defense systems for the direct protection of troops. The widespread development of attack helicopters and guided tactical weapons led to the need to saturate the troops with anti-aircraft systems at the regimental and battalion level. In the period of the 1960s - 1980s, a variety of mobile military air defense systems were adopted, such as the Soviet, 2K11 Krug, 2K12 Kub, 9K33 Osa, American MIM-72 Chaparral, British Rapier.
At the same time, the first portable anti-aircraft missile systems (MANPADS) appeared.
Marine air defense systems also developed. Technically, the first new generation air defense system in the world was the modernization of American naval air defense systems developed in the 1960s and put into service in 1967 in terms of using Standard-1 missiles. The missiles of this family were intended to replace the entire previous line of missiles of the US naval air defense systems, the so-called "three T": Talos, Terrier and Tartar - new, highly versatile missiles using existing launchers, storage facilities and combat control systems. However, the development of systems for storing and launching missiles from TPK for missiles of the “Standard” family was postponed for a number of reasons and was completed only in the late 1980s with the advent of the Mk 41 launcher. The development of universal installations for vertical launch made it possible to significantly increase the rate of fire and the capabilities of the system.
In the USSR, in the early 1980s, the S-300F Fort anti-aircraft missile system was adopted by the Navy - the world's first long-range naval complex based on missiles in TPK, and not on beam installations. The complex was a naval version of the S-300 ground complex, and was distinguished by very high efficiency, good noise immunity and the presence of multi-channel guidance, which allows one radar to direct several missiles at several targets at once. However, due to a number of design solutions: rotating revolving launchers, a heavy multi-channel targeting radar, the complex turned out to be very heavy and bulky and suitable for placement only on large ships.
In general, in the 1970-1980s, the development of air defense systems followed the path of improving the logistical characteristics of missiles by switching to solid fuel, storage in TPK and the use of vertical launch installations, as well as increasing the reliability and noise immunity of equipment through the use of microelectronics and unification achievements.
Modern air defense systems
The modern development of air defense systems, starting from the 1990s, is mainly aimed at increasing the capabilities of hitting highly maneuverable, low-flying and low-profile targets (made using stealth technology). Most modern air defense systems are also designed with at least limited capabilities to destroy short-range missiles.
Thus, the development of the American Patriot air defense system in new modifications, starting with the PAC-1 (eng. Patriot Advanced Capabilites), was mainly reoriented to hit ballistic rather than aerodynamic targets. Assuming the possibility of achieving air superiority at fairly early stages of the conflict as an axiom of a military campaign, the United States and a number of other countries consider not manned aircraft, but enemy cruise and ballistic missiles, as the main opponent for air defense systems.
In the USSR and later in Russia, the development of the S-300 line of anti-aircraft missiles continued. A number of new complexes were developed, including the S-400 air defense system adopted in 2007. During their creation, the main attention was paid to increasing the number of simultaneously tracked and fired targets, improving the ability to hit low-flying and inconspicuous targets. The military doctrine of the Russian Federation and a number of other states is distinguished by a more comprehensive approach to long-range air defense systems, considering them not as the development of anti-aircraft artillery, but as an independent part of the military machine, which, together with aviation, ensures the gain and retention of air supremacy. Missile defense against ballistic missiles has received somewhat less attention, but recently the situation has changed. The S-500 is currently being developed.
Naval complexes have received special development, among which the Aegis weapon system with the Standard missile defense system occupies one of the first places. Emergence of the Mk 41 missile launcher with a very high rate of missile launch and a high degree of versatility due to the possibility of placing a wide range of guided weapons in each cell of the missile launcher (including all types of Standard missiles adapted for vertical launch, short-range missiles "C Sparrow" and its further development - ESSM, RUR-5 ASROC anti-submarine missiles and Tomahawk cruise missiles) contributed to the widespread use of the complex. At the moment, Standard missiles are in service with the fleets of seventeen states. The high dynamic characteristics and versatility of the complex contributed to the development of anti-missiles and anti-satellite weapons SM-3 on its basis.
see also
- List of anti-aircraft missile systems and anti-aircraft missiles
Notes
Literature
- Lenov N., Viktorov V. Anti-aircraft missile systems of the air forces of NATO countries (Russian) // Foreign military review. - M .: "Red Star", 1975. - No. 2. - pp. 61-66. - ISSN 0134-921X.
- Demidov V., Kutiev N. Improving ZURO systems in capitalist countries (Russian) // Foreign Military Review. - M .: "Red Star", 1975. - No. 5. - S. 52-57. - ISSN 0134-921X.
- Dubinkin E., Pryadilov S. Development and production of anti-aircraft weapons of the US Army (Russian) // Foreign military review. - M .: "Red Star", 1983. - No. 3. - S. 30-34. -
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