Biology test to test the knowledge of students in grades 9-11 on the topic:
"EVOLUTION OF THE LIVING WORLD" (option 2)
Choose 1 correct answer:
A 1. The formation of new species in nature occurs as a result of
1) artificial selection
2) interactions driving forces evolution
3) methodical selection
4) self-regulation mechanism
A 2. Paleontological evidence includes
1) the birth of people with thick hairline on the body
2) the similarity of animal embryos in the early stages of development
3) the remainder of the third century in humans
4) fossilized remains of mollusks
A 3. Biological progress is characteristic of
1) snow leopard
2) Indian rhinoceros
3) gray rat
4) polar bear
A 4. Paleontological evidence of evolution includes
1) the existence of transitional forms
2) the similarity of vertebrate embryos
3) rudiments
4) atavisms
1) idioadaptation
2)degeneration
3) aromorphosis
4)biological regression
A 6. Embryological evidence of evolution includes
1) the presence of phylogenetic series
2) the presence of transitional forms
3) rudiments and atavisms
4) biogenetic law
A 7. Hereditary variability has importance for evolution, as it contributes
1) lowering the level of the struggle for existence
2) decrease in efficiency natural selection
3) an increase in the genetic heterogeneity of individuals in a population
4) reducing the genetic heterogeneity of individuals in the population
A 8. The exchange of genes between populations of the same species may stop due to
1) isolation of populations
2) intraspecific control
3) changes climatic conditions
4) the struggle for existence between populations
A 9. Natural selection is
1) the process of population decline
2) the process of preserving individuals with useful hereditary
changes
3) the totality of relationships between organisms and inanimate nature
4) the process of formation of new species in nature
A 10. The result of evolution is
1) the struggle for existence
2) fitness of organisms
4) aromorphosis
A11. Divergence is
1) divergence of characters in related species
2) similarity of characters in unrelated species
3) the formation of homologous organs
4) acquisition of a narrow specialization
A12. The significance of mutations in the evolutionary process lies in
1) decrease in heredity
2) adaptation to environment
3) increase in variability
4)reducing variability
1) Lamarck
2) Darwin
3) Linnaeus
4) Wallace
A14. An example of idioadaptation is
1) the occurrence of photosynthesis
2) the emergence of multicellularity
3) the appearance of a protective color in fish
4) the appearance of the sexual process
A15. The guiding factor of the evolutionary process is
1) genetic drift
2) population fluctuation
3) natural selection
4) mutation process
A16. The variety of species of living organisms is the result of
1) active mutation process
2) evolution
3) interspecific struggle
4) combinative variability
A17. Human races were formed as a result of
1)Geographic isolation
2) genetic isolation
3) differences in the rate of evolution various groups of people
4) differences in social organization different groups of people
A 18. An example of idioadaptation is
1) reduction of the organs of vision in a mole
2) the occurrence of photosynthesis in bacteria
3) a variety of forms of limbs of vertebrates
4) sedentary lifestyle of many coelenterates
A19. An example of idioadaptation is
1) lengthening of the crane's legs
2) the emergence of jointed limbs in insects
3) the occurrence of photosynthesis
A20. The role of mutations in the evolutionary process is
1) increase in variability
2) adaptation to the environment
3) improvement of the body
4) experience is not favorable conditions environments
A21.B natural conditions individuals of different populations of the same species
1) never interbreed
2) interbreed much less frequently than individuals of the same population of a given
kind
3) interbreed as often as individuals of the same population of a given species
4) when crossing, they do not give fertile offspring
A22. Fitness helps an organism survive only in those conditions of existence in which it was formed, therefore the fitness of organisms is called
1) incomplete
2)partial
3)temporary
4)relative
A23. In the process of evolution from lobe-finned fish happened
1) amphibians
2) reptiles
3) trilobites
4) cartilaginous fish
A24. Aromorphosis, which contributed to the emergence of vertebrates on land, was the appearance
1) multicellularity
2) two-chambered heart
3) pulmonary respiration
4) warm-bloodedness
A25. The driving factor of evolution is
1) mutation process
2) genetic drift
3) natural selection
4) isolation of populations
A26. Microevolution is
1) evolutionary processes occurring in populations, leading to
The emergence of new species
2) minor evolutionary changes that do not lead to
speciation
3) the evolution of communities of organisms
4) the evolution of microorganisms
A27. The increase in the gray rat population is an example
1) aromorphosis
2) idioadaptation
3)biological progress
4)biological regression
A28. A directed change in the gene pool of a population is the result of
1) mutational variability
2) modification variability
3) natural selection
4) fluctuations in the number of individuals
A29. Fitness is the result
2) mutational variability
3) combinative variability
4) the actions of natural selection
A30. In the process of evolution of vertebrates, the transition to exclusively terrestrial development occurred in
1) amphibians
2) reptiles
3) cross-finned fish
4) cartilaginous fish
A31. The reaction norm is the limits
1) mutational variability
3) modification variability
4) the body's resistance to adverse factors external environment
A32. The exchange of genes between populations may stop as a result of
1) intraspecific struggle
2) changes in climatic conditions
3) increase in the number of populations
4) isolation of populations
A33. The most intense form of the struggle for existence is the struggle
1) with adverse environmental conditions
3) interspecific
4) intraspecific
A34. The vestige in man is
1) the appearance of the tail
2) the presence of ear muscles
3) the presence of bilateral symmetry
4) the presence of fingers on the limbs
A35. In the process of evolution organic world
1) fish evolved from amphibians
2) amphibians evolved from fish
3) reptiles evolved from fish
4) mammals evolved from birds
A36. Reduction in numbers and range Ussuri tiger is an example
1) biological progress
2)degeneration
3)biological regression
4) aromorphosis
A37. In the process of plant evolution, the emergence of differentiated tissues is associated with
1) the occurrence of photosynthesis
2) the emergence of multicellularity
3) the release of plants on land
4) the transition to seed reproduction
A38. The result of microevolution is
1) geographic isolation
2) reproductive isolation
3) hereditary variability
4) modification variability
A39. Degeneration
1) always leads to the extinction of the species
2) never leads to biological progress
3) can lead to biological progress
4) leads to complication common organization
A40. Modification variability, in contrast to mutational
1) occurs randomly
2) inherited
3) leads to the death of an individual
4) is a manifestation of the norm of the reaction of the trait
1) heredity
2) variability
3) mutation
4) natural selection
A42. The evolutionary processes that occur in populations leading to the emergence of new species are called
1) microevolution
2) macroevolution
3) interspecific struggle
4) intraspecific struggle
A43. In the process of plant evolution, the emergence of the stem and leaves occurred in
1) mosses
2) ferns, horsetails, club mosses
4) angiosperms
A44. Loss of sight in animals living underground is an example
1) aromorphosis
2) idioadaptation
3)degeneration
4)biological regression
A45. The material for natural selection is
1) hereditary variability
2) modification variability
3) adaptation of populations to the environment
4) variety of species
A46. Fitness is the result
1) modification variability
2) natural selection
3) an increase in the number of homozygotes in the population
4) inbreeding
A47. The evolutionary path associated with the fundamental complication of the organization is called
1) aromorphosis
2) idioadaptation
3) degeneration
4) biological regression
Answers to the test questions:
Question
answer
Question
answer
Question
answer
Question
answer
Question
answer
1
2
11
1
21
2
31
3
41
4
2
4
12
3
22
4
32
4
42
1
3
3
13
1
23
1
33
4
43
1
4
1
14
3
24
3
34
2
44
3
5
2
15
3
25
1
35
2
45
1
6
4
16
2
26
1
36
3
46
2
7
3
17
1
27
3
37
3
47
1
8
1
18
3
28
3
38
2
9
2
19
1
29
4
39
3
10
2
20
1
30
2
40
4
J.-B. Lamarck was of the opinion that different directions The evolutionary process is controlled by different factors.
C. Darwin He argued that behind all evolutionary events - the formation of adaptations, speciation, the progress of life forms, the extinction of species, there is one force - natural selection.
Due to the action of natural selection, individuals survive in each generation with at least slightly more perfect adaptations to the environment than their rivals in the struggle for life.
In this way, according to Ch. Darwin, various adaptation always captivate the human imagination.
C. Darwin was convinced that most acute the intraspecific struggle for existence differs: representatives of the same species are most similar to each other in their preferred humidity and illumination, nesting sites, food, etc. Severe intraspecific competition leads to the fact that the advantage is given to extreme variants - individuals that deviate in their characteristics from the original form in various directions. "How more variety in structure, general stock and habits the descendants of some species acquire, the easier they will be able to take over numerous and more diverse places in the economy of nature, and therefore, the easier they will increase in number. "Based on these considerations, we can conclude that evolution is dominated by divergence - the divergence of characters. Based on the existing variability, varieties will first arise. As differences accumulate, varieties will turn into species, species into genera, etc. up to classes.
Ch. Darwin believed that as a result of natural selection, “every being reveals a tendency to become more and more perfect in relation to the conditions surrounding it. This improvement inevitably leads to a gradual increase in organization ...” Why then did higher organisms not supplant the lower ones during the evolution of the organic world? lower forms life, the scientist believed, were better adapted to very simple living conditions, where a high organization, due to its fragility, would be more likely to be disordered and corrupted.
In this way, as a result of a long evolutionary process, all organisms are constantly developing and improving their adaptations to environmental conditions.
Fitness- one of the results of evolution, the interaction of its driving forces - heredity, variability, natural selection.
The second result of evolution is diversity of the organic world. The organisms preserved in the process of struggle for existence and natural selection make up the entire organic world that exists today. Mutation processes occurring in a number of generations lead to the emergence of new genetic combinations that are subject to the action of natural selection. It is natural selection that determines the nature of new adaptations, as well as the direction of the evolutionary process. As a result, organisms have a variety of adaptations to life. Any adaptation arises as a result of a long-term selection of random, phenotypically manifested mutations that are beneficial to the species.
Protective coloration. Provides plants and animals with protection from enemies. Organisms with this coloration merge with the background and become less noticeable.
Disguise. An adaptation in which the shape of the body and color of animals merges with surrounding objects. Praying mantises, butterfly caterpillars resemble knots, butterflies look like plant leaves, etc.
Mimicry. Imitation of unprotected species of protected species in shape and color. Some flies look like wasps, snakes look like vipers, and so on.
Warning paint. In many animals, bright colors or certain identification marks warn of danger to a predator. A predator that attacked once remembers the color of the victim and will be more careful next time.
The relative nature of fixtures. All adaptations are developed in certain environmental conditions. It is under these conditions that the devices are most effective. However, it should be borne in mind that fitness is not absolute. Animals with both protective and warning coloration are eaten, and those who are disguised are attacked. Good flying birds are poor runners and can be caught on the ground; when environmental conditions change, the developed adaptation may turn out to be useless or harmful.
Evidence for evolution:
1. Comparative anatomical proof of
based on the identification of common and different morphological and anatomical features structures of various groups of organisms.
To anatomical evidence evolutions include:
– the presence of homologous organs having overall plan structures developing from similar germ layers in embryogenesis, but adapted to perform different functions (hand - flippers - bird's wing). Differences in the structure and functions of organs arise as a result of divergence;
– Availability similar bodies having various origins in embryogenesis, different structure, but performing similar functions (bird wing and butterfly wing). The similarity of functions results from convergence;
- the presence of rudiments and atavisms;
- the existence of transitional forms.
Rudiments - organs that have lost their functional value(coccyx, ear muscles in humans).
atavisms - cases of manifestation of signs of distant ancestors (tail and hairy body in humans, remnants of the 2nd and 3rd toes in a horse).
Transitional forms - indicate phylogenetic continuity in the transition from ancestral forms to modern ones, and from class to class.
2. Embryological proof of.
Embryology studies patterns embryonic development and installs:
- phylogenetic relationship of organisms;
- regularities of phylogenesis.
The data obtained were reflected in the laws of germinal similarity of K.M. Baer and in the biogenetic law of E. Haeckel and F. Müller.
Baer's Lawestablishes the similarity of the early stages of development of embryos of representatives of different classes within the type. At later stages of embryonic development, this similarity is lost, and the most specialized characters of the taxon develop, up to the individual characters of the individual.
Müller-Haeckel biogenetic law states that ontogeny is a brief repetition of phylogeny. In the process of evolution, ontogeny can be rearranged, which leads to the evolution of the organs of an adult organism.
In ontogenesis, only the embryonic stages of the ancestors are repeated and not always completely. If at an early stage the organism is adapted to environmental conditions, then it can reach sexual maturity without going through subsequent stages, as, for example, occurs in axolotls - larvae of the tiger ambistoma.
3. Paleontological proof of
- allow you to date the events of ancient history according to the fossil remains of organisms. Paleontological evidence includes the phylogenetic series of horses, proboscis, and humans built by paleontologists.
The unity of the organic world is manifested in chemical composition, the finest structure and basic life processes occurring in organisms.
Thematic tasks
A1. Give an example of protective coloration
1) coloring ladybug protect it from birds
2) zebra coloring
3) coloring of the osovki
4) coloring of a hazel grouse sitting on a nest
A2. Przewalski's horse adapted to life in the steppes Central Asia but not adapted to life in
1) the prairies of South America
2) Brazilian jungle
3) semi-deserts
4) Askania-Nova Reserve
A3. The resistance of some cockroaches to poisons is a consequence
1) driving selection
2) stabilizing selection
3) simultaneous mutation
4) imperfections of poisons
A4. New adaptations to environmental conditions are formed depending on
1) the desire of organisms for progress
2) favorable environment
4) reaction norms of organisms
A5. An adaptation to pollination by nocturnal insects in small solitary plants is
1) white color of the corolla
2) dimensions
3) location of stamens and pistils
A6. The homologue of the human hand is
1) bird wing
2) butterfly wing
3) grasshopper leg
4) crayfish claw
A7. The analogue of a butterfly wing is
1) jellyfish tentacles
2) bird wing
3) human hand
4) fish fin
A8. The appendix is a vermiform appendix of the caecum, called a rudiment because it
1) confirms the origin of man from animals
2) has lost its original function
3) is a homologue of the primate colon
4) is an analogue of the intestines of arthropods
A9. What are the causes of the diversity of the organic world?
1) adaptability to environmental conditions
2) selection and preservation of hereditary changes
3) struggle for existence
4) duration of evolutionary processes
A10. Embryological evidence for evolution includes the similarity
1) the plan of the structure of organisms
2) anatomical structure
3) chordate embryos
4) the development of all organisms from the zygote
A11. Phylogenetic series of some refer to evidence for evolution
1) anatomical
2) paleontological
3) historical
4) embryological
A12. An intermediate form between vertebrates and invertebrates is considered to be a representative
1) cartilaginous fish
2) arthropods
3) non-cranial
4) shellfish
IN 1. The anatomical evidence for evolution is
1) similarity of embryos
2) the similarity of the functions of some organs
3) the presence of a tail in some people
4) common origin of organs
5) fossils of plants and animals
6) the presence of ear muscles in humans and dogs
IN 2. Paleontological data and evidence for evolution include
1) the similarity of trilobites and modern arthropods
2) placentality of ancient and modern mammals
3) the existence of seed ferns and their fossils
4) comparison of the forms of the skeletons of ancient and modern people
5) the presence of multiple nipples in some people
6) three-layer structure of the body of ancient and modern animals
Test. Grade 11
prepared by the teacher of chemistry and biology Vasilchenko S.V.
Control work on the topic "Evolution"
Option I
1 . A group of individuals of a given species is considered a population based on the fact that they
1) can freely interbreed and produce fertile offspring
2) for several generations exist relatively apart from other groups of this species
3) phenotypically and physiologically similar
4) are genetically close.
2. What adaptations to the transfer of adverse conditions have been formed in the process of evolution in amphibians living in a temperate climate?
1) food storage
2) numbness
3) moving to warm areas
4) color change.
3. Which of the following indicators does not characterize biological progress?
1) ecological diversity
2) care for offspring
3) wide range
4) high numbers.
4. Morphological criterion species is
1) a similar set of chromosomes and genes
2) features of life processes
3) features of the external and internal structure
4) a certain distribution area.
5. An example of an intraspecific struggle for existence -
1) rivalry between males over females
2) "drought-fighting" desert plants
3) the battle of the predator with the prey
4) eating fruits and seeds by birds
6 . Hereditary variability is important for evolution, as it contributes to:
1) lowering the level of struggle for existence
2) decrease in the efficiency of natural selection
3) an increase in the genetic heterogeneity of individuals in a population
4) a decrease in the genetic heterogeneity of individuals in a population
7. The exchange of genes between populations of the same species may stop due to
1) isolation of populations
2) intraspecific struggle
3) changes in climatic conditions
4) struggle for existence between populations.
8. Natural selection is
1) the process of population decline
2) the process of preserving individuals with beneficial hereditary changes
3) the totality of relationships between organisms and inanimate nature
4) the process of formation of new species in nature.
9. The result of evolution is
1) struggle for existence
2) fitness of organisms
3) hereditary variability
4) aromorphosis.
10. Divergence is
1) divergence of characters in related species
2) convergence of characters in unrelated species
3) the formation of homologous organs
4) the acquisition of a narrow specialization.
Part 2.
- 1. Choose three correct answers from the six given.
The result of evolution is
- Increasing the organization of living beings
- the emergence of new frost-resistant varieties of fruit plants
- the emergence of new species in changing environmental conditions
- development of new high-yielding varieties of wheat
- breeding of highly productive breeds of cattle
- the formation of new adaptations to life in changed conditions.
- 2. Establish a correspondence between the cause of speciation and its method.
REASON WAY
SPECIFIC FORMATIONS
A) expansion of the range of the original species 1) geographical
B) stability of the range of the original species 2) ecological
C) division of the species range by natural barriers
D) division of the species range by artificial barriers
E) diversity of habitats within a stable range.
3. Establish the sequence of action of the driving forces of evolution in a plant population, starting with the mutation process.
A) struggle for existence
B) reproduction of individuals with beneficial changes
C) the appearance in the population of various hereditary changes
D) preferential preservation of individuals with hereditary changes that are useful in given environmental conditions
D) fixing adaptability to the environment.
Part 3
- 1. What is the adaptation of birds to adverse conditions winters in middle lane Russia?
- 2. Find errors in the given text. Indicate the numbers of the proposals in which they are made, correct them.
1. A population is a collection of freely interbreeding individuals different types, long time inhabiting common territory. 2. The main group characteristics of the population are the number, density, age, sex and spatial structure. 3. The totality of all the genes of a population is called its gene pool. 4. Each species, as a rule, consists of one population. 5. Population size is always stable.
Test work on the topic "Evolution" Grade 11
II option
Part 1. Choose one correct answer from the four suggested.
1. In intraspecific competition, the winners are:
1) individuals with certain phenotypes and genotypes
2) families and genera
4) biogeocenoses
2 . Please tell me incorrect statement.
Idioadaptations lead to
1) an increase in the number of species
2) the resettlement of individuals in new territories
3) the general rise of the organization
4) the emergence of adaptations to the environment
3. The synthetic theory of evolution considers the minimum evolutionary unit to be:
3) population
4) variety
1) bird feathers
2) the painted muzzle of a male baboon
3) the big beak of a pelican
4) long neck giraffe
5. Complicated Relationships between individuals of the same species, different species and inanimate nature is called:
1) natural selection
2) artificial selection
3) speciation
4) struggle for existence
6. The area occupied by a species in nature is a criterion
1) morphological
2) physiological
3) biochemical
4) geographical
7. homologous organs are butterfly wings and wings
1) bat
3) flying fish
4) sparrow
8. Fitness bats to catching insects with the help of ultrasounds emitted by them - this is the result
1) actions of the driving forces of evolution
2) manifestations of the laws of heredity
3) manifestations of modification variability
4) methodical selection
9. Beneficial mutations spread through the population through
1) movement of individuals
2) free crossing
3) physiological isolation
4) environmental isolation
10 . Expansion of the range of a hare - a hare - an example
1) degeneration
2) aromorphosis
3) biological progress
4) biological regression
Part 2.
1. Choose three correct answers from six.
Which of listed examples classified as idioadaptations?
1) the presence of a wax coating on cranberry leaves
2) bright juicy pulp in blueberries
3) the presence of mammary glands in mammals
4) the appearance of a complete septum in the heart in birds
5) flattened body shape in stingrays
6) double fertilization in angiosperms
2 .Make a correspondence between biological phenomenon and its significance in the evolutionary process.
BIOLOGICAL PHENOMENON SIGNIFICANCE
A) natural selection 1) factor
B) adaptation of organisms to the environment 2) result
C) the formation of new species
D) combinative variability
E) conservation of species in stable conditions
E) struggle for existence
3. Set the sequence of evolutionary processes and phenomena in the course of speciation.
A) struggle for existence
B) natural selection
C) the contradiction between unlimited reproduction and limited life resources
D) occurrence various ways adaptation to environmental conditions
D) the formation of new species.
Part 3
- 1. What aromorphoses allowed birds to spread widely in terrestrial - air environment a habitat? List at least three examples.
- 2. The house mouse is a mammal of the genus Mice. original area - North Africa, tropics and subtropics of Eurasia; followed by man spread everywhere. AT vivo feeds on seeds. Leads a nocturnal and twilight lifestyle. Usually 5 to 7 babies are born in a litter. What type criteria are described in the text? Explain the answer.
Option I
Part 1.
Part 2.
- 1, 3, 6
- 1 2 1 1 2
- VAGBD
Part 3
1. Answer options:
1. molting, development of a dense feather cover;
2. storage of fat;
3. storage and change of feed;
4. wanderings and flights.
2. Mistakes were made in sentences 1, 4, 5.
1 - the population is a collection of freely interbreeding individuals of the same species, inhabiting a common territory for a long time;
2 – species consist of a different number of populations;
3 - the number of populations can change in different seasons and years.
II Option
Part 1.
- 1, 2, 5
- 2. 1 2 2 1 2 1
- 3. C A B D E
- Response elements
- structural features associated with flight: hollow bones, the transformation of the forelimbs into wings;
- 2. features that provide high level metabolism and warm-bloodedness: 4-chambered heart, special structure respiratory organs (lungs and air sacs);
- 3. development of the central nervous system, complex behavior.
- Response elements:
- geographical criterion - range;
- 2) environmental criterion - nutritional features, changes in activity during the day;
- 3) physiological criterion - the number of cubs in the litter.
Depending on the level of evolutionary changes, three types of evolutionary processes are distinguished: microevolution, speciation and macroevolution. These processes have the following features in common: a) the driving factor of evolutionary changes is natural selection; 6) the material for evolutionary changes is mutations" c) all evolutionary changes begin in populations; d) the result of evolutionary processes is emergence of new systematic groups.
Comparative characteristics of microevolution, speciation and macroevolution
microevolution - the evolutionary process that occurs within a species, within a population on the basis of natural selection and ends with the formation of the fitness of organisms and the formation of new populations and subspecies. According to the synthetic theory of evolution, natural selection directs various elementary changes in phenotypes resulting from mutations towards the formation of adaptations of organisms to changes in environmental conditions. The evolution of populations, subspecies and species is carried out through the evolution of their adaptations.
adaptations or adaptations- adaptation in the process of evolution of the structure, functions, behavior of organisms to certain conditions of existence. They appear in the form preadaptations based on neutral mutations or modifications. Adaptation is the result natural selection in specific conditions of existence. New adaptations do not appear immediately in finished form, but are formed for a long time in the process of evolution. After passing the pre-adaptive limits, selection ensures the improvement of the new adaptation. Any combination of adaptation helps organisms to survive only under the conditions in which it was formed under the influence of evolutionary factors. But even then it is relative. Evidence relative nature fitness can be the following facts:
■ protective devices from some enemies are ineffective from others (for example, poisonous snakes eat mongoose)
■ the manifestation of instincts in animals may not be appropriate (for example, moths on fire)
■ useful in some conditions the body becomes useless and even harmful in another environment (eg, webbed paws in mountain geese).
Microevolution ensures the formation of the most adaptations, which can be divided into:
morphological adaptations - set of devices in external structure and body shape:
■ mimicry - similarity between unprotected and protected species (butterflies and wasps, fly and bumblebees, nettles and stinging nettles), the term was first introduced in zoology by G. Bates to refer to cases of extreme external similarity between different animal species;
■ disguise - resemblance to objects of the environment (Kalima butterfly to leaves, seahorse to algae, stick insects and caterpillar of birch moth in twigs, etc.);
■ protective coloration helps to hide in the environment (white color in hare, polar partridge, green - in grasshoppers, color change - in flounder, chameleons)
■ warning coloration indicates the danger of the species (sun, Carpathian salamander)
■ menacing coloration - to scare away enemies (octopus).
■ eye-catching coloring provides a meeting of individuals of different sexes or gathering in flocks;
physiological adaptations is a set of physiological reactions(change in blood circulation with changes in temperature, fat deposits)
ethological adaptations is a set of behavioral responses(threatening postures of various snakes).
View and speciation
View- a set of individuals characterized by a hereditary similarity of traits, freely interbreed and give fertile offspring, adapted to certain living conditions and occupy a certain territory in nature - an area. species independence certain group individuals are established according to various criteria of the species.
1. Morphological - similarity of individuals in structure. It is not absolute, since there are twin species, morphologically unidentified, individuals of the species may differ (sexual dimorphism, larvae and adults, etc.).
2. Genetic - this is a set of chromosomes characteristic of each species in terms of number, shape and size. It is not absolute, since there are twin species that differ in the number of chromosomes (two species of black rats: one has 38 chromosomes, the second has 48, there would be twin species in malarial mosquitoes) the number and morphology of chromosomes can change in individuals of the species as a result of mutations.
3. Physiological - these are similarities and differences in the processes of life of individuals of the same species. It is not absolute, since individuals that do not interbreed in natural conditions can interbreed in artificial ones and give sterile offspring (silt) or fertile offspring (several species of poplar, willow).
4. Biochemical - these are features of the structure and composition of macromolecules and the course of certain biochemical reactions that are characteristic of individuals of a certain species. It is not absolute because proteins and nucleic acids can change within a species.
5. Geographical - This is the range of a species that differs from the ranges of closely related species. It is not absolute, because there are types cosmopolitans, which are ubiquitous ( gray rat, duckweed).
6. Ecological - each species has its own ecological niche - a set of environmental factors in which the species exists. It is not absolute, since one ecological niche different species may exist (twin species with overlapping ranges).
So, the species affiliation of organisms is determined by a set of criteria that confirm each other.
Speciation is an evolutionary process of adaptive transformations directed by natural selection, which leads to the formation of genetically closed species systems from genetically open intraspecific ones. Speciation begins at the population level. Unlike microevolution, species evolution has irreversible character. The formation of species can be carried out in three ways: 1) the gradual transformation of the original species (phyletic evolution) 2) the merger of two existing species(hybridogenic evolution) 3) differentiation of the original species into several new ones (divergent evolution). New species most often arise from one ancestral group of closely related organisms (principle monophilic). Necessary condition speciation is insulation. Depending on the type of isolation, geographical and ecological speciation are distinguished.
I. Geographical (alopatric) speciation - this is the formation of new groups at the end of the range during geographic isolation. It may look like:
1) by fragmentation - rupture of a continuous range into parts (formation various kinds finches on different islands of the Galapagos archipelago)
2) by migration expansion of the range and selection in new conditions (formation of the species Dahurian larch from Siberian larch)
II. Ecological (sympatric) speciation - it is the formation of new groups within the existing range during ecological isolation. It is carried out in the following ways:
1) seasonal isolation - as a result of new seasonal conditions(formation of species of large spring rattle and large summer rattle)
2) interspecific hybridization - as a result of crossing between individuals of related species (peppermint = spearmint + watermint)
3) polyploidy - due to mutations (durum wheat species has 4n = 28, and soft wheat - 6n = 42).
macroevolution- an evolutionary process that leads to the emergence of non-species taxa. Unlike microevolution, which takes place in historical a short time and available for direct study, macroevolution takes enormous periods of time and is not available for direct observation.
forms of macroevolution
The main forms of macroevolution of groups are phyletic , divergent , convergent that parallel evolution.
Phyletic evolution- adaptive transformations of representatives of one taxon, which changes in time in a certain direction as a whole without divergence.
Divergent evolution- the development of signs of difference in individuals of the same species due to adaptation to different conditions environment. The difference in features that results from this phenomenon is called homology , homologous . The reason for divergence is the presence of hereditary variability, intraspecific competition and disruptive natural selection. An example of divergent evolution is the emergence of all ranks of placental mammals from a common ancestor.
convergent evolution- independent development of similar characters in phylogenetically distant organisms due to their adaptation to similar environmental conditions. analogy , and the organs of developing similar . An example of convergent evolution is the appearance of similar limbs, body shapes in sharks, ichthyosaurs and dolphins.
Parallel evolution - independent development of similar traits in related systematic groups of organisms. The similarity of features that results from this phenomenon is called homoyology, and the organs that develop - homoyological (the similarity of incisors in rodents and lagomorphs).
directions of macroevolution
Studying patterns historical development animals, 0 M. Severtsov in the 20s of the XX century developed the concept of "biological progress" and "biological regression". biological progress- the direction of evolution in which the birth rate in the population prevails over mortality. Signs of biological progress are the growth in the number of individuals; expansion of the area of existence; increased rates of intraspecific variability; education and a large number of subordinate systematic groups; high survival potential. Today, angiosperms are in a state of biological progress, cephalopods, insects, birds, mammals. biological regression- the direction of evolution, in which the mortality in the population prevails over the birth rate. Signs of biological regression are a decrease in the number of individuals; narrowing the area of existence; decrease in the rate of intraspecific variability; decrease in group diversity; low survival potential. Today, species listed in the Red Book are in a state of biological regression.
The concept of biological progress and biological regression are only general terms that show the degree species diversity certain group to the corresponding geological period development of our planet.
paths of macroevolution
A generalizing character also has an idea of the morphological ways of achieving biological progress.
Aromorphoses (morphophysiological progress) - evolutionary changes that increase the level of organization of the organism as a whole and open up new opportunities for adapting to various conditions of existence. Examples of aromorphic evolutionary changes: the emergence of a circulatory system in kilchakiv, the appearance of a heart in mollusks, the appearance of jaws in fish, the appearance of seeds in seed ferns, the formation of a flower and fruit in angiosperms, etc.
Idioadaptation- evolutionary changes that have the character of adaptation to certain conditions and do not change the level of organization of organisms. Examples of idioadaptive changes: the diverse structure of angiosperm flowers, limbs in mammals.
In the history of the development of the organic world different ways evolutions are interconnected. Aromorphoses determine the stages in the development of the organic world, raising the organization of the group to a higher level of evolution and opening up new opportunities for it to master the environment. Further development goes through idioadaptations, which provide the development of an accessible variety of conditions. During the transition of organisms to more simple terms the formation of devices is accompanied by a simplification of the structure.
The paths of evolution of the organic world, alternating and connecting, lead to a complication, a progressive direction in the development of living nature, to the emergence of the expediency of organisms.
The evolution of groups as a whole has a progressive character and occurs in two directions: allogenesis (cladogenesis) and arogenesis (anagenesis). During allogenesis, the development of a group occurs within one adaptive zone according to the principle of idioadaptation, when morphophysiological changes in the body do not lead to either significant complication or simplification of its organization. Arogenesis is accompanied by the transition of the group to another adaptive zone by developing an aromorphosis.
"The main directions of evolution" - Exterminated by man. Modern horseshoe crabs. Examples of aromorphoses. Decreased adaptability of organisms to environmental conditions. Endangered species. Spoonbill. Muskrat. Give examples of "living fossils". Coelacanth. Human activity. Idioadaptation. extinction of species due to global changes climate Extinction of species due to human fault.
"The Concept of Evolution" - This is how evolution happens. The presence of the same substances in all organisms indicates a possible biochemical homology. Only a small fraction of individuals survive and reproduce. Each taxon can contain several taxonomic units lower rank. 4. There are no two individuals of the same species that would have the same properties.
"Evidence for evolution" - Blue-footed booby. Homology of the forelimbs of mammals. transitional forms. It hits the big one cattle and humans, causing teniarinhoz. Biogeographic evidence for evolution. Uniform principles of storage, implementation and transfer of genetic information. All vertebrates at a certain stage of development have a notochord.
"Evolution Biology" - Type annelids. Blood. Blood cells. Type Chordates Class Mammals or Beasts. Functions of the blood. True, or fiction? Mollusk type. Type Chordates Superclass Pisces. ciliates. Hemolymph - a type of blood? Type of Arthropoda Class Insects. Circulatory system. Phylum Arthropods Class Crustaceans. Animals: Proc.
"The evolution of life" - The appearance of the membrane. Anaerobic type of exchange. What organisms are called prokaryotes? The formation of nebulae are accumulations of gases. What are coacervates? The value of oxygen in the atmosphere. Metabolism Self-reproduction Heredity Variability Growth and development. organic compounds atmospheres Salt solutions inorganic compounds Amino acids peptides N.K.
"Human Evolution" - Gorilla. Man has come a long way of evolution. Cro-Magnon hunting for bison. Paleontological - finds of the remains of ancient humanoid creatures. The main stages of human evolution. Learn to pronounce thematic terms correctly. Map of possible settlement. The evolution of human development. Human Origins.
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