The appearance on the evolutionary arena of the first primates falls on the line of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic ER, and this is not by chance. The fact is that at the end of the chalk period, ending with Mesoza, from the face of the earth, the dominant dotoles on land and in the water giant reptiles (dinosaurs, ichthyosaurics, plesiosaurs, etc.) disappeared and in the water, plesiosavra, etc.) and many habitats and ecological niches were freed. Mammals, modestly labored for tens of millions of years in the shadow of the reptiles, finally came to "operational space" and began to actively fill out the formed emptiness. The development of different ecological niches led to the fact that in behavior, physiology and anatomy, even close-friendly groups accumulated more specific features, and their evolutionary pathways eventually diverged further. The consequence of this process, referred to in the language of biologists by adaptive radiation, was the formation at the end of the Cretaceous period and at the beginning of the Paleogen of many new types, birth, families and detachments of animals.

Very interesting, the question of how the further history of life on Earth would have developed, if there were no mass extinction of biota at the turn of the last two geological er. This question is not so meaningless, as it may seem at first glance, since it is possible that the extinction is explained in many ways of random reasons, and among those whom it affected, there could be applicants for promotion in the category of thinking creatures. According to the well-known and well-substantiated hypothesis, the disappearance of dinosaurs at the end of the chalk period was caused by a catastrophe of cosmic origin, i.e., the drop in a large meteorite, which caused a sharp climate change (it is sometimes compared with the effect of "nuclear winter"). Some researchers assume that this cataclysm does not happen, violating the natural, organic course of the development of earthly nature, then the planet would have been owned by lizards, and the mind would not appear in its current material shell, but in the brain of some of these animals, for example, Coruses. Of course, this is nothing more than a hypothesis, besides the hypothesis unchecked, but in principle there is nothing incredible in it, and it illustrates the idea of \u200b\u200bpotential multivariate the evolutionary process.

Let's come back, however, to our primates. According to some calculations based on the number of known species (modern and fossil) and the average duration of "life" of the species (1 million years), the first officials of the detachment had to exist already 80 million years ago, but most experts seem unlikely such antiquity, since significantly exceeds the age of all available fossil findings. The earliest of these finds occurred from Paleocene deposits and fall into the chronological range from 55 to 60 million years ago (see Fig. 2).

The initial stages of the evolution of primates are not yet sufficiently studied, and the problem of the origin of the detachment is far from the final permit. Neither its genealogical roots nor the place of appearance is not yet defined. True, it is practically no doubt that the ancestors of primates were some representatives of the detachment of insectivores ( Insectivora), but, at the same time, among the fossil findings that are now there are no such, which, with complete confidence, could be considered as a link, binding two of these groups of animals. Usually, as an initial anestick group, intermediate between insectivores, on the one hand, and primates, on the other, consider the genus Purgatorius ( Purgatorius.), famous for the few bones originating from the lateral sediments of North America. Fossil remains of representatives of this kind and some other, close to them, forms allow you to more or less confidently judge the appearance and some features of the behavior of the oldest primates. According to the existing reconstructions, these were small (from about one hundred grams to several kilograms weighing) insectivore and partly, apparently, vegetative animals. They were mainly a woody lifestyle and, unlike their ancestors, already had adapted to capture the limbs with relatively long phalanges of fingers and flat nails instead of claws. Minus the last feature appearance they may most like the modern tropical protein, and only due to the specific structure of the teeth are identified now as primates.

Judging by the geography of finds, in Paleocene (65-54 million years ago), representatives of the new detachment were inhabited, mainly in North America and Western Europe, connected at that time a wide sushi strip (Fig. 3). In addition, individual fossils comparable antiquity were found in South and East Asia and Africa, which at the beginning of the Cenozoic era also had several other outlines than now.

Fig. 3. Location of continents at the beginning of the Cenozoic era

First monkeys

In early Eocene (54-45 million years ago) within the detachment of primates there are already many families, childbirth and species, among which there are ancestors of modern lemurs and long-life. Usually these early semi-esshynes are divided into lemuriforms (lemurs and their ancestors) and taris-mounted (long-term and their ancestors). No later than 40 million years ago, i.e., most likely, in the middle or even the beginning of the Eocenta, it happens, judging by the finds in East Asia and North Africa, the extraction of the highest primacy line - anthropoids ( Anthropoidea.), or, in other words, the monkeys actually (Fig. 4).

Fig. four. Evolutionary branch of higher primates ( Anthropoidea.). Only lines are shown, representatives of which are preserved today

It should be borne in mind that in the domestic literature the term anthropoid was often used, and sometimes used now, to designate human-like monkeys. However, this consumption is, although it finds some excuse in the etymology of the word "anthropoid" (it comes from Greek ???????? - a person and literally means "human-like"), undesirable and leads to confusion. Anthropoids, according to the generally accepted zoological nomenclature, are all monkeys in general, and for a separate designation of man-like monkeys exists and is used throughout the world the term "hominoids" (from Latin homo. - human).

The question of where the first monkeys appeared is not yet solved. Africa and Eastern Asia are claiming their role, but to make the choice between these regions with the current state of our knowledge is not possible. IN last years Some important finds that can shed light on the problem of origin of anthropoids were made in China, Burma and neighboring countries, although Africa, for sure, did not say her last word in the dispute between the continents, and here the paleontologists are also waiting for new discoveries.

Already the first monkeys differed noticeably from the lower primates, or in other words, a semoressean by many features of the structure of the dental system and the head of the skull, indicating the change in the nature of the diet towards greater herbivoring (more precisely, frugvores, i.e. food with fruit) and the transition from the night Lifestyle to daylight. These features in their behavior are associated with the fact that their vision is much better developed than most animals, and the smell, on the contrary, has lost sharpness. According to the last two signs to monkeys are close to long, on the basis of what both groups combine sometimes in the Haplor sub surcharge (????? in Greek means "simple", and ????? - "nose"). More importantly, however, that anthropoids are inherent in such a feature, as a relatively large size of the brain than they can not boast. Dolghivatov, like the rest of primates, the volume of the brain is approximately the same as other animals similar size, whereas the monkeys are on average twice as much as it should be expected from the mammals of their "weight category".

Most paleontologists remove anthropoids from tarismal primates, a minority - from lemuroforms, and, in addition, it is suggested that they may be an independent branch that takes place directly from the general primates of the original stem. Subsequently, this branch is divided into two: wide monkeys ( Platyrrhini.), living now only in South America, and narrow-skinned ( Catarrhini.) inhabiting the old light. The most ancient bones of widely discovered in Bolivia, in sediments about 25 million years old, and the second - in North Africa and in the Arabian Peninsula, where they clutched in geological layers, formed 31-35 million years ago, and partly, perhaps earlier. The ancestors of wide, the former, apparently, from Africa, could accidentally get into South America on natural "roofs" from plants in water. Some likely there seemed like the probability of a prosperous outcome of such a journey, cases of this kind, apparently, they still took place. In addition to the ancestors of wide monkeys, some African rodents are believed to be the same path.

Almost everything we know today about the early stages of the evolution of the iconic monkeys, it became known thanks to the findings in the Fairywood, located west of the Nile in the territory of Egypt. This is the largest location of the medium-grade fauna gave the remains of many types of primates. They originate from the sediments of the geological formation Jebel Catrani, belonging to the period from 31 to 35 million years ago. The greatest interest among the monkeys whose bones were found in the file, have so-called propagopitecides for us, usually allocated as the foresight. The properopitecid is attributed to the propropitec; Propliopithecus.) and Egyptopiteka ( Aegyptopithecus.). In them, many researchers see the most likely ancestors of contemporary vocal monkeys, including humanlike.

Origin and evolution of human monkeys

Approximately on the turn of oligocene and miocene (23 million years ago), or a little earlier (see Fig. 2) there is a separation of dotol of a single trunk of narrow-axis monkeys into two branches: churches, or dog-like ( CERCOPITHECOIDEA.) and hominoids, i.e. humanlike ( Hominoidea.). This separation, apparently, was largely due to the fact that part of the vector-axis (the ancestors of the churches) moved to nutrition with leaves, while the other part (ancestors of hominoids) retained the loyalty of the fruit diet. Differences in the menu affected, in particular, on the structure of the teeth, which is extremely important for paleontologists, since it is the teeth that make up the whole part of the fossil findings. The surface of the chewing teeth of the churches of the churches is characteristic, only to them inherent in the pattern formed by four tubercles. On the teeth of man-like monkeys, five rounded tubercles separated by U--shaped grooves are the so-called "pattern of dripiteca" (Fig. 5).

Fig. five. The surface of the indigenous teeth of churches (s) and hominoids (b)

The churches of the churches, represented by the only but very numerous family of mardy-shaped, are often referred to as the lowest cloth monkeys, and hominoids are higher. In addition to the features of the shape of the teeth, hominoids distinguishes from the lower vocal monkeys also the absence of tail, shorter (relative to the limbs), flat and wide torso and, finally, the specific structure of the shoulder joint, ensuring greater freedom of rotation of the upper limbs in different planes. Apparently, all listed features were acquired by early hominoids as a result of adaptation to such methods of movement in trees that require vertical and at least partially straightened body position. It is a support with a support for the lower limbs, as well as the so-called brachiation, i.e. transferring or throwing a body from the branch of the branch using the upper extremities (Fig. 6). For the lower monkeys, neither the other, in general, not peculiar, and they, in contrast to humans, even on the branches move, as a rule, on four limbs, like all the other mammals from the protein to the leopard.

Fig. 6. Gibments - Classic Brachiators

At one time, some researchers believed that the churches and hominoids were divided in early oligocene, and that there were already princehiteks and Egyptopites, who lived about 30-35 million years ago should be considered as hominoids. Indeed, the teeth of these monkeys found in the Fairymskaya Wpadine, carry a well-pronounced pattern of dripiteca, but the bones of their skull and a skeleton in their structure closer to the similar bones of churches. Such a mosaic of signs allows you to see in these kinds a more or less close similarity of the ancestral form from which the churches of churches and hominoids occurred. Unfortunately, a huge temporary interval, exciting all late oligocene, still remains almost uncompheried fossil material, and therefore it is impossible to imagine any detail of the process of discrepancies of two branches of cloth monkeys.

One time as the earliest form of hominoids was allegedly considered the genus of camoupite ( Kamoyapithecus.), highlighted by the finds on the late-altitude location of the losions in Northern Kenya. Due to its location between the two well-dated CalyaRon's layers of basalt, the lower of which has an age of 27.5 ± 0.3 million, and the upper 24.2 ± 0.3 million years, these finds have reliable chronological binding. However, they are still too small and fragmented so that they can with complete confidence could be defined as the remains of a man's monkey. A more representative material that sheds the light into the early stages of the evolution of hominoids occurs from a number of locations in the West Kenya, but even the oldest of them - Mesba Bridge - about 3 million years younger than the solo.

Now, thanks to the finds in Africa and Eurasia, about 30 kinds of Miocene hominoids are known, but it is assumed that this material and half does not reflect their actual diversity. According to some estimates, the number of births that existed in the named period could be five times more, and those of them who are critical to understand the phylogenetic relationships of different groups within the foresight of humans are not yet open. So it is or not, but the ideas about the phylogenesis of hominoids are both fossil and modern - while indeed far from clarity.

From the mid-60s. XX century To construct the genealogical tree, the detachment of primates (as well as many other animal groups) began to use the information contained in the macromolecules of proteins and especially nucleic acids. The principle underlying the methods used for this, partly akin to the one on which radioisotope dating methods are based. If in the latter, the rate of decay of radioactive elements (for example, C 14 - radioactive carbon) is used in the latter as the basis of the calculations (for example, C 14 - radioactive carbon), then the so-called neutral point mutations play a similar role. Such mutations, although they lead to a change in the DNA nucleotide sequence, do not have, as expected, values \u200b\u200bfor natural selection and are distributed over time (of course, we are talking about sufficiently long segments) more or less evenly. If so, then comparing through various, very sophisticated, techniques structure of DNA molecules in different groups of organisms, one can judge the degree of their kinship (what it is closer, the less differences should be), and at a well-known mutitation rate even about the approximate time discrepancies from the general ancestor. Of course, biomolecular methods of phylogenetic studies cannot be considered absolutely reliable and self-sufficient, and there are still many unsolved problems in this area. However, as experience shows, in terms of the evolution of primates, the biomolecular and paleontological analysis is provided in general, as a rule, quite close results.

Comparison of nucleotide sequences in DNA molecules taken from modern churches and human-like monkeys, according to most of the specialists, that the evolutionary routes of these groups have separated somewhere in the range from 22 to 28 million years ago. Thus, the paleontological and molecular data taken together make it possible to believe that the independent phylogenetic history of the daily formation of hominoids, which, from now living primates, includes people and human monkeys (chimpanzees, gorilla, orangutang, gibbon, siamang), about 25 million began Back (Fig. 4).

Until recently, three families were made to allocate three families as part of the hominide prosperity: gobatide ( Hylobatidae.) represented by Gibbon and Siamang, Pongid ( Pongidae.) who attributed to the genera of Orangutan ( Pongo.), gorilla ( Gorilla.) and chimpanzees ( Pan.), and hominid ( Hominidae.), i.e., a person and his arms of his own ancestors. This classification was based on external anatomical signs, first of all, such as the proportions of the limbs, the features of the structure of fangs and indigenous teeth, etc. The widespread use of biomolecular methods in the systematics, however, showed that rearrangement of the taxa taken to date. In particular, it turned out that Orangutang in the genetic plan is from African man-like monkeys (gorilla and chimpanzees) further than the last of the person, and should be allocated to a special family. In addition, there were data that speakers that the genetic distance between man and chimpanzees can even be less than between chimpanzees and gorilla, and, if so, then, it means that the corresponding changes in the systematics are also necessary.

There is practically no doubt that hominoids appeared in Africa, and almost 10 million their history remained linked exclusively with this continent. In not considering the controversial materials mentioned above, the earliest hominoids found on the Nizhniotane locomotives of East Africa belong to the genus Proconsul ( ProConsul) (Fig. 7). True, there is a point of view, according to which Proconsul was also not yet a hominoid itself, but her supporters admit that some of the species of this kind could well be the general ancestor of all the later man-like monkeys.

Fig. 7. Reconstruction of the skeleton and skulls of Proconsula

At the end of the early Miocene in Africa, there were already representatives of several kinds of hominoids: Dendropite, Micropita, Afrophites, Turcanopiteca, etc., but the phylogenetic significance of these forms is unclear. It is difficult to say whether any of them had a direct attitude to the pedigree of modern gorillas or chimpanzees. In the size of the body, African early-dealer hominoids ranged from very small, up to 3 kg weighing ( Micropithecus Clarki.), to large ( ProConsul Major., Turkanapithecus Heseloni.), weighing about 100 kg, like a female of modern gorilla, and their diet turned on the main fruit and young leaves. All listed forms were mainly a woody lifestyle, and when moving on Earth remained four-legged. The only exception to the last rule was, possibly, oropes, or, more precisely, the view Oreopithecus Bamboli.But he did not dwell in Africa, but in Europe, and not at the beginning, but at the end of Miocene. The study of bone remains of the Oteropiteka, found in Italy in sediments of 8-9 million years old, led a number of paleontologists to the assumption that this is a creature when it turned out to be on Earth, preferred to use not four for walking, and two legs.

On average, Miocene, when a land jumper was established between Africa and Eurasia, (16-17 million years ago), the habitat of hominoids was significantly expanded due to the inclusion of the territories of the South of Europe and Asia. The most ancient fossil representatives of this group in Europe are about 13-15 million years old (Polyopitek ( Pliopithecus.), dripitek ( Dryopithecus.), later Uranopitek ( Oranopithecus.)), and in Asia about 12 million years. However, if in Asia, at least on its southeastern outskirts, they managed to thoroughly entrenched, preserved there until later (orangutans, gibbons, siamanga), then in Europe the conditions turned out to be less suitable, and, surviving a short period of heyday, to The end of the Miocene of the hominoids here die. In sediments of age younger than 7 million, their remains in Europe were not found. In Africa during the period under review (from 15 to 5 million years ago), there is also a significant reduction in the number of known types of hominoids, but, despite this, it is also it remains the place of major events in their evolution. On the most important of these events directly related to the origin of a person, and will be discussed in the following chapters.

Notes:

See, for example: Tatarinov L. P. Essays on the theory of evolution. M., 1987. P. 186-188; Budyko M. I. Time travel. M., 1990. P. 16.

In Greek "nose" - ???, the word "?????" - The form of this noun in the parental case. ( Note. ed.)

Ward C. V. et al. FUNCTION AND PHYLOGENY IN MIOCENE HOMINOIDS // FUNCTION, PHYLOGENY, AND FOSSILS: MIOCENE HOMINOID EVOLUTION AND ADAPTATIONS. NEW YORK, 1997. P. 1-2.

Pilbeam D. Research on Miocene Hominoids and Hominid Origins. The Last Three Decades // Function, Phylogeny, And Fossils: Miocene HominoID Evolution and Adaptations. NEW YORK, 1997.

Of all mammals, primates (monkeys and semolstery) are distinguished, perhaps the greatest variety and wealth of forms. But, despite the external differences, they are combined by many common features of the body of the body, which have been developed in the process of evolution in the conditions of woody lifestyle.

Primates have a well-developed five-layer, grabbing limb adapted to Lazagan on the branches of trees. For all primates, the presence of a clavicle and the full separation of radiation and elbow bones, which ensures the mobility and variety of movements of the front limb. The thumb is moving and many species can oppose the rest of the fingers. The end phalanges of the fingers are equipped with nails. For those forms that possess claw-visible nails or have a claw on individual fingers, the thumb always carries a flat nail. When moving on the ground, primates are based on the entire foot.

With woody life, they are associated with the reduction of sense of smell and increased development of organs of vision and hearing. There are only 3-4 nasal shells. The eyes are more or less directed forward, and the sockets are separated from the temporal pit with a sloppy ring (tupayia, lemurs) or a bone partition (long-distance, monkeys). On the face of the lower primates there are 4-5 groups of tactile hair - Vibribuss, at the highest - 2-3. Skin scallops in monkeys, like a person, are developed on the entire palm and plantar surface, the semi-addies are only on the pads

.

The active life and diversity of the functions of the forelimbs led to the primates a strong development of the brain, and in connection with this, an increase in the cranial box volume and, accordingly, reducing the facial skull department. But well-developed big hemispheres of the brain with abundant furrows and convulsions are characterized only for higher primates. The lowest representatives of the brain detachment smooth or has little furrow and the sorus.

Primates are mainly powered by mixed foods with a predominance of plant, less often - insecto. In connection with the mixed nutrition, they have a simple stomach. Four-type teeth are cutters, fangs, small (premolars) and large (molars) are indigenous; Molars with 3-5 tubercles. There is a complete change of teeth - dairy and constant.

Significant variations are noted in the size of the body of primates - from small mouse lemurs to the gorilla grow 180 cm and above. The hair cover is thick, with a subhead at the semoressean, most monkeys are poorly developed. Many species wool and skin are brightly painted, brown eyes or yellow. The tail is long, but there are short and tailless forms.

Primates are multiplied all year round, the female is usually born one (at the lower forms - sometimes 2-3) the cub. As a rule, Primates live on trees, but there are terrestrial and midnight views. Lifestyle of primates day, old, less frequently pair or single; They dwell mainly in the tropical and subtropical forests of Africa, Asia and America are also in high-altitude areas.

Modern primates are known about 200 species. They are combined in 57 genera, 12 families and 2 sub-trainers - semobesian (Prosimii) and monkey (Anthropoidea).

According to the most common classification in the detachment of primates, tupaii are included, which, as an independent Tupaiidae family, together with lemurs and long adopts, constitute a semi-esshyan cross. Through lemurs, they bind insectivore animals with primates, recalling the oldest ancestors of the latter.

In our description of primates, we adhere to the most common classification adopted by J. and P. Nea-Pirii (J. V. Napier and P. N. Napier. A Handbook of Living Primates. London - NEW-YORK, 1967).

It is believed that primitive insectivore mammals were believed that primitive insectivorous mammals were very similar to modern stupid. The rest of them are detected in the Upper Mongolia sediments. These ancient primates, in all likelihood, settled from Asia to other places of Old World and North America, where they gave the basis for the development of lemures and long hex. The initial forms of monkeys of the new and old world were probably the beginning of primitive long-standing (some authors ancestors of monkeys consider ancient lemurs). American monkeys arose independently of the monkeys of the old world. The ancestors penetrated them from North America to the southern, here they developed and specialized, adapting to the conditions of solely wood life.

A person in many anatomical and biological devices belongs to the highest primates, where the individual family of people (Hominidae) is with a family (HOMO) and one species is a modern reasonable person (N. Sapiens Recents).

The practical importance of primates is very large. Like live and funny creatures, monkeys have always attracted human attention. They were the subject of hunting, they were sold in the zoos and for home entertainment. Meat of many monkeys and are now eating aborigines. Meat and semolstery are considered very tasty. Some types of primates are used on the release of certain things.

In recent years, monkeys are increasingly acquired in biological and medical experiments. According to many anatomy-physiological signs of monkeys (not only humans, but also the lower) detect the striking similarity with man. They are even subject to many inherent diseases (for example, dysentery, tuberculosis, poliomyelitis, diphtherite, measles, angina), in general, the person flowing as well as in humans. Sometimes man-like monkeys die from appendicitis.

All this indicates the morphological and biochemical similarity of blood and tissues of monkeys and man. That is why some monkeys are used in the treatment of people (for example, the kidney of macales, green monkeys and some other monkeys serve as a nutrient medium for growing viruses, turning then, after appropriate processing, in a vaccine against poliomyelitis).

Life of animals: in 6 volumes. - M.: Enlightenment. Edited by Professors N.A. Gladkova, A.V. Mikheev. 1970 .

Watch what is "Primate detachment (Primates)" in other dictionaries:

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Area Primate

2 subdomains

Nearest relatives of man

In the animal world, primates are considered the closest relatives of a person. This detachment includes such beasts like Tupayi, Laurie, Lemur, long adversies, rovonoki and monkeys. All these animals, so unlike each other, combines a number of common features that are available and in humans. All primates are five-plated limbs, the hands of the hands are freely bent and unfolded, the thumb, as a rule, is opposed to the rest, - moving, primates are based on the entire foot. Almost all primates are well developed brain. The smell is rather weak, but good rumor, and vision is not only volumetric, but also color. Primates differ very different. The largest primates are gorilla: their growth reaches 180 cm, and the weight is 300 kg. Dwarf and mouse lemurs are the smallest: body length (no tail) from 10 to 25 cm, and weight of about 50 g.

The appearance of primates is different. Some have long chain tails, helping to climb on trees, other tails are not grabs or there are not at all; The color of the wool varies from white or golden to black. Some primates lead a nightlife, others are active in the afternoon, someone lives by families, someone, and someone big groups. Monkeys are mostly omnivores, sometimes they can hunt and can overcome rather large game, and even sometimes prone to cannibalism (eating their relatives). Other primates prefer insects, many are content with extremely vegetable food. As a rule, primates - rustic animals, rarely descending on Earth, but there are also those who live on Earth, for example, Lemur Kapa, \u200b\u200bGamadrila, Pavian, Gorilla. Live primates in the tropical and subtropical zones of Asia, Africa, North and South America.

Monkeys and semolstery

The numerous detachment of primates is divided into two suburbs: lower primates (semoresys) and higher primates (monkeys). The semoresseans include Tupayi, Lori, Lemur, Indri, Rowozki, Disclaimers and Galago; To monkeys - toys, clothless monkeys of new light, martyrs, gibbons and man-like monkeys. Semobesians primitive monkeys and have a lot of general traits with their ancestors - ancient insectivores. They have a small brain, they are worse than monkeys, distinguish colors. Some semolstery on the paws are not nails, but claws, most of them lead a nightlife. The monkeys are more advanced mammals - man-like monkeys, according to the theory of the famous biologist Charles Darwin, are our ancestors. Currently, the theory of the origin of a person directly from the monkeys is subjected to serious doubts, but it is possible that we had a common ancestor.

The origin of primates

Primates, apparently, originated from primitive insectivores. Later, the primates were divided into two groups: from one they developed tupayi and lemurs, and from the other-dolled. Disclaimers were the ancestors of all the monkeys of the old and new world. Several types of long-distance and today live on the islands of the Malay Archipelago.

The ancestors of man-like monkeys began to be propliopiteki - the ancient extinct semi-eaves. Perhaps they also occurred from them.

The center of the appeal was Asia. From Asia monkey penetrated into Africa, and from Eurasia to existing then "Bridge" moved to North America. According to Panama, the monkey isthmus from North America moved to the southern one. Changing climatic conditions led to the fact that in North America, primates were almost left.

Modern primates are known about 200 species. They are combined in 57 genera, 12 families and 2 sub-trainers - semoresyans (Prosimii) and monkeys (Anthropoidea). According to the most common classification, the detachment of primates is customary to divide into two sub-trainers.

1. Lower primates, or semi-chains - here turn on Tupayi, lemurs, long precipitates, etc.

2. Monkeys, or higher people like.

Semoberenticae Passing (Prosimii)

The semi-cone sub surveys unites 6 families, 21 genus and about 50 species with a large number of subspecies. This subverse includes the most primitive representatives of primates - Tupy, Lemurov, Dolghivati. This is mostly small animals, but there are also medium sizes (with a dog). Sometimes stupid and lemurs are combined into a group of streptic primates that have nostrils in the form of commas, opening on the bare part of the tip of the nose. The upper lip of these primates is smooth, fixed and without hair. On the contrary, long-sighted and monkeys make up a group of haplorine primates, with nostrils with more rounded, bordered nose walls and opening on a movable, with a developed muscular layer, and a wided upper lip.

All semi-esshynes have tails, often fluffy. The facial skull department is stretched, the smell is well developed, on the face there are tactile hairs - Vibribuses. Bottom teeth grow forward forming a "scallop" to care for wool or for scraping food. All semoressens will make the territory on which they live, fragile the secret of specific skin glands - sternum, abdominal, throat, etc., as well as urine. The brain at the semoressean is small, without sorry. Almost all of them lead a nightlife, except for some species of ancient lemurs. They live with groups or alone, give birth to one - two young. Everyone, except for long-distance, fixed muscles of the face, so they do not possess such faiths like monkeys.

Family stupid: Ordinary Tupaya, Dwarf Tupaya, Tupaya Tana, Indian or Ellioti Tupaya, Filipino Tupaya or Urokal, Northern or Mouse Tupaya, Plutcher Tupaya.

Tupayia are a transitional form between insectivore mammals and primates. In the structure of the skull, the front limbs, teeth, on biochemical indicators they are closer to primates. In Malayski Tupaya means "squirrel", they are small, live on trees and look like a squirrel with a fluffy tail.

Lemary family: Feline or ringclosure Lemur, Black Lemur, Mongoous Lemur, Collar Vari or Lemur Vari, Gray Hapalemur, Elegant Lemur, Dwarf Lemur, Tolflower Lemur, Lemur Miller or Mouse Microcycle, Belcy Lemur or Dwarf Plywood.

Fig.1. Faby Lemur family (Lat. Lemur Catta)

Lemurs are the most typical representatives of the semoressean; Completed in Madagascar. Ancient lemurs live in large groups. There are lemurs with bright color; For example, a feline lemur on the tail alternate white and black rings and white circles at the eye. The name of this lemur received for the sounds similar to purr. Feline lemur - daily, feed on fruit, flowers, leaves. In addition to major lemurs, there are small dwarf species, such as mouse lemur, sized fist, with huge eyes, it weighs 40-60 grams. These are night hunters on insects.

Lifetime family:bannan or Western Disclaimed, Eastern Disclaimed or Machi-House, Filpinsky Disclaim or Siricht.

Disclaimers are closest to monkeys from all semi-essayans living in Indonesia and in the Philippines. They are the size of the rat, they have huge eyes, glowing in the dark, for which they are called "long adversity". A bare tail with a tassel is a balancer when jumping. Dolghantov has mimic muscles, and they can make grimacing as monkeys. The face department is not elongated, like in other semoresyans, but is shortened, and this means that the sense of smell is underdeveloped. The brain is relatively large, the hind limbs are longer than the front, elongated and the heel bone, for which they are called long hex.

Fig.2. Filipino Dongle (Lat. Tarsius Syrichta)

It is believed that primitive insectivore mammals were believed that primitive insectivorous mammals were very similar to modern stupid. The rest of them are detected in the Upper Mongolia sediments. These ancient primates, in all likelihood, settled from Asia to other places of Old World and North America, where they gave the basis for the development of lemures and long hex. The initial forms of monkeys of the new and old world were probably the beginning of primitive long-standing (some authors ancestors of monkeys consider ancient lemurs). American primates arose independently of the monkeys of the old world. The ancestors penetrated them from North America to the southern, here they developed and specialized, adapting to the conditions of solely wood life.

Monkey arrhythum or higher person like (Anthropoidea)

The arrogance of higher primates includes monkeys wide or American, and cloth or African-Asian. This division is based on differences in the structure of their nose. In most monkeys of the new light, the cartilage nasal partition is wide, and the nostrils are widely separated and turned outward. At the monkeys of the old light, a narrower nasal partition and nostrils, as well as in a person, are drawn down. But it is more correct to talk about the degree of severity of this feature, since the thickness of the nasal partition and the position of the nostrils in different forms of wide-axes and the clothy monkeys can vary. All primates on the fingers are flat nails (in chandelies - clawed nails); The eyes are turned forward, and the eyeball is completely separated from the temporal pit of the bone partition; Brain, with the exception of chain, rich in furrows and convulsions; The upper cutters are not separated by the gap. For primates, the reduction of the olfactory apparatus and special tactile bodies on the face, where only three vibrass pairs are preserved - supervised, maximensive and chin. With the reduction of the same vibrass, the progressive development of tactless skin scallops is associated with palm and plantar surfaces. Only from the Oedipal toys and to a greater extent in the night monkeys on the palms and soles there are still skin sections without scallops. The rest of the lower and higher primates, palm and plantar surfaces are covered with skin scallops, as well as in humans. In the sub-train 3 of the foresight: Ceboidea, CercopitheCoidea and Hominoidea.

Wide-up monkeys or new light monkeys (Platyrrhina)

Wide-up monkeys live in South America and call them new light monkeys

Switon monkeys allocate three families - small chain-shaped, callimico and large cappuline monkeys. All toy and Callimico primitive features of the structure - the willed ear sink, a relatively simple brain, almost without sinks, is born to three young.

Family family: Ordinary toilet or womb, dwarf tool, ordinary or black tamarin, crested or Oedipal Tamarin, Tamarin.

Fains are the smallest of all primates; In addition to actually, the chambers of them include dwarf toys and tamarins. For all, a pair family lifestyle is characteristic, only one adult female is multiplied in the group, the male is cautious for the offspring.

Callimicoallocated from the family of toy monkeys relatively recently. According to the structure of the teeth, the shape of the skull, the biochemical indicators, they are similar to cappuccino-like and occupy an intermediate position between them and toy monkeys.

Cappuccino family:ordinary or Belogruda Capuchin, Capuchin-Plaks or Wing Capuchin, Belong Capuchin, Favi or Brown Capuchin, Sayyri's Belichei, Durukuli Trecotted, Bald Saki, Saki Monk.

Cappulin-like monkeys have a grasping tail, the lower end of the tail is deprived of the hair, on it the same dermatoglyphic patterns, like on the palms. Such a tail acts as an additional limb. The first finger of the brush will not be discharged, sometimes absent, but on the foot it is well developed and opposed to the rest. The brain is sufficiently developed, these monkeys have complex behavior, easy to study complex skills. They live big groups. All of them are wood, lead a daily lifestyle, except for one kind of night monkeys. Like the semoressean, all wide monkeys have skin glands, the secret of which they will make the territory. Wide-axes are often combined into a community consisting of several species, for more successful protection against predators. They have a well-developed acoustic (voice) communication and a rich mimic is celebrated.

Focusing monkeys or monkey old light (Catarhina)

Focusing monkeys live in Africa and Asia and they are called monkeys of the old world.

Marty-shaped family:true Martushka, Green Marty, Dwarf Mint or Talapoyne, Red Monkeys or Martyski-Gusara, Yavansky Macak or Macau-Caboored, Macaque-Rus or Bunder, Japanese Macak, Ceylon or Chinese Macau.

Marty-shaped monkeys. They are small or medium size, the forelimbs are equal to rear or a little shorter. The first finger of the brush and foot is well opposed to the rest. Wool covers the whole body, with the exception of the face, usually bright coloring. There are sedal corns and grinding bags. Natural bags are special pockets - the folds of the mucous membrane in the oral cavity on both cheeks, where the monkeys are stuffing food about the reserve. In addition to sedal corns, they have the so-called "floor leather" - the skin sections that are swelling during ovulation and blush, this can serve as a signal for male on the readiness of females to mating. Seeded corn, unlike sex skin, deprived of vessels. They are comfortable when spam or seat on Earth. All mumps are moving along the ground and tree branches, among them there are ground forms (bavians, gelades), wood-terrestrial (macales, and Lapunders) and purely woody (all thin-thyroid monkeys, Langur, etc.). They are walking, rest when walking on the foot and brushes. The tail is never grateful. Some species are well developed by sexual dimorphism, that is, males are larger than females. All of them are old, live in the forests, savannas, on the rocks. Manyshko-shaped monkeys include the birth of Martyshki, Gusar, Pavianov, Mandrilov, Gelad, Mangobayev, Makakov and the subfamily of thin-rod monkeys, Children of Kolobusov, Grazers, Langurov. Very beautiful monkey - Langur Hanuman is considered a sacred monkey in India, Sri Lanka and other countries. According to the Epos "Ramayana", Langur Hanuman saved the pious frame and his wife. In Egypt, Pavian Gamadril belongs to the sacred animals, who is considered the personification of the God of Health, fertility, generosity and letters.

Gibbon family.These are small, graceful addition of the monkey, the foreheads are longer than the rear, the wool is thick, palms, soles, ears and face of bare. There are small sciatic corns. The fingers are long, the first finger is well opposed to the rest. Distributed in India, Indoise, on Java, Sumatra, Kalimantane, Malacca Peninsula. All of them are woody, inhabitants of the rainforest with a characteristic way of movement - brachia: alternately intercepting the hands of the tree branches, they fly from the tree to the tree for a distance of up to fifteen meters. They can walk on the ground on two legs, balancing their hands. Some gibbs are marked by sexual dimorphism in hair color, for example, the males of one-color gibbon black, and the females are light-going. Another feature of Gibbon is a family life, with each family has its territory and echoes other families. This behavior is called "singing" or "choras" of gibbones; The initiator of singing is, as a rule, the male, then the entire family is connected to it. Surroundless Gibments - Siamangs - there are even special thorny voice bags - resonators for amplifying sound.

Pongid familyunites Asian Orangutans and African man-like monkeys - chimpanzees and gorilla. All their distinguish between their large body sizes, the gorilla mass is up to 200 kilograms, height up to two meters. They have a relatively short torso and long limbs, no tail, shortened sacral spine, barrel-shaped chest, wide shoulders. For all, it is characterized by half-woven movement according to branches and land with a support for knuckles of fingers of the front limbs. They have a large and complex brain, about six times larger than the lowest vocal monkeys, for example, macales. Marsh brain gorilla 420 grams, in it a lot of convulsions. The frontal share is larger than the lower monkeys. Like a person, man-shaped monkeys are well developed, the mimic muscles, lips are very movable. Sedalized corn has chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutan are rare. Hair on the back and chest is rare, bunches of tactular hair on the face (vibruisa) are absent. Immunological and biochemical indicators in chimpanzees, gorillas and humans are very close in blood proteins. Pregnancy term - like a person (9 months), the cub develops very slowly, to seven years. All of them have high intelligence, are able to use objects as a gun in nature and in captivity.

Orangutansdistributed on Sumatra and Kalimantane, they are distinguished by massive physique (male growth of 150 centimeters weight 100-200 kilograms). Females are significantly less than males. Kalimantanic orangutans have developed cheeky growths from connective tissue and fat. The hind limbs are short, the front long, fingers on the hands are long, have a look of hooks, the first finger is shortened on the brush, on the neck - large gentle bags. Orangutan skull has a long, elongated, facial department bent. The skull has sagittal and occipital ridges. The lower jaw is massive, the teeth are large, with severe crowning crowns, fangs rarely protrude for the dental row. Brain volume - 300-500 cm 3.

There are three subspecies: mountain, coastal and flat. The plain gorilla is distributed in Western Equatorial Africa (Cameroon, Gabon), in the valley of the Congo River and the Lake Tanganic. The growth of the male is about two meters weight of up to 200 kilograms, massive neck and shoulders, a skull with a low forehead and a powerful supervised ridge. The males have more sagittal and occipital ridges. Females smallest males. The face appears forward, the lower jaw is very massive.

Fig.4. Gorilla

Chimpanzees.It dwells in tropical Africa, in the Congo and Niger River basins. Chimpanzees have a smaller growth and a more subtle physique, an increase of 150 centimeters, a mass of 50 kilograms, a sexual demorphism in body sizes is weaker than that of Gorilla and Orangutan. Opponent roller is also developed weaker, and there is no occupancy. The forehead is more direct, the brain skull is circular, fangs are weaker, the wrinkle of the crown is as weaker than the orangutan. Dwarf chimpanzees or bonob - the living model of early hominid, is distinguished by small growth and grace. Lives in Zaire.

Family of the gominid. Body height 140-190 centimeters. Females are less than 10-12 centimeters. Characterized vertical body position and movement only on the lower limbs. The first finger of the foot loses mobility and is not opposed to the rest. The length of the lower limb significantly exceeds the length of the upper. Great importance It has the development of the first finger of the brush. The head is round, characterized by a strong brain part and a weak-driving forward face. The front department is not ahead of the brain, but under it. A large occipital hole is directed down. The teeth are poorly developed, almost no differ from the cutters. The indigenous teeth have flattened tuberculos on the chewing surface, on the upper - four tuberca, on the lower - 5. The vertebral pillar S-figuratively twisted, which is associated with the vertical position of the body. Sleepy and tail vertebrae grow into complex bones - the crushes and the tailbone. Characteristic of the strong development of the femoral bone. The brain is extremely developed, especially big hemispheres with furrows and convulsions. Pregnancy 280 days, one child is born, less often two - three. For a person, the longest among the mammals of the child's development and its learning is peculiar.

The first hominids appeared approximately 4-3.75 million years ago in Tanzania and Ethiopia. In the time interval, 2.5-2 million years ago, an adaptation of African hominids occurred, and by the end of this time there were three, and even more hominids. About 1.75 million years ago, Homo Habilis disappears and Homo Erectus arises instead. He extensively spread in Africa almost 16 million years ago. About 1 million years ago, representatives of this species met in Eastern and Southeast Asia and existed approximately 0.3 million backwards.

From the archaic form Homo Erectus there is a continuous line of development to the modern form of Homo Sapiens. In this band was Nendertalets. But with the transition to the modern Homo Sapiens, the massiveness of the skeleton, faces and the dental system is perfectly inherent in the Neanderthals.

At the same time, anthropologists prefer to attribute to the hominids of only people actually and some of their extinct ancestors (Australopithecus, Ardipithecus, etc.). There were also transitional fossil forms between them and other primates (Uranopites, Zakalympitek et al.), The systematic position of which is not defined. The human phrases are allocated on the basis of two simple criteria: two-beaches and reduction of the seabolic machine (decrease in fangs, parabolic shape of the dental arc , shortened jaws). They also differ from other primates with a larger brain (from 600 to 2000 ml).



This is the initial wood mammals for which five-five grabbing limbs are characteristic. It is known to more than 200 types of primates - from a dwarf facetime about 10 cm long to massive gorillas up to 180 cm long and weighing more than 250 kg, from fluffy lemurs to humans.

Figure: Mammals Adjusting Primates - Cate, Green Marty, Babian, Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Orangutane

The detachment of primates ("Primates" means "first") is named so because it includes the most highly organized animals - monkeys.

Primates - the inhabitants of the tropics: most of them live in dense forest thickets. All other wood animals are cling to sharp claws. Unlike them, primates clasp the branch with long, well-developed fingers. On the front and rear limbs of primates, the first (big) finger can oppose the rest. This allows the beast to hold firmly on the branches, take the smallest items with your fingers. Instead of claws on the fingers of monkeys, flat nails are developed. The limbs are very mobile. They serve not only for movement - their animals are enough food, clean and comb hair on any parts of the body. The monkeys have excellent hearing and acute vision. Their eyes are not located on the sides of the head, like most other animals, but are directed forward. They see the same thing with both eyes at the same time, thanks to which they definitely determine the distance to it. This feature of vision is of great importance when jumping from the branch branch.

Monkeys are well distinguished by the form and color, they have already published they detect mature fruits, edible insects. They feed both vegetable and animal food, but they prefer all the same juicy fruits. The cubs at primates are born in moant, but incapable of independent movement. It is firmly driven into the mother's wool, which carries it with him, holding one hand.

Monkeys differ from other mammals with large sizes of the brain, the big hemispheres of which have many convolutions. The smell of them is developed weakly, no tactile hair. The main bodies of the touch they serve to fingers, as well as bare palms and soles of the foot.

Monkeys are active during the day. They live herds, at the head of herd costs a strong male, and the rest of the males, females and the younger youngsters occupy a subordinate position and fulfill its requirements transmitted by sound signals and gestures.

Tropical america monkeys are distinguished widely arranged nostrils (for that they are called widely), long tail, which is tightly cling to branches. A typical loan representative is a spider monkey, named as long chain limbs.

In Africa and Tropical Asia, the narrow-skinned monkeys live, whose nostrils, like in humans, are brought together and separated by a narrow partition. The tail in such monkeys, for example, at the monkeys, when climbing plays a minor role, and in certain species is shortened or absent. Pavians Do not wood, but a terrestrial lifestyle, and go on all four limbs.

Manoid monkeys

Man-like monkeys are the largest and highly developed from primates. These include the African Gorilla, Chimpanzee and the Kaliman and Sumatar Orangutan inhabiting on the islands.

Man-like monkeys are spent part of the time in the trees where they find food, and they build a nest over the night. They can well and quickly move on the hind limbs on the ground, additionally relying on the back of the brush. An animal body takes half-bent position. The tail of these monkeys is absent.

The behavior of man-like monkeys is determined by the high development of their brain. They have excellent memory and intelligence. Manoid monkeys can make and apply the simplest guns. So, chimpanzee with a bitch, like a lever, open holes in the dwelling of wild bees. It takes off and purified by the leaf of a twist, it removes from the narrow moves of insects and their larvae, uses straws as toothpicks. Thick branches, stones and lumps of the monkey lands apply as weapons.

Chimpanzee communicate with sounds and signs. Their facial muscles are very mobile. Family, they express their fright, crumpled, pleasure, etc. In this respect, man-like monkeys resemble people. It should be borne in mind that in its structure, a person also refers to the detachment of primates.

With most of the primates of a person, such common features are brought together as a relatively large brain, a five-palarable grabbing brush with flat nails and an opposed thumb. A person discovers the greatest proximity to the gorilla and especially by chimpanzees, which manifests itself in the method of movement and in the inner structure. Human-like monkeys have the same blood groups that in humans are sick with the same infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, influenza. That is why a person belongs to one of the families of man-shaped monkeys of the adhesion of primates of the mammalian class.

Biological sciences are studying the human body. We must not forget that a person stood out of the world of animals and represents a public creature, a distinctive feature of which is a consciousness that arose on the basis of social labor activities. A person becomes a man only in society, where he develops and lives.