Each era was characterized by its priorities - slaves, gold, iron, oil, and subsequently water. The Earth's irreplaceable reserves are being depleted, which means the struggle for their possession will intensify. Especially if we're talking about about the last pantry of the planet - Antarctica, where there is everything - resources, water, and food. To knock down the locks on this storeroom and get more than you have is the dream of many. How can one not remember the words of Mark Twain: “Buy land, they don’t make it anymore.”
We are standing on the threshold serious conflicts in "no man's land". Antarctica is the last resource reserve of humanity, it is last place, where it will be able to extract mineral raw materials after they are depleted on the five inhabited continents. Geologists have found that the depths of Antarctica contain significant amount minerals - iron ores, coal, traces of copper, nickel, lead, zinc, molybdenum ores were found, rock crystal, mica, graphite were found.
The US Geological Survey claims that in the depths of Antarctica (as well as on its shelf) there are colossal reserves of oil - 6.5 billion tons, as well as natural gas - more than 4 trillion cubic meters. In addition, up to 90 percent of fresh water is concentrated in Antarctica. Antarctic waters contain an abundance of commercial fish species, and as the climate warms, many Marine life, preferring coolness, will shift towards the poles.
Recently, the Antarctic topic has sharply become relevant, and for good reason. First, to satisfy the growing appetites of the global economy (and especially new economic giants like China and India) an increasing amount of resources is required. Secondly, developing technologies make it possible to talk quite boldly about the industrial development of deposits in Antarctica. And thirdly, in last years It began to noticeably warmer on the icy continent.
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Recently, scientists from the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) stated the fact that over the past 30 years, air temperatures in Antarctica have increased three times faster than global warming. A decrease in the thickness of the ice cover is observed. The subsoil of Antarctica is becoming more accessible, and this is generating enthusiasm among both miners and politicians. The battle for the Arctic has been going on for a long time, and for most of the last century it was actually divided into national sectors by the Arctic states. In accordance with the Antarctic Convention, signed on December 1, 1959 and entered into force on June 23, 1961, Antarctica does not belong to any state. Allowed only scientific activity. The placement of military facilities, as well as the entry of warships and armed vessels south of 60 degrees latitude are prohibited. In the 80s of the 20th century, Antarctica was also declared a nuclear-free zone, which excluded the appearance of nuclear-powered ships in its waters, and nuclear power units on the mainland. Currently, 28 states and dozens of observer countries are parties to the treaty. However, the existence of a treaty does not mean that the states that joined it renounced their territorial claims to the continent and the surrounding area. On the contrary, the territorial claims of some countries are enormous. For example, Norway claims territory larger than its own once in ten, including including the island of Peter I, discovered by the Bellingshausen-Lazarev expedition. Great Britain declared huge territories as its own. In October 2007, Great Britain claimed ownership of part of Antarctica: the United Kingdom wants to gain 1 million square meters under its national jurisdiction. km southern continent(The total area of Antarctica is 14 million sq. km.) Australia considers half of Antarctica its own. In his commentary to Pravda.ru, Nikolai Mishutushkin, an expert on Australia and Oceania living in the state of Vanuatu, noted: “Canberra’s real demands extend only to a third of the territory of Antarctica and it has been consistently achieving this since 1933. Of course, such appetites have been satisfied to such an extent they won’t - there are too many other contenders. However, there is no doubt that when dividing Antarctica, Australia will receive its own and a considerable share of the “southern pie”, having secured the support of the same USA. Moreover, it is the only developed country in the world, in fact, neighboring the icy continent and this makes it easier to acquire a fatter piece.” However, the “French” Adélie Land is wedged into the zone of “Australian influence”. Made territorial claims and New Zealand. Great Britain, Chile and Argentina claim almost the same territory, including the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands. their claims to Antarctica. Japan justifies its claims to Antarctica in a very curious way; The gas deposits explored on the sixth continent lie so deep that no one but her has the technology necessary to extract them. Accordingly, Japan considers this sufficient reason to demand a certain share of the ice continent's gas reserves. The United States and Russia took a special position, declaring that, in principle, they could put forward their territorial claims in Antarctica. The USSR opened its first stations here in the mid-1950s. Currently, there are 45 year-round scientific stations in Antarctica from 28 countries, the temporary population ranges from 4 thousand people in summer to 1 thousand people in winter. Russia has 5 stations / "Progress", "Mirny", "Vostok", "Novolazarevskaya" and "Bellingshausen"/ and 3 seasonal field bases / "Druzhnaya-4", "Molodezhnaya" and "Russkaya"/. Another 7 stations, including the Pole of Inaccessibility, were closed. |
The confrontation began a long time ago - almost from the moment the sixth continent was discovered by Lazarev and Bellingshausen in 1819. Since then, for almost a hundred and fifty years, Russia, with varying degrees of success, has rejected the claims of other countries to the land it discovered. However, it was not possible to finally establish itself on the continent, and in 1959 the USSR, along with 11 other countries, signed the Antarctic Treaty. Since then it has officially become a draw. Moreover, even industrial development of mineral resources is prohibited on it.
However, practice has shown that the dispute over national jurisdiction over Antarctica was simply postponed indefinitely. The claimant countries did not give up their claims to the new lands. Antarctica was divided by conventional boundaries into national sectors. But such a solution to the Antarctic issue also concealed hidden threat: the conventional boundaries of national sectors gradually began to be perceived as real boundaries, and it has already reached the point of “territorial disputes.”
States laying claim to the sixth continent are going to all sorts of adventures just to acquire at least some virtual rights to this territory. So, back in the 80s. last century, Great Britain, New Zealand, Chile and Argentina declared their sovereignty over a number of Antarctic islands. Their calculation was simple: in 1982, the UN Convention on maritime law, which assigned a 200-mile economic zone to coastal states, which could also be expanded to include the continental shelf. The economic zone around the islands theoretically makes it possible to “gain a foothold” in Antarctica legally.
The first war for Antarctica also took place. Formally, Great Britain and Argentina fought a quarter of a century ago over the Falkland Islands, but one of London’s strategic goals was to strengthen its position in the struggle for the sixth continent. Thus, two main forms of struggle for Antarctica have emerged: attempts to legally or actually “stake out” a piece of no-man’s territory and resources for the future, as well as technological competition in the ability to develop these resources now. However, it is possible that in the future a third form of struggle will be used - armed. The battle for Antarctica has already begun.
The value of Antarctica (Sergey Mikhailovich Myagkov)
Myagkov Sergey Mikhailovich
Born in 1933. Candidate of Geographical Sciences. Head of the problem laboratory of snow avalanches and mudflows, Faculty of Geography, Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov. Participant of several Arctic and Antarctic expeditions. Author about 40 scientific works, two popular science essays. Lives in Moscow.
Notes from an "Exchange Scholar"
One fine autumn day in 1968, I was asked if I would like to work for a year at an American research station in Antarctica. And since then, I don’t remember a day when I didn’t do something related to Antarctica, or at least intend to do it.
I was the thirteenth Soviet specialist to participate in the US Antarctic Expedition on the basis of international scientific exchange. In 1969-1971 I worked in the Transantarctic Mountains, mainly in the McMurdo Station area, studying the history of glaciation and modern development glaciers and mountainous terrain, in particular, carried out phototheodolite surveys. By repeating such surveys from time to time, it is possible to measure with high accuracy all the changes occurring in the field of view of the camera, in our case, changes in glaciers and the slopes surrounding them.
In 1975-1976 I repeated this shooting when I visited Antarctica, this time at the special invitation of the US Antarctic Expedition, in addition to the Soviet-American scientific exchange program. The “exchange scientist” at this time was Narciss Barkov, a glaciologist from the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute. The results of phototheodolite work turned out to be interesting enough that the benefits of their continuation became clear. So I hope to see the Transantarctic Mountains again in 1979-1980.
In general, I am in the position of that Moscow schoolboy who wrote to the newspaper: “What should I do? I love Lolita Torres!” The Transantarctic Mountains are beautiful and attractive. They are worthy and waiting for their Roerich and Kent. There it happens to discover mysterious amazing properties glaciers and mountainous terrain not found anywhere north of 60° south latitude. I fell in love with this region, fell in love with Antarctica, where - alas! - I can’t visit as often as I would like.
I am clearly aware that I am, to put it mildly, not alone in this feeling. Several tens of thousands of people have already visited Antarctica. At McMurdo Station I met an auto mechanic who had been spending the northern summer in Greenland, at the Thule base, for about 10 years, and the second half of the year in Antarctica. And if I decided to notify the reader of my more than business interest in Antarctica, it was only in the hope of a better understanding.
Antarctica's mineral resources - explored and expected - must be large and include such valuable species for modern industry as diamonds and radioactive substances. In the early 1970s, the world's largest uranium deposit was discovered in Australia, which is related to Antarctica in geological history, raising the possibility of such deposits in Antarctica. Signs of oil potential have been discovered on the Antarctic shelf.
However, the development of Antarctic deposits is unlikely to be profitable in the near future. According to the American research organization Resources for the Future, the cost of sea transportation of goods between the coast of Antarctica and extra-Antarctic areas is rarely equal, and often ten times higher than normal. The cost of maintaining one person at a coastal station reaches approximately 20 thousand dollars per year, and at an inland station - 4-5 times more. Under these conditions, no mining activity in Antarctica will be economically justified, with the exception of the development of fairly rich coastal deposits of gold and diamonds. It is also important that geologically poorly explored, but potentially mineral-rich areas of other continents are total area much larger than Antarctica. In general, the prospects for the development of the mining industry here in the foreseeable future are small.
The biological resources of the ice continent are negligible. They are concentrated in a coastal strip usually several tens (less often hundreds) meters wide - seal rookeries, colonies of penguins and other birds.
Climate resources are cold and frozen fresh water. Antarctica could be used as a global refrigerator to store food reserves. However, as we know, humanity does not have such a problem and does not foresee it in the future.
Fresh water is a very valuable resource. About 80 percent of the world's quantity is concentrated in the Antarctic ice sheet - an invaluable and wisely created reserve by nature. Back in the mid-60s, a large iceberg brought to the shores of Australia or the United States would have cost several million dollars. Over the past decade, the water crisis in major capitalist countries has intensified. In the summer of 1976, restrictions on the use of water for industrial, agricultural and even domestic purposes were introduced in some areas of Great Britain, France, the USA and other countries. But no one has yet undertaken to deliver an iceberg to a potential consumer due to the complexity of this task. The development of seawater desalination technology will apparently determine the oxidation of oxygenates. Although, for example, Saudi Arabia is ready to allocate huge funds to tow an Antarctic iceberg to its shores.
This category of resources also includes the attractiveness of Antarctica as a tourist destination. Commercial tourist cruises have been sailing to the Antarctic Peninsula from Argentina since 1966 and to the Ross Sea from New Zealand since 1970. According to the organization Resources for the Future, the cost of one place on the ship is several thousand dollars. The number of applicants many times exceeds the capacity of the ships.
The results of scientific research, according to unanimous opinion, represent the most important product Antarctica now and in the future. The value of scientific results increases over time faster than any purely economic value. The development of methods for the rational use of the natural environment - a fundamentally new and most important scientific problem of the coming century - cannot be solved without detailed and comprehensive knowledge about Antarctica and its interaction with the ocean and atmosphere of the rest of the planet. More immediate and private benefits follow from geophysical, radiophysical, some biological and other industrial research.
The results of studying the Antarctic sometimes lead to quite strong changes in previously established scientific concepts. For example, let's take knowledge of the history of glaciation of the Earth. Back in the late 60s, the prevailing ideas were obtained from the study of traces and remains of the ice sheets of Europe and North America. glacial period was thought to be relatively short (last million years or so). The reasons for its onset were sought in space. The development of glaciers in the northern and southern circumpolar regions was considered synchronous, from which a conclusion was drawn about the current rapid contraction glaciation of Antarctica and the upcoming rise in sea levels for this reason. The possibility of renewed glaciation in Europe and North America was unclear. Data from the latest research in Antarctica have significantly changed this picture, which now appears as follows.
There was once a huge continent of Gondwana, which included South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and smaller areas of modern land. 100-150 million years ago Gondwana began to break apart. The area that included Australia and Antarctica, 50-60 million years ago, moved its Antarctic edge from the middle latitudes to South Pole. According to climate laws, a continent that finds itself at the pole is doomed to glaciation. However, the climate of Australia-Antarctica is still for a long time remained warm due to the heating effect of powerful ocean currents carrying water tropical zone to the polar shores. On the coasts of Antarctica grew beech forests, although in its central regions a “Yakut” climate may have already been established.
Meanwhile, the fragmentation of Gondwana continued. About 50 million years ago, Australia began to move away from Antarctica, and 25 million years ago, the bridge that connected Antarctica with South America. Thus, a continuous oceanic ring was formed around Antarctica, which determined the new polar direction of currents. "Water heating" by the former meridional currents has stopped. The polar continent quickly cooled and glaciation began. This happened about 25 million years ago, long before the first human ancestors appeared on Earth, at the beginning of the formation of the modern world of mammals, when on the territory of the modern islands of the Northern Arctic Ocean The climate was like it is now in Ukraine, and the entire surface of the Earth was much warmer than it is now.
All other things being equal, the size of the ice sheet depends on the climate, and its boundaries change following climate changes. The climate of Antarctica is such that the corresponding ice sheet could be significantly larger than the existing one. But its expansion is hampered by the limited size of the continent. If on ordinary glaciers almost all ice consumption occurs by melting, then the ice consumption of the Antarctic cover occurs mainly by dumping ice into the ocean. Over the entire 25 million years of its continuous existence, fluctuations in the size of the ice sheet were determined not by climatic changes, but by changes in the boundaries of sea and land, which in turn were mainly a consequence of intraterrestrial processes. There is no reason to assume that future climate fluctuations will significantly affect the extent of glaciation in Antarctica. It is destined to last until the continent sinks (which is unlikely) or shifts into warmer climes(which is likely, but it will take many millions of years).
Glaciation of Antarctica arose on warm earth as a result of the displacement of the continent and its isolation from warm ocean currents. Once it began, it itself began to change the Earth's climate. The water cooling near the shores of the icy continent sank to the bottom and gradually filled the deep areas of all oceans. Now the bottom ocean waters, even near the equator, have a temperature of only 2°C, 8° lower than before the glaciation of Antarctica.
The cooling of the ocean led to the cooling of the entire planet. Slowly but steadily, tropical forests were reduced, tundra emerged, and modern natural zonation was established. 1-3 million years ago it became cold enough for glaciers to form on other continents, especially around the Arctic Ocean. However, in the middle latitudes the climate was not and cannot become cold enough to ensure the continuous existence of glaciation, as is the case in Antarctica and as would be the case in the Arctic if land took the place of the ocean here. The ice sheets of Eurasia and North America appeared only during the cold phases of climate fluctuations and were greatly reduced or disappeared during the warm phases. The last time ice sheets existed here was approximately 25 to 10 thousand years ago. Since the causes of glaciation persist (the general Antarctic cooling of the planet plus cyclical climate fluctuations independent of it), we should expect a renewal of the ice sheets of Eurasia and North America in the future.
This is the brief history of the glaciation of Antarctica and its influence on the nature of the rest of the planet. The picture depicted, as you can see, is fundamentally different from the ideas that existed 5-10 years ago. It allows us to foresee such a significant change in the natural environment as the onset of a new glaciation in Eurasia and North America. It is clear that it is useful to know about such an event in advance, so that you have time to find out exactly when it will happen and decide what should be done about it. (According to existing estimates, this will not happen for at least several centuries.)
Interestingly, all past climate changes from warm to glacial (usually cooling by several degrees) in scientific literature are called "climate deterioration". Apparently, the unknown scientist who came up with this obviously unfair term was very cold. The fact is that the appearance of the Antarctic ice sheet caused a chain of important natural changes: increase in temperature contrasts on Earth, aggravation and enrichment natural zoning, increasing the diversity of living conditions of living organisms, accelerating biological evolution, in particular human evolution, increasing the diversity of forms of flora and fauna. Is this "deterioration"?
As for the future probable cooling of the climate and the resumption of ice sheets in Europe and North America, there is, of course, nothing to rejoice at. The cooling itself will most likely be slow, almost unnoticeable against the backdrop of short-term climate changes. A significant problem, of course, will be the reduction (glaciation) of the area suitable for habitation, especially if we remember that existing futurological forecasts already threaten humanity with a lack of territory and natural resources in the next 100-200 years.
What would a person prefer - war or peaceful coexistence with glaciation? Any speculation about this is now baseless. We still know too little when and how great natural forces will confront man and what energy capabilities he will have by that time. We don’t even know yet whether the involuntary man-made impact on the atmosphere will lead to climate changes that are deeper and faster than natural ones. Of course, it would be nice to know all this in advance. And further research in Antarctica cannot be done here.
Let us return, however, to the question of the overall value of knowledge obtained in Antarctica. There is one characteristic difference in Soviet and American assessments on this matter regarding the experience of planning and organizing work. The leaders of Soviet Antarctic research do not particularly highlight this aspect of the matter from a number of others, which is natural, since detailed planning and clearly coordinated implementation of the tasks of the of different nature and degree of complexity is one of the long-established norms of running the national economy of our country. The Antarctic experience in this regard is interesting.
At the same time, this experience is irreplaceable for the United States. In particular, it was carefully analyzed during the initial planning period for American lunar exploration. Leading figures from the National Space Administration (NASA) made a special trip to Antarctica. They found that space and Antarctic exploration share important commonalities: scientific objectives; complexity and high cost of logistics; the enormous value of scientific results, not expressed in monetary terms; the independent value of the required technological development, as well as the resulting planning and management experience; education of groups of highly qualified scientists and managers.
It is known that good plan- this is half the success. I was very interested to learn how US Antarctic research is planned. The entire matter is in the hands of the National Science Foundation's Division of Polar Research. NSF is a government agency that invests cash(state budget and private, donated) for the development of fundamental scientific research. The NSF tries not to go beyond administrative functions. For determining the best way spending of available funds, the NSF seeks advice from scientists. Thus, at the Division of Polar Programs there is a kind of advisory group, on the basis of election and periodic renewal of the composition, which includes leading scientists and specialists on problems related to the polar regions. This group evaluates current and completed research and develops recommendations for the future: strategic goals, main problems, desired deadlines, basic measures for logistical support of Antarctic research.
The main goals are indicated for the foreseeable future. So, in the early 60s, the task was set to complete all reconnaissance and survey research in five to ten years, in order to then, after a thorough analysis of the collected data, determine further strategic goals.
Particular tasks are indicated for the next five years and are updated annually, that is, there is a kind of rolling five-year plan for current scientific tasks. The plan is communicated to interested research institutions. At their own discretion, these institutions - universities and colleges, research centers of the state and, less often, private ones - take on the implementation of one or another task, competing with each other - sometimes openly, more often secretly.
Proposed work plans and estimates are reviewed by the Division of Polar Programs with the participation of an advisory group. Preference is given to the most complex, most advanced scientific ideas and methods, and, other things being equal, to the cheapest projects. The best plans are accepted and receive a “grant,” that is, funding from the NSF. The NSF budget is unstable and can change dramatically from year to year. Therefore, the “grant” is not given for the entire duration of the program (usually three to five years), but is renewed annually. The procedure for renewing the “grant” is preceded by a critical assessment of the progress of work and the results obtained. If they were not successful enough, the "grant" may not be renewed.
The generic image of the "taxpayer" - the taxpayer funding your research and wanting to get real value for your dollars - is constantly present in the speeches of the leaders of the Division of Polar Programs. “Ruble control” is well organized and ensures the quick death of protracted, unimportant, stupid research. However, not everything here is as clear and useful as we would like. Firstly, behind the idealized image of the “taxpayer” lies Congress, whose decisions on the budget, to put it mildly, do not always seem justified (the annual increase in the US military budget is tens of times greater than the annual expenditure on Antarctic research, the results of which are the Americans themselves, including congressmen recognize as invaluable). Secondly, the desire to win a competition for obtaining and then renewing a grant leads in many cases to such harmful consequences for science as claims to the global significance of the findings, a clear taste of sensationalism, disregard for priority, restraint of scientific and purely human contacts between potentially competing groups , even under expedition conditions. However, as they say, “what has been said does not detract...”. Many American scientists have always been at the forefront of Antarctica's exploration, especially in the technical development of new ideas.
Through the distribution of grants, the NSF Division of Polar Programs (OPP) organizes and directly manages the US Antarctic Expedition. Beyond these responsibilities, the role of the OPP is most noticeable in the development general technology research (justification and implementation of the idea of transportable stations, special types of ground transport, “flying laboratory”, automation of various types of observations, etc.). OPP employees also made a great contribution to the development of international cooperation in Antarctica.
International cooperation, its establishment and accumulated experience are undoubtedly one of the main values of Antarctic research. Everyone or almost everyone knows that Antarctica is the coldest place. But few people realize that this is also the place where the Cold War ended first. In 1959, the Antarctic Treaty was drawn up and ratified in 1961, declaring the south polar region demilitarized and open to peaceful scientific research. When a US military icebreaker arrives in the Ross Sea, a large unpainted spot and four bolt holes can be seen on its deck - a sign of a removed gun. Juhan Smuul in his "Ice Book" mentions an episode of a fireworks display using hunting rifles at Mirny station in early 1958. After the conclusion of the Antarctic Treaty, flare guns were used for fireworks. General and complete disarmament with free and arbitrarily broad mutual control is the ideal for the rest of the planet.
Is détente irreversible in Antarctica? How can it be strengthened? To answer, you need to know history.
"If you reach the magnetic pole, you must hoist the flag of the United Kingdom on it and, in the name of the expedition, declare this area part of British Empire". "At 15:30 we bared our heads and raised the English flag. According to the instructions, I said loudly: “This region, encompassing the magnetic pole, is accepted by me as the possession of the British Empire.” Then we shouted “hurray” three times in honor of His Majesty the King." These are excerpts from the instructions and diary of Professor T. David, a participant in the British Antarctic Expedition of 1908-1910. Professor David's colleagues, participants in Antarctic expeditions from other countries, performed similar rituals in other areas of Antarctica right up to the end of the 40s. Was it before international cooperation? A good two-thirds of the continent was “captured” by Britain with its dominions, the rest by Argentina, Chile, Norway, France.
But now the imperial excitement is over. Over time, it became clear that the territories “taken into possession” were far from Eldorado, and sealing and whale fishing in the Antarctic waters had become rather scarce. On the other hand, the scientific and technological revolution decisively required numerous scientific information, including from the south polar region, where fairly rapid success could only be achieved through joint efforts. This is where international cooperation in scientific research was established, as each participant came to the conclusion that this was more profitable than anything he could do in Antarctica. It must be emphasized that our positive role The similar positive positions of the USA and the USSR, countries with the highest scientific and technical potential, which do not have their own and do not support others’ territorial claims in Antarctica, played a role in the speedy achievement of cooperation.
From this it is clear that detente and the international cooperation in Antarctica will be stronger, the more cooperative the current Scientific research and their results are more valuable. With this in mind, the leaders of national expeditions, among the first being Soviet polar explorers, are constantly striving for progress in this matter. During the International Geophysical Year, at the end of the 50s, cooperation was expressed in the exchange of scientists for a one-year period and in the exchange of factual information received (through the Soviet and American international centers data). In the 60s, direct joint implementation of certain studies began to be practiced sporadically (for example, Soviet-French glaciological work in East Antarctica from 1963-1964). Since the early 70s, multi-year large international research programs have already been carried out (for example, the International Glaciological Project for the Study of East Antarctica with the participation of groups of scientists from the USSR, USA, France, Australia, and Great Britain).
There is every reason to hope that the detente of international tension in Antarctica will continue to be imbued with new and real content. All Soviet polar explorers are pleased to know that their pioneering experience of extensive international scientific cooperation served as a model for the development of numerous now international ocean and atmospheric research projects.
If the main problem modern humanity - to achieve mutual understanding and eliminate wars forever, then the Antarctic experience is invaluable.
There are about 40 people in the world who will spend at least a year of their lives behind this phrase. These are Soviet and American “exchange scientists”, each of them spent the winter at a station in another country. If only we could all get together one day and write a book! I think it would turn out to be something between “Robinson Crusoe” and “The Star Diaries of Ion the Quiet”... In the meantime, the reader is offered some individual impressions, for all possible errors of which one author is responsible.
The closer you get to the day when you find yourself among strangers, your future colleagues and friends, the more excitement you get: how will everything turn out? You feel like such a strange figure that you have never been before. You and a real man with all the shortcomings (oh, why was I too lazy to eradicate them!), you are an abstraction, since you are a “representative of the country.” Yours scientific program approved in advance by the receiving party. But in general, this side somehow managed without your activities and can continue to do so. You know (from your predecessors) that you are destined for special honorable attention from the American authorities, but even without you they have worries above their heads. But everything is getting better. The main thing is to be yourself and not try to look better. I received this advice on the eve of leaving to join the Americans in Antarctica and best advice for "exchange scholar" I don't know. Is it only for the “exchange scientist”?
Gradually everything is getting better. A week after arriving at the Antarctic station, you begin to distinguish faces - first your neighbors in the House, then your neighbors in the laboratory. All the Americans at the station turn out to be unusually calm and patient people. You are convinced of this when you try to speak English with them - your English! Then this gets better too.
And now the work has already begun, has begun, is in full swing. She will go on like this for almost a year. And for the rest of the term she will go twice as fast, because suddenly a lot of scary people have appeared interesting questions and tasks, but there is only a pinch of time left! It’s fun and annoying that you can’t stay a couple more weeks: after all, the equipment is debugged, the work area has been mastered, the management is familiar, and the helicopter pilots are friends. But you really can’t linger. So it’s better for you to find an hour or two to sit away from people on the shore, look at the rocks, water, floating ice floes, the mountains beyond the bay and the sky above them. To remember forever. "We leave heart particles in distant lands..."
You fly north no longer as an abstraction from abstract Americans, but as a living person from living people. A year ago, your superiors met you at the airport. Now your friends are seeing you off, and there are more of them than those who met you. It feels good when you suddenly realize this. And it's sad because it won't happen again.
Of course, the touching nature of the moment does not deprive you of sobriety in your assessments. You can hardly forget how, in the midst of winter, you suddenly discovered that not one of the Americans you interviewed even suspected the fascist past of Wernher von Braun, the pillar of American space technology. And that, in the opinion of many, Russia contributed almost nothing to defeat Hitler, it only consumed Studebakers and American pork stew. That of those who are familiar with the name “Babi Yar”, not a single one is sure whether it was the Russians who shot the Jews there... Well, what can I say! Your wintering colleagues are a generation" cold war". It is better to remember that they do not trust propaganda too much and would like to come to visit you to look at everything with their own eyes. Or how on the First of May you were presented with a luxurious cake with a homemade flag on the top and you clumsily cut this cake, unexpectedly finding yourself the owner holiday party. Or how helicopter pilots made a detour to bring you to a field camp a local small-circulation magazine with sensational headlines: “The Soviet Army is in the USA! American defense defeated by the Reds!" - they were talking about the CSKA hockey players. Well, if we really remember it seriously. What comes first? The faces and names of those six guys who different time were your volunteer assistants in field work. You spoke terrible English, couldn’t understand the labels of canned food to prepare a normal dinner, were simply zero in terms of radio communication with the base, etc., etc. The guys demolished all this without blinking an eye. Since there were six of them, and you were one, the main credit goes to them for the fact that something worthwhile came out of your work.
"When you return to native land and you begin to remember what you have experienced, you realize that you have seen and discovered such a region on this planet where the people of the Earth can live and work in complete reconciliation and brotherhood,” wrote Leroy Sharon, geophysicist, former American “exchange scientist on the Soviet Antarctic Expedition.”
Isn’t the main value of Antarctica the possibility of such discoveries?
Sanatoriums in hot spring Krasnodar region the best sanatoriums in a hot way.
The article contains information that allows you to better understand the features and distinctive features of the mainland. Supplements data from the 7th grade geography course. Explains the difficulties that prevent the start of mining in Antarctica.
Nature of Antarctica
The nature of Antarctica is fascinating and at the same time mysterious. This is the least explored continent on the planet. This is explained by unique climatic conditions. The territory is almost completely covered with ice.
Difficult climatic conditions also affect the possibility of using natural resources mainland.
The ice of Antarctica contains 80% of the planet's fresh water. The main continental territory is located beyond the Arctic Circle, so here you can observe the phenomenon of polar day and polar night.
Interesting: At the pole, the duration of this phenomenon reaches 6 months. Only once a year does the sun rise and set in this area.
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Extremely tough natural conditions and climatic features caused most of The mainland has no flora and fauna. This phenomenon is referred to in the scientific community as the Antarctic ice desert.
The basis of Antarctic species diversity is:
- bacteria,
- lichens,
- mushrooms,
- seaweed,
- several species of angiosperms.
Rice. 1. Antarctic mushrooms.
The species range of the coast is richer. The Southern Ocean contains enough fish in its waters, and therefore a lot of birds nest on the shores: penguins, skuas, petrels, cormorants.
Rice. 2. Petrel bird.
IN sea waters live blue whales, sperm whales, pinnipeds are found.
Many representatives of the animal world are protected by wildlife conservationists.
Natural areas of Antarctica
Much of the continent is dominated by the icy Antarctic desert.
Representatives of the local fauna are mostly inhabitants of the ocean depths.
Rice. 3. Glacial relief.
The continent is conventionally divided into two natural areas. The western tip of the continent is represented by subglacial mountain-like and glacial relief. East Antarctica conquered a large area of the mainland.
More than one and a half dozen states (16), and Russia is no exception, have established scientific bases here on which research activities regarding the nature of the continent. In 1959, at the proposal of the USSR, the International Treaty on Antarctica was ratified, which categorically prohibits testing of any types of weapons here.
The prospects that will make it possible in the future to mine what is still hidden in the ice are tempting for most countries. Natural resources Antarctica.
Some states have taken initiative in the development of mineral deposits. Since 1991, a proposal has been made to ban such activities. The reason is that human intrusion into the fragile ecosystem of the mainland can become a factor that will lead to irreversible consequences.
Geological exploration is still being carried out in order to find out the exact amount of reserves that may be located in the bowels of the continent. Total ratings received: 178.
Section 2 CONTINENTS
Subject4. Antarctica
§38 Vegetable and animal world. Natural resources
Remember
What plants and animals are found in polar latitudes?
Rice. 137. Antarctic lichen and Antarctic calamus are the only flowering plants Antarctica
Fig. 138. Penguins
The uniqueness of the flora and fauna. Antarctica is located in the zone Antarctic deserts. Therefore, the species composition of plants and animals is not rich. Life, like in any other deserts, is concentrated mainly in the oases of Antarctica. However, they have nothing in common with African or Australian oases. Antarctic oases include areas on the edges of the continent, where occasionally there are areas without ice cover, which manages to thaw a little in the summer. Therefore, only in oases can lichens and mosses be found. And in the small lakes located here, blue-green algae are common. Even flowering plants have been discovered on the Antarctic Peninsula (Fig. 137).
The life of most animals on the continent is associated with the Antarctic coast and ocean. The most common animals in Antarctica are penguins. These are birds that do not fly, but swim well (Fig. 138). Next to the small Adelie penguins, there are emperor penguins, whose mass reaches 50 kg and height - more than 1 m.
Facts today
Penguins and people. One of the most interesting penguin colonies has settled on Peterman Island. They are allowed to be photographed at a distance of 20-50 m. However, such annoying curiosity on the part of people disturbs the peace and affects the life of penguins, who have lived and raised their chicks in this area for thousands of years. There are fears that the penguins may change their place of residence due to the influx of tourists.
A true king of the air Southern Hemisphere called the albatross that accompanies the ship (Fig. 139). There are also many other birds here - petrels, gulls, cormorants, which set up bird markets on the rocks.
Seals live in the coastal waters of Antarctica (Fig. 140), elephant seals and leopard seals. There are many whales in the Antarctic seas, among them the largest animals in the world - blue whales, about 33 m long and weighing up to 150 tons. They feed mainly on krill - the smallest crustaceans. Over the past decades, due to overfishing, the amount marine mammals in the coastal waters of the mainland has decreased significantly. Since 1967 they have been protected.
Natural resources. The continent is rich in minerals and water resources. Significant deposits of iron ore, nickel, chromium, copper, mica, and rock crystal were found in its depths. There is a high probability of oil and diamonds occurring here. Antarctica contains 80% of the world's fresh water reserves, preserved in glaciers. There is already the first experience of transporting Antarctic icebergs to the shores of Kuwait (Persian Gulf country).
In the future, Antarctica's resources may be exploited. In the meantime, according to international agreement, there is no mining on the mainland. What stands in the way? On any other continent, during mining, huge waste heaps or quarries are left at the mining sites. And in Antarctica, such ejections of rock to the surface will cause melting continental ice, which will inevitably lead to disaster in Antarctica and on globe generally. After all, if in Antarctica you throw any object, even a small one, such as a piece of wood, onto the ice or snow, the ice underneath it will simply begin to melt before your eyes and the object will sink deeper. This occurs through significant solar radiation, which concentrates heat on the object. So, mining in Antarctica is only possible with new technologies that are currently being developed by individual the developed countries world (Japan, USA).
Rice. 139. Albatross
Rice. 140. Weddell Seal
Facts of our time
Ban on mining on the mainland. Although the agreement regarding the development of the natural resources of Antarctica was not adopted, its provisions were included in the protocol on the protection environment continent, which was adopted in September 1991 in Madrid. The protocol prohibits commercial development mineral resources on the mainland for 50 years. Now there is no urgent need to develop mineral deposits in Antarctica, and new technologies are still imperfect.
Antarctic international tourism. Recently, the number of tourists visiting Antarctica has been growing (Fig. 141). This is mainly the coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. The average number of tourists per year is 15,000, which is a real tourism boom for the continent of Antarctica. They arrive on the mainland by sea. Such a significant flow of tourists by Antarctic standards is due to the saturation of the coast with interesting natural and historical objects from the times of the first exploration and development of the mainland.
Rice. 141. Tourists in Antarctica
On the coast there is old station Port Lockroy is a historical site that has been converted into a museum. There is even a souvenir shop there. Almost all ships visiting this area of Antarctica come here.
There are also foreign tourists at the Ukrainian station “Akademik Vernadsky”.
Facts of our time
What are tourists interested in in Antarctica? What attracts tourists most is the exotic, in particular penguin colonies. Companies that organize such trips provide instructions to tourists on behavior in Antarctica, which boils down to the following recommendations: do not leave any garbage behind; Do not step on plants under any circumstances, as the mark on the surface will remain for 10-15 years; Do not get too close to animals so as not to disturb them. Tourists to Antarctica must adhere to these rules.
The organic world of Antarctica is very poor, which is explained by the predominance of ice desert zones on the mainland.
Antarctica is rich in mineral and water natural resources.
International tourism is developing rapidly in Antarctica.
Questions and tasks for self-test
Tourism has been intensively developing in Antarctica in recent years. Compile a short guide for those visiting the mainland.
Is the statement “Antarctica a desert” true?
What are the dangers of using the natural resources of Antarctica?
Describe the originality organic world mainland.
Egorov Ivan
No place in the world compares to this isolated continent of only snow and ice. Of course, we are talking about Antarctica - an amazing place where there are no permanent residents, no time zones, where 90% of all the world's ice is concentrated.
The presented project, completed by a sixth-grader, introduces this amazing continent.
The presentation consists of 22 slides. There is accompanying text. The material can be used when covering the topic of continents in geography lessons, as well as to broaden your horizons.
Download:
Preview:
Slide 1 Geography project “Silent Antarctica”
Slide 2 While studying the topic “Glaciers” in geography, I wanted to learn more about the ice continent - Antarctica and answer questions
Slide 3
What continent is this?
Who was the first to reach the shores of Antarctica?
Are there plants and animals in Antarctica?
Do people live in Antarctica?
Why is it necessary to study and develop Antarctica?
Slide 4 project typology
- informational,
- interdisciplinary,
- short,
- individual
slide 5 Already in ancient times, people believed that in the southern polar region there was a large land rich in precious stones. There were legends about her. More than once brave sailors went in search of a mysterious land, but no one was able to see the mysterious continent
Slide 6
Antarctica - unique continent. The only continent on Earth where people do not live permanently.
- Antarctica is a unique continent. It is almost entirely covered with ice. The average thickness of the ice cover in Antarctica exceeds two kilometers.
- Antarctica is the coldest continent on Earth. Temperature winter months reaches minus 70 degrees.
Slide 7 - 10
Antarctica was discovered in 1820 by Russian navigators Bellingshausen and Lazarev.
The expedition was tasked with penetrating as far south as possible in order to finally resolve the question of the existence of the Southern Continent.
At the beginning of autumn, with a fair wind, the ships headed across Atlantic Ocean to the shores of Brazil. From the very first days of the voyage there were scientific observations, which Bellingshausen and his assistants carefully and in detail entered into the logbook. The ships crossed the equator, and soon approached Brazil and anchored in the city of Rio de Janeiro. Having stocked up on provisions and checked their chronometers, the ships left the city, heading south to unknown areas of the polar ocean.
At the beginning of January 1820, sailors discovered an unknown island completely covered with snow and ice. The next day, two more islands were seen from the ship. They were also put on the map, named after the expedition members (Leskov and Zavadovsky). Zavadovsky Island turned out to be active volcano more than 350 m high.
The open group of islands was named in honor of the then Minister of the Navy - the Traverse Islands.
On ships making long voyages, people usually suffered from a lack of fresh fresh water. During this voyage, Russian sailors invented a way to obtain fresh water from the ice of icebergs.
Moving further south, the ships soon again met a small group of unknown people rocky islands, which were called the Presentation Islands. Then the expedition approached the Sandwich Islands discovered by the English explorer James Cook. It turned out that Cook mistook the archipelago for one large island. Russian sailors corrected this error on the map.
Bellingshausen named the entire group of open islands the South Sandwich Islands.
At the end of January 1820, sailors saw thick broken ice stretching to the horizon. It was decided to bypass it by turning sharply north.
Again the sloops passed the South Sandwich Islands. Bellingshausen and Lazarev did not give up trying to break through to the south. When the ships got into solid ice, they continually turned north and hastily got out of the ice captivity.
On January 27, 1820, the ships crossed the Antarctic Circle. On January 28, Bellingshausen wrote in his diary: “Continuing our way south, at noon in latitude 69°21"28", longitude 2°14"50" we encountered ice that appeared to us through the falling snow in the form of white clouds."
Russian travelers came less than three kilometers to the northeastern protrusion of that section of the coast of Antarctica, which 110 years later was seen by Norwegian whalers and called the Princess Martha Coast.
With great difficulty, their sloops "Vostok" and "Mirny" made their way through the storms to the shores of the new continent, circumnavigated it, and discovered many islands. With the discovery of Antarctica by Russian researchers, intensive study of the continent's coastal zone and the adjacent hard-to-reach water areas began.
This was a huge discovery in the geography of Antarctica.
Slide 11
The flora and fauna of Antarctica are represented by mosses, lichens, algae, and wingless insects. The most common birds are penguins and petrels. The ocean is home to seals, elephant seals and whales.
Slide 12
Extensive exploration of Antarctica began in 1957 - 1958. The center of Russian researchers is the Molodezhnaya station. The harsh climate of Antarctica prevents its settlement.
Currently, there is no permanent population in Antarctica; there are several dozen scientific stations from around the world where scientists live who study the continent and its nature.
Slide 13
According to the Antarctic Convention, which came into force in 1961, Antarctica is not
belongs to no state. Only scientific activities are permitted. By
international agreement prohibits holding events on its territory
of a military nature. This is the continent of the world. Currently, 50 states (with voting rights) and dozens of observer countries are parties to the treaty.
Slides 14-18
Here are photographs of Antarctica that reveal its nature.
Slide 19 Why is it necessary to study and develop Antarctica?
- This is the last place where humanity will be able to extract minerals. Antarctica contains up to 80% of the world's fresh water reserves.
- The effects of space are being studied in Antarctica.
- Determine the level of solar activity
- See and study microorganisms that lived millions of years ago.
- Monitor volcanic activity across the planet.
- Testing of various scientific discoveries, which in the future can be used for the development and settlement of the Moon and Mars.
Slide 20
It can be concluded
- This project allowed us to deepen and expand knowledge about the most unusual continent on Earth.
- Antarctica is the coldest continent on Earth and is almost entirely covered in ice.
- Antarctica was discovered by Russian navigators in 1820.
- There are almost no plants, animals are adapted to live in harsh conditions
- This is the continent of the world
We still know little about this huge icy continent. What's hiding under his icy armor? What riches are hidden on it? We have to answer these and many other questions.
References
- I'm exploring the world. Geography. Children's encyclopedia. - M., AST-LTD, 1997.
- Atlas of the animal world. – London, Dorling Kindersley, 1997.
- In the land of snow and ice. World wildlife. – M., Rosman, 1997.
Internet resources
http://tropina.ucoz.ru/index/materiki_antarktida/0-8 website
http://ria.ru/spravka/20150128/1044301131.html website
http://www.oboznik.ru/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/16.jpg bell
http://img-fotki.yandex.ru/get/6314/66496967.1a/0_66031_c0479316_XL.jpg Lazarev
http://ruskline.ru/images/2014/29180.jpg white and lah on the ship
http://lemur59.ru/sites/default/files/images/1294070831_1-27-shljupy-mirnyjj-i-vostok.jpg sloops
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