Parties grow out of social movements and organizations. Social movements and organizations form the social environment in which political parties operate. They complement the actions of parties or prevent the spread of their influence on society, and act as the basis for the restructuring of existing parties or the emergence of new ones. Examples of this: “Solidarity” in Poland, the People’s Movement of Ukraine in the early 90s. XX century in Ukraine, the National Front in Czechoslovakia, and the like.
Public organization is a voluntary association of people that has an internal structure from bottom to top, fixed membership.
Social movement- this is also a voluntary formation of citizens, which arises as a result of their free desire on the basis of a community of interests and does not have a fixed membership.
The difference between organizations and movements is relative. Each mass organization functions as a social movement. For example, trade union, women's, youth and the like.
A characteristic feature of modern mass social movements and organizations is that they, as a rule, are directly related to politics, or indirectly influence the quality of the activities of political institutions.
Researchers of mass democratic movements and public organizations identify the following reasons for their occurrence:
♦ growth of crisis phenomena in various spheres of public life;
♦ threat of war and the use of chemical weapons;
♦ growing threat of economic catastrophe;
♦ the need to protect human rights, freedom and living standards;
♦ overcoming regional military and interethnic conflicts;
♦ growth of the educational and cultural level of various segments of the population.
Polish political scientist E. Vyatr identifies four stages that social formation goes through in its development. At the first stage, the prerequisites for the emergence of a public association are created and an initiative group is created. The second includes the formation program documents, which reflect united individual aspirations. The third is checking the viability of a public association and its compliance with people's needs. The fourth is the fading of activity when tasks are completed, or life has proven the impossibility of achieving goals.
Thus, public organizations and movements are social forces who are trying to change existing conditions or consolidate them by influencing power structures.
Socio-political movements and organizations, depending on their connection with the political system, can be institutional (formal) and non-institutional (informal). The first, so to speak, are recognized by the political system as its integral part and function according to a set of formal rules. The second ones act outside the system, according to rules not assigned to them.
Mass public organizations and movements and a large number of small organizations and groups operate at different levels: international, religious, within political system of one country or another, at the local level. Organizations differ according to professional characteristics (an association of writers, lawyers, actors, etc.). But the most common is the classification by goals and areas of activity, on the basis of which we can distinguish:
♦ social and political;
♦ peacekeeping and human rights;
♦ economic direction;
♦ national, national-cultural;
♦ environmental;
♦ charity and healthcare;
♦ international and others.
The most massive public organizations are trade unions. The activities of trade unions are regulated by special legislation. They have their own international organizations, for example, the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU). In modern times, trade unions actively declare themselves to have a strong position in protecting the labor and socio-economic rights and interests of their members. The large number of strikes, which significantly influence the political process in society, is proof of this.
The range of socio-political organizations is quite diverse - these are youth unions, war veterans, a committee of soldiers' mothers, women's unions and the like. They are decisively involved in political life, organizing their own printed publications, meetings, and rallies.
Whatever the public organizations and movements, they perform two main functions:
♦ express and realize group interests;
♦ ensure the participation of its members in management.
Thus, the political function of public organizations and movements is not to fight for power, but to put pressure on it in order to realize the interests of their participants.
According to socio-political organizations, only those of the numerous associations and interest groups that exert pressure on the centers of power can be considered. In Western political science they are called pressure groups or interest groups.
Typical means of pressure public associations authorities are:
♦ direct nomination of its members to representative and legislative bodies of power, as well as functionaries of the administrative apparatus;
♦ participation of members of the organization in the work of parliamentary commissions;
♦ maintaining personal contacts with members of parliament, government, and government officials.
In many countries, a form of pressure on legislators known as lobbying (backroom lobbying) is widely practiced. Lobbying arose as a specific institution of the US political system for the influence of specific private and public organizations on the decision-making process of government authorities on issues of domestic and foreign policy. The political practice of American lobbying is actively spreading in other countries, including Ukraine.
Who does the lobbying? The best candidates for the role of lobbyists are former legislative and executive government officials who maintain connections with their former colleagues, as well as experienced lawyers who are intimately familiar with the behind-the-scenes life of legislative and government agencies. Lobbyists' services are highly paid. The range of means they use to achieve their goals is enormous. Let's highlight groups of lobbyists' funds:
♦ means of lobbying from an information perspective: collecting information, blocking it or providing it to interested parties; propaganda campaigns with advertising or anti-advertising of a certain action; local pressure campaigns (telegrams, letters, etc.);
♦ means of lobbying related to its financial support: financing an election campaign, providing " to the right people“various kinds of “services” (fees for speaking, etc.), provision of various kinds of entertainment for officials at the expense of interested organizations.
For many, lobbying is synonymous with corruption and, as we see, not without reason. However, lobbying is not only bribery and blackmail, but also a powerful method of strategically solving political, economic, and regional problems, since it employs highly professional experts who propose and implement socially constructive ideas.
As already emphasized, lobbying has received the status of social institution, became an organizational institution. His activities received legitimacy and legality. In the USA in 1946, a federal law was passed to regulate lobbying. According to it, individuals and organizations that are lobbyists are required to officially register and provide information about who they work for.
Pressure groups can be officially registered, as in the United States, or operate illegally. A typical example of a criminal pressure group is the mafia. The formation of constitutional and civilized forms of influence of pressure groups on government bodies and their participation in the political process is one of the most important conditions for the democratization of society, its normal and stable development.
Thus, socio-political organizations and movements in democratic countries are an integral component of political life. They complement rational pluralism, enhance the effectiveness of a multi-party system and competition among various political forces. Political parties, the government, and legislators cannot ignore socio-political organizations and must constantly look for ways to interact and dialogue with them. But the peculiarity of public organizations is that they do not set themselves the goal of conquering state power, which is typical for political parties. They create systems of pressure groups, under the influence of which state policy is formed.
Thus, having considered the main problems that were formed at the beginning of the lecture, it can be argued that in this world political parties are created to fight for power, to realize their election programs and their role in political systems various countries significant world. They express the needs, interests, goals of certain social groups and segments of the population. Parties actively participate in the formation and functioning of the mechanism of political power.
Social and political associations also have multifaceted significance. They play an essential role in structuring political systems. New political parties may emerge on their basis. The “non-party sphere” also forms and replenishes the ruling elite, creates a system of pressure on state institutions of power. Associations act as institutionalized channels for attracting people to politics and, thereby, influence the formation of political culture in society.
In addition, the political process in our country indicates that parties remain a reality of our time, their potential has not yet been exhausted, and for many decades they will remain the main object of politics.
Political parties; public organizations and movements
§
1. Party as a political institution
The concept of "public association"
An important place in the political system of society is occupied by various public associations of citizens - political parties, trade unions, youth and women's organizations, mass movements, associations, foundations, unions, etc. The basis of this kind of public formations is the awareness by their members of the commonality of their interests and aspirations for their practical implementation through association and organization. The right to association is a fundamental human and citizen right and means the right to free and independent choice by citizens of any form of non-state activity.
To characterize a wide range organizational forms social activity in scientific literature And legal acts the concept " public associations"A public association is understood as a voluntary formation that arose as a result of the free expression of the will of citizens united on the basis of common interests. Among public associations, there are such main groups of formations as political parties, public organizations and social movements. Having a number of common characteristics (voluntariness, intentionality of creation , amateur activities, etc.), these types of public associations differ from each other in their goals, objectives, degree of organizational formalization.Political parties play a particularly important role in the system of power relations. Origin and essence of political parties
Political parties and party systems are the product of a long historical development. The term "party" comes from the Latin partis, which means part of something whole, a side of some phenomenon or process. This concept is already in ancient world used to refer to groups of political allies striving for a common goal. However, political factions and alliances that took place under the slave-owning and feudal system can only conditionally be called parties; they were amorphous, temporary formations that could not play any significant role in socio-political life. The emergence and development of parties and party systems in the modern sense of the word is associated with the era of bourgeois revolutions, with the emergence and development of parliamentarism as a form of organization and exercise of state power. In the genesis of the party as a political institution, according to the classification generally accepted in political science by M. Weber, three stages are distinguished: aristocratic grouping - political club - mass party. Thus, in England, the predecessors of the modern conservative and liberal parties were the aristocratic groupings of the Tories and Whigs, which arose in the second half of the 17th century, the differences between which were initially of a religious, dynastic nature. In the 30s of the XIX century. Tories and Whigs formed political clubs - the Carlton Club and the Reform Club, respectively, which were oriented towards parliament in their activities. In the United States, after the declaration of independence, federalist and anti-federalist party groups emerged. At the Convention revolutionary France There were political clubs of Girondins, Jacobins, and Montagnards. The prototypes of modern political parties (groups and clubs), which existed in the 17th - early 19th centuries, differed significantly from today's parties in their functions, methods of organization and activities. Small in number, they operated primarily within the walls of parliament and relied on a narrow stratum of “selected” citizens. The lack of centralized leadership and weak organizational ties were compensated by the commonality of views of their members. Qualitative changes in the nature of political parties occurred in the 19th century as a result of the expansion of suffrage and the emergence of the organized labor movement. The gradual removal of qualification restrictions and electoral law reforms in many countries have significantly expanded the electoral corps. The struggle for the masses forces bourgeois parties to abandon isolation and go beyond parliament in order to exert constant ideological and political influence on voters. The labor movement made a significant contribution to the development of the political party as an institution. It created a classic type of party with mass membership, a network of local organizations, a periodic congress, a charter, and membership fees. Workers' parties arose extra-parliamentarily - on the basis of the trade union, cooperative movement, workers' and intellectuals' circles. One of the first workers' parties was the "General German Union", created in 1863. late XIX- early 20th century The labor movement was divided into two currents - revolutionary and reformist, on the basis of which two main groups of working class parties emerged - communist and socialist. At the beginning of the 20th century. Christian Democratic and other confessional parties emerge. With the development of the national liberation movement, parties differing in their class essence are formed, aimed at the national liberation of oppressed peoples. The evolution of the party as a political institution was accompanied by a theoretical understanding of this phenomenon in socio-political thought. For a long time, there has been a strong tradition of anti-partisanship in political theory - negative, at best. reserved attitude to the parties. It was based on ideas about the state as an exponent of popular sovereignty and general will. Parties were perceived as carriers of “private interests”, a source of crises and a split in society. Only gradually, as the parliamentary and constitutional foundations of bourgeois statehood developed, did the parties strengthen their political and legal status. At the end XIX beginning XX centuries the problems of political parties emerged as a separate area of political science. The most famous are the works of M. Ostrogorsky, J. Bryce, R. Michels, who are rightfully considered the founders of modern partology. In the scientific literature there are different approaches to understanding the essence of political parties and their definition. Ideological direction
considers the party as an ideological community, a union of like-minded people who are united general views, interests and beliefs. This understanding of the party originates in the liberal concepts of the past. B. Constant defined a party as “an association of people who recognize the same political doctrine.” Organizational approach
emphasizes, first of all, the organizational and structural aspect of the party’s activities. The characteristics of a party are highlighted, such as the presence of a special structure, duration of existence, connections between organizations, work with supporters, etc. Functional approach
involves the study of political actions, the role and tasks of parties in the political mechanism. A significant part of political scientists consider the “electoral” function of the party to be decisive and focus on the party’s connection with the electoral process, its participation in the preparation and conduct of elections. In Marxist literature, the social-class approach to determining the essence of a political party prevails. A party is understood as “a political organization that expresses the interests of a social class or layer of it, uniting their most active representatives and guiding them in achieving certain goals and ideals. Political Party- the highest form of class organization" (Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M. - 1983. - P. 482). All of the above approaches to defining a party reflect important moments for its life and have a certain cognitive significance. At the same time, they suffer from some one-sidedness and do not fully reveal the essence of a political party. Therefore, in the scientific literature, attempts are being made to give a kind of “synthetic” definition of a party through the establishment of a whole system of characteristics and criteria. A political party can thus be characterized as an organized group of like-minded people, representing the interests of a part of the people and setting as its goal their implementation by conquering state power or participating in its implementation
.
The main distinctive features of a political party are: connection with a certain class, social stratum, group or their totality, i.e. presence of a social base; possession of a specific program of activities that reflects the unity of the worldviews and ideological principles of party members; the presence of a formalized organizational structure (membership, subordination of bodies, party apparatus, etc.); an attitude towards achieving political power and actions for its practical implementation. The specificity of a party as a political institution is an open struggle for political and state power. Whichever specific goal whatever the party set for itself - be it building communism or protecting environment- she achieves this through the struggle for power. This is what distinguishes a political party, first of all, from other types of public associations (public organizations and movements), which also actively participate in political life, but do not seek direct control over government power. Types of political parties
The world of political parties is extremely diverse. It helps to understand this diversity typology of political parties. Batch type- this is a concept that reflects the most essential features of a certain group of political parties. The typology can be based on various criteria: social base, ideological image, principles of organization, methods of activity, etc. According to its class essence
parties are divided into bourgeois, petty-bourgeois, landowners, peasants, and workers. From the point of view of their ideological and political orientation
There are communist, social democratic, liberal, conservative parties, as well as parties based on various religious and national doctrines. In relation to the existing order
,
content of goals and objectives
There are revolutionary parties (striving for a radical qualitative transformation of society), reformist (striving to improve social life without structural fundamental changes), conservative (defending the preservation of stable, established forms of social life) and reactionary parties (striving to restore previous social orders and structures). By place in the system of government
parties are divided into ruling and opposition, according to the conditions of their activity - into legal, semi-legal and illegal. In accordance with the nature of membership, principles of organization
parties are divided into cadre and mass parties. Personnel partiesThey are distinguished by their small numbers, amorphous, loose membership, organizational looseness, and decentralized structure. There is no official membership system with appropriate registration and regular payment of membership fees. The cadre party is focused on participation and victory in elections. It relies not so much on the party masses, but on party activists and party functionaries, as well as financial support from influential circles of society. The Republican and Democratic parties of the United States currently correspond most closely to the type of cadre party. Mass Partystrives to involve as many members as possible into its ranks, since its main source of funding is membership fee. A mass party is characterized by a fixed membership, an even organizational structure, a centralized nature, and close and constant ties between party members. Communist and socialist parties can serve as examples of mass parties. The division of parties into cadre and mass parties is complemented by a typology of parties into parliamentary and vanguard by the nature of their activities
. Parliamentary PartyThe struggle for power is associated mainly with elections to representative institutions. It carries out its organizational activities mainly during the election campaign, striving to win the maximum possible number of mandates and implement its policies through parliament and the government. Parliamentary factions of parties and deputies at various levels enjoy broad powers in solving all, including internal party problems. Vanguard Partydoes not limit its activities to the struggle for parliamentary mandates. It carries out extensive extra-parliamentary activities, pays great attention to ideological and educational work, and is formed on an ideological basis. political party public organization Functions of political parties
The place and role of a party in the political system is determined largely by its functions. The functions reflect the main tasks and directions of activity of a political party, its purpose in society. The most common functions of political parties include: representation social interests; development of program guidelines, political line of the party; formation of public opinion, political education and political socialization of citizens; participation in the struggle for power and its implementation, in the formation of the political system of society; training and promotion of personnel. Within the framework of these functions, it is possible to identify more specific, specific tasks. The content, forms and methods of implementing the same functions may differ among parties of different types. There are also specific functions performed by certain parties due to the peculiarities of their development and position. An important place in the activities of the party is occupied by representation of interests
classes, social groups and strata. The content of this function is the identification, formulation and justification of the interests of social forces, their integration and activation. As mentioned above, the formation of parties is genetically determined by the differentiation of society into classes and other social formations with different interests. XIX - early XX centuries. - this is a time of sharp demarcation of social and class positions. This does not mean that the party system of society is an exact copy of the social class structure of society. It has always turned out that there are different options for class politics: social democratic and communist for the working class, liberal and conservative for the bourgeoisie. The formation of national and religious parties that go beyond class boundaries indicates the multidimensionality of the social structure of society, the presence of various strata that claim active participation in political life as its subjects. Recent decades brought significant changes in the content of the representation function. Western political scientists believe that class parties have replaced class parties since the mid-20th century. the so-called “national parties”, or “parties for everyone”, began to arrive. Such a party strives to avoid identifying itself with the interests of any one class or layer, but appears as a spokesman for the general interest. In order to achieve success, especially in elections, the party today must take into account the interests of an entire bloc of forces. Parties strive to win a majority of votes and, in accordance with this, build their strategy and tactics, striving to harmonize various interests. The image of the party is now shaped not so much by class orientation as by a certain type of policy. This concept reflects objective changes in the life of society, however, the term “party for all,” as we see it, cannot be taken literally: no party, since it represents one of the possible policy options, can satisfy everyone. Despite the expansion of the social base of the parties, differences remain between them both in terms of the forces to which they primarily focus, and in terms of their general ideological and political orientation. The interests of various social groups are aggregated and expressed in the process of developing a political program and implementing the political course of the party. The following party function is related to this - development of program settings
,
socio-economic and political strategy. The party, as a rule, has a long-term political program based on certain ideological principles. Even if a party is not based on any strictly defined ideological system, a certain ideological commitment is manifested in its specific activities and the values it defends. There are pragmatic and ideological styles of party activity. Pragmatic parties are focused on the practical expediency of actions, on searching for any opportunities to achieve specific goals. Parties of the pragmatic type avoid accepting dogmatized programs that claim to be strictly scientific and the ultimate truth. The program of such a party is often an election platform. Pragmatic parties do not make strict ideological demands on their members. Ideological restrictions do not play a significant role for them, and they are sometimes sacrificed when concluding various types of agreements, forming coalitions, etc. Ideological(or ideological, doctrinal) partiesare based on a strictly defined ideological doctrine. They are characterized by upholding relevant ideals and principles, the desire to model a society with certain ideological guidelines and put them into practice. Recognition by party members of its program guidelines is a necessary condition for the strength of intra-party ties. However, the existence of various political factions in the party and the struggle between them cannot be ruled out. Ideological and programmatic differences have their limits, and violation of them can lead to organizational splits and the emergence of new parties. At the same time, some parties (communist, for example) prohibit factional struggle as incompatible with the statutory goals and objectives. Experience shows that prohibiting factional struggle is ineffective and leads to the ideological and political ossification of the party. Parties strive not only to develop and update various political doctrines, but also to disseminate them widely in society. This is served by the publication of party materials, speeches by party leaders on radio and television, in the press, at rallies and meetings. The party is interested in recognition and support of its political line by public opinion. Ideological function
political party also involves the political education of its members and supporters, the education of members of society in the spirit of certain values and traditions, the introduction of citizens to political life and ultimately contributes to their political socialization.
Function of exercising power
political party includes: participation in the preparation and conduct of elections to bodies of state power and administration; parliamentary activities of the party, its work in party factions of parliament and local authorities; participation in the process of preparation and adoption by government bodies political decisions; political recruitment, etc. In a modern democratic society, political parties in the struggle for power reject violent methods and focus on electoral process. Elections are the main arena for party competition. In competition, success is achieved by the party whose political course appeals to the majority of voters. Therefore, one of the main tasks of the party is to ensure support from voters, create and expand its electorate.
As a result of changes in the social structure of society, the educational level of the population, and the influence of the media, parties lose their stable influence on voters. There is an “erosion of party support,” as defined by American sociologists W. Crott and G. Jacobson. Many voters change their party allegiance from election to election, or support candidates of different parties at different levels of elections, depending on how the latter promise to solve certain problems. Parties that have won parliamentary mandates form parliamentary factions or party groups. Factions submit various proposals to parliament for consideration, prepare bills, make requests to the government, participate in drawing up the agenda, and have other powers. Taking into account the number of parliamentary factions from different parties, the governing and working bodies of parliament (commissions, committees, bureaus, etc.) are formed. In Western countries, the principle of autonomy of party factions in parliaments and municipalities operates, according to which factions are not directly subordinate to party bodies, including party congresses and conferences. They implement party programs and guidelines in accordance with specific conditions. But since the effective work of the parliamentary faction presupposes the presence of a certain internal discipline, party factions often take quite strict rules behavior and even sanctions for their violation. For example, at a plenary meeting of a faction, a decision may be made obliging members of the faction to vote accordingly (a decision on “factional coercion” and “voting discipline”). Along with official coercion and other measures, the most effective are the prospects of not being included in the number of party candidates in the next elections. The exercise of power by the ruling party is expressed not only in its initiating and advisory role in parliament, but also in the formation and subordination of executive bodies. Political parties participate in the formation of the ruling elite, selection and placement of management personnel. They are the institutions within which political leaders and statesmen are trained. The ruling party, through its parliamentary faction, through its representatives in the state apparatus, participates in making political decisions that correspond to the interests of those it represents. community groups. Party bodies and forums define the goals and objectives of the party in such a way that their specific implementation in the form of bills and other government acts remains the prerogative of the parliamentarians themselves, as well as administrative bodies, the economic apparatus, etc. The general practice in a democracy is that parties do not intervene directly into the state system. Ruling parties strive to avoid directly linking their policies with the actions of the government and local executive bodies, and sometimes distance themselves from them in order to relieve themselves of responsibility for certain unpopular measures. Thus, the party and its bodies are, as it were, “alienated” from the state and influence it only indirectly. As a result, party bodies and organizations retain a purely public character and perform their functions on a non-state basis. A political party acts as an intermediary between the state and civil society. Parties ensure the connection of the masses with government structures, the institutionalization of the political participation of citizens and the replacement of spontaneous forms of socio-political activity of the population with organized, controllable forms. Through political parties, citizens put forward their group demands to the state and at the same time receive requests from it for support in resolving certain political issues. Thus, parties develop both direct and backward ties between the people and the state. This mediating role of parties is most fully manifested in a democratic society. In countries with totalitarian and authoritarian regimes, the role of ruling parties goes far beyond the scope of such mediation. Due to the absence of real competitors in the struggle for power, a political monopoly of the ruling party develops, which usurps power and political functions. The ruling party becomes over the state, establishes control over it, and through it over civil society. A party going beyond its functional purpose and attempting to replace state bodies destroys the socio-political nature of the party. Such an organization ceases to be a political party in the proper sense of the word, but retains only external signs such. Concept and types of party systems
In the course of their activities, political parties enter into certain relationships with each other, as well as with the state and other political institutions. In such interaction they form the party system. Party systemis an association of interconnected parties seeking to gain, retain and exercise power. This concept thus covers the totality of parties existing in the country and the principles of relationships between them. The nature and characteristics of the party system of a particular country are determined by many factors - the alignment of social and class forces, the degree of political maturity of society, the level of political consciousness and culture, historical traditions, national composition, religious situations, etc. The current legislation and, above all, electoral laws have a significant impact on the formation of the party system. In accordance with this, various types of party systems are formed. Depending on the nature of the political regime, we can talk about democratic, authoritarian and totalitarian party systems; in accordance with the prevailing social values, socialist and bourgeois systems are distinguished, taking into account the nature of the relationship between parties and the state - competitive and non-competitive, alternative and non-alternative party systems. One way or another, all these typologies are associated with the division of party systems into multi-party, two-party and one-party in accordance with the number of parties actually participating in the struggle for power. As the experience of political development shows, the optimal form and condition democratic development Societies are multi-party (two-party) systems. Their distinctive feature is the absence of a monopoly on power on the part of one party and the existence of a real political opposition. Multi-party systemcharacterized by the presence in the country of several political parties competing for power. A multi-party system ensures the most complete representation of the interests of various social groups, promotes competitiveness and publicity of the political process, and periodic renewal of the political elite of society. Historical practice demonstrates several varieties of multi-party systems. Its specific structure - the party structure - varies significantly from country to country. The classic multi-party system (Denmark, Belgium, Austria, the Netherlands) is characterized by competition between several political parties, none of which is able to win a majority of seats in parliament and independently exercise power. Therefore, this type of multiparty system is often defined as the pattern of multi-party fragmentation
. Under these conditions, parties are forced to make compromises, look for allies and partners in order to create a coalition majority. Party coalition- is an association, a union of political parties to achieve common political goals on the basis of consensus, compromise and balance of interests. Traditionally, there are such types of inter-party coalitions as electoral(formed for the period of the election campaign), parliamentaryAnd government. There are also legislativecoalitions into which parties enter in preparation for elections, and the validity of which is designed for the entire legislature, i.e. the term of office of the elected body, and opportunistic coalitions that are formed after the elections and are often temporary in nature. Due to the instability of executive power in a system of multi-party fragmentation, there is a tendency in political practice to move to other party systems that guarantee greater stability and effectiveness of political power. Some political scientists identify as a special type bloc or polarized multi-party system
.
Here in the political arena there are several political parties, united into two or more large political blocs. By attracting various parties, blocs contribute to the consolidation of political forces and overcoming the fragmentation of the political process. Parties build their election strategy and tactics taking into account their membership in one of the blocs. The outcome of the elections is determined not so much by the strength of each individual party, but by the coordination of actions within the bloc. For example, in France, a bloc of leftist forces, led by Socialist Party, and a bloc of right-wing parties led by the Rally for the Republic (RPR). Multiparty system with a dominant party
(dominance system) is characterized by a long stay in power of one party in the presence of an ineffective opposition. The ruling party gains and maintains a dominant position thanks to the weakness and dispersion of its opponents, the contradictions in whose ranks do not allow them to form a strong opposition alliance. For example, in Japan from 1955 to 1993 the liberal democratic party was in power; in India, in the post-war period, the Indian Party held power for a long time National Congress. In Sweden, the Social Democratic Labor Party is the dominant party. The system of domination makes it possible to form a stable one-party government, but carries with it the danger of inertia and stagnation for the ruling party. Two party system
Two party systempresupposes the presence in the country of two strong parties, each of which is capable of self-acceptance power and its implementation. When one of the parties wins the elections, the other becomes the opposition, and so periodically they replace each other at the helm of power. Bipartisanism does not exclude the existence of other, less influential parties in the country. They also participate in the political process, but are not able to really claim victory. The classic model of a two-party system has developed in the United States, where the Democratic and Republican parties oppose each other. In Great Britain, the Conservatives and Labor are fighting for power. Along with the classic two-party system, a modified version of the two-party system is also distinguished - "two parties and a half" system
"
. Here, too, large parties compete with each other, but none of them has an absolute majority in parliament and must enter into a coalition with a third party to form a government. This third party plays the role of balance, whose support ensures the preponderance of one of the leading parties. This structure has developed in Germany, where the role of regulator between the SPD and the CDU/CSU is played by the Free Democratic Party. The formation of a two-party system is largely facilitated by the majoritarian electoral system. Bipartisanism allows us to ensure relative stability of power, because creates a one-party government, free from the instability of coalition agreements. The two-party system, points out the French political scientist R. - J. Schwarzenberg, simplifies the process of articulation and aggregation of interests, since each of the competing parties strives to generalize, “reduce” the demands of various social groups in order to maximize its electoral base (see: R. Schwarzenberg. - J. Political Sociology, Part 3. - M. - 1992. - P. 74). At the same time, bipartisanship has been criticized for the fact that it excludes small, not very authoritative parties that express the interests of a minority from participation in decision-making. It is impossible to give an a priori preference and an unambiguous assessment of the effectiveness and democracy of one or another variety of a multi-party system. Everything depends on the characteristics of the country’s historical development, established traditions, and the specific political situation. One party system
One party systemcharacterized by a monopoly on power by one party. In a one-party system there is no political competition. The ruling party does not allow other contenders for power near it. Although, under an authoritarian regime, the legal existence of other political parties along with the dominant one is possible, the latter are deprived of real independence, have a rather limited field of activity and recognize the leading role of the ruling party. Such a system developed after the Second World War in a number of countries in Eastern Europe - Bulgaria, the GDR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, where the so-called allied parties played a secondary role in political life. Their specific features inherent in one-party systems of some developing countries with authoritarian regimes. The role of the ruling party here comes down to organizing mass support for the policies of the state leadership. The party, being represented in the governing state bodies, often acts as if in a “secondary role”, without directly participating in government. In a totalitarian regime, only one political party operates; others are dissolved or banned. As a result of the merging of party and state structures, the ruling party becomes above the state and plays a dominant role in it. Monopolization of power functions by one party inevitably leads to subjectivism and voluntarism in politics, to the predominance of command methods of management, violation feedback between the population and the authorities and the alienation of the masses from politics. Experience of functioning of one-party systems in the 20th century. showed their ineffectiveness and anti-democratic nature. Currently, such systems are gradually leaving the political arena as discredited. An example of this is the transformation of party systems in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s and early 1990s. §
2. Public organizations and movements
The concept and distinctive features of public organizations and movements
A significant role in socio-political life, along with political parties, is played by public organizations and movements. Unlike parties, they do not claim to be directly involved in the exercise of power and do not undertake associated obligations. However, by implementing their specific tasks and functions, public organizations and movements solve problems of broad social significance and make a significant contribution to state, economic, social and cultural construction. The formation of an extensive system of public organizations and movements is an indicator of the development of civil society, evidence of the diversity and structure of its interests. Public organizationis a voluntary association of citizens based on a community of interests, which has a relatively stable organizational structure from bottom to top, fixed (formalized) individual or collective membership. A public organization is characterized by the presence of a charter, a specialized management apparatus, relative stability of the composition, and material participation of the organization’s members in the creation of its property basis (membership, targeted contributions). According to these characteristics, public organizations include trade unions, entrepreneurs’ unions, cooperative, youth, women’s, veterans’ organizations, creative unions (union of writers, composers, theater workers, etc.), various voluntary societies (scientific, technical, cultural - educational, etc.). Taking into account the territorial scope of their activities, local, regional, national, and international public organizations are distinguished. Under social movementrefers to the joint activities of citizens pursuing certain common goals, but without a clear organizational structure and fixed membership. Social movements are distinguished by their mass character, broad social base, organizational and ideological amorphousness, instability of orientation and composition, and often spontaneity and spontaneity of actions. The connections between participants in the movement are predominantly ideological and political, rather than organizational in nature. The typology of social movements can be carried out on various grounds. According to the goals and areas of activity, they distinguish anti-war, environmental, women's, youth movements, the movement for racial and national equality, the consumer protection movement, religious movements and many others. In relation to the existing system, social movements are divided into revolutionary, counter-revolutionary, reformist, conservative, reactionary, and according to methods and methods of action - into violent and non-violent. Social movements can be formed on various social bases. Some of them, for example, anti-war, environmental, national liberation movements, are interclass (non-class) in nature. Others have a pronounced social class character - workers, peasants, bourgeois movements, as well as movements of the intelligentsia, farmers, and small owners. Social movements can also be grouped along gender and age lines - youth, children's, women's movements, pensioners' movements, etc. Movements of scientists, doctors, writers, etc. are created along professional lines. The division of voluntary associations into public organizations and movements is largely conditional, and it is not always easy to differentiate between them. Social movements, as organizational principles strengthen, often become the basis for the formation of public organizations and even political parties. Thus, the development of the environmental movement led to the creation of various kinds of environmental unions and associations, and then green parties in many countries. Popular movements and fronts in a number of former USSR republics evolved and took shape into national democratic parties. The political role of public organizations and movements
As stated above, public organizations and movements do not set as their goal the conquest and exercise of political power and do not seek open control over it. They are engaged political activity only insofar as it is necessary to perform tasks lying in another sphere of public life (economic, social, cultural). But although public organizations and movements do not set themselves directly political goals, their activities are objectively political in nature. The very fact that citizens enjoy the constitutional right of association includes them in the orbit of political action. The degree of influence of various social formations on political relations is different. Some of them - labor, trade union, national movements, etc. - have a significant impact on the political situation, while others practically do not participate in political life. However, in modern conditions Due to the general politicization of society, not a single public association can completely eliminate itself from direct or indirect participation in the political process. The political role of public organizations and movements is to influence the process of making political decisions by public authorities and management at various levels, more or less constant pressure on power structures. Public organizations and movements act as unique interest groups and pressure groups
. The concept of interest groups or interest groups was developed by American political scientists A. Bentley, D. Truman and others and has long been recognized in Western political science. According to A. Bentley, politics is a process of interaction and struggle of people organized in certain groups to achieve their goals and interests. Interest groups- these are “voluntary organizations created to express and represent the interests of the people included in them in relationships both with other groups and political institutions, and within the organizations themselves” (Fundamentals of Political Science. M. - 1993. - Part II. - P. 8). In group competition, a significant part of organized interests receive satisfaction through the channels of civil society. But in a number of cases, the implementation of the collective needs of group members requires authoritative decisions. If an interest group seeks to satisfy its own interests through targeted influence on institutions public authority, then it is characterized as a pressure group. The concept of “pressure group” reveals the dynamics of the transformation of social group interests that arise in civil society into a political factor. The effectiveness of a pressure group largely depends on the resources they have (property, information, qualifications and experience, cultural influence, ethnic and religious ties, etc.). Trade unions, associations of entrepreneurs, unions of cooperators, consumers, voluntary societies and other public associations (except political parties) are a type of interest groups. Functions of public organizations and movements
Identification of the functions of public organizations and movements is of great theoretical and practical importance, since this helps to understand their place in the system of civil society and the rule of law, as well as to show the forms and methods of manifestation of their activity. The main functions common to all public organizations and movements include: ) Identifying and satisfying interests and needs
members of the association. People unite in organizations and movements in order to satisfy certain specific needs related to professional affiliation, age characteristics, individual inclinations, etc. These interests may initially appear in a very vague, personal and emotionally charged form. Public organizations and movements transform such vague views and opinions into clear demands and programs of a given association, thereby contributing to the articulation of the interests of their members. Along with political parties, public organizations and movements solve, to a certain extent, the problem of aggregating interests, i.e. coordination through discussions of many particular requirements and the establishment of a certain hierarchy and priorities between them. Special meaning This function of public organizations and movements acquires under conditions of an undeveloped party system. ) Social integration and mobilization function
involves the unification and organization of group members and their supporters around the goals of this formation. This function may also have a broader context that goes beyond the framework of a specific public association. Public organizations and movements attract public attention to pressing problems, put forward their solutions, and seek public support for their initiatives. ) Socialization function
. By involving their members in solving socially significant problems, public organizations and movements contribute to the formation of their active life position, increasing political education and culture, involving citizens in the management of state and public affairs. ) Representative function
or the function of representing and protecting the interests of its members in relations with other political institutions. Public organizations and movements not only contribute to the awareness and expression of the specific interests and needs of their members, but also undertake the obligation to represent these interests and bring the group’s demands to the attention of government bodies, political parties, and ruling elites. The influence of public associations on power structures can be carried out in two ways: through electoral representation (through electoral systems), direct, functional representation of organized interests. The main forms and methods of pressure from public organizations and movements on government bodies are the following: direct nomination of their candidates to the representative and executive bodies of power; support, including financial; in elections of close political parties and their candidates; participation in the development and preparation of legislative and other regulations; participation in the work of parliamentary commissions, interdepartmental committees, advisory and consultative bodies, expert groups under various government bodies; organizing propaganda campaigns in the media, collecting signatures for relevant demands; strikes, rallies, demonstrations, etc. Particular attention should be paid to such a form of representation and protection of group interests as lobbying, or lobbying (from English. lobby- corridors, hallways). Lobbying in the broad sense of the word refers to any legal means of influencing (pressure) on the state in order to protect special interests. In a narrower sense of the word, lobbying means the direct interaction of a representative of an interest group with a decision maker, both through formalized channels and structures, and informal connections (meetings, conversations, consultations, telephone conversations, personal appeals). The task of lobbyists is to achieve the adoption of legislative and regulatory acts desired by the group, to obtain government subsidies, loans, etc., penetrating for this purpose into the institutions of government. In Western countries, a wide network of specialized lobbying services has developed - law firms, consulting bureaus, public relations agencies that provide intermediary services in establishing contacts between interest groups and government bodies. In the USA and some European countries Lobbying activities are regulated by law and are under financial control. However, the very nature of lobbying as a political phenomenon excludes the possibility of its complete control. Therefore, in the practice of lobbying, cases of corruption, abuse, and the use of dubious and sometimes illegal methods of influence (blackmail, bribery, threats, bribes) cannot be excluded. ) Another function of public organizations and movements is function of modeling new socio-political structures
, search and testing of non-traditional forms social connections. Voluntary associations, due to their public, amateur nature, act as an indispensable channel for conducting social experiments, searching for and implementing new self-governing forms of social activity of the population. Social movements
Turning points in social development are characterized, as a rule, by an intense “surge” of amateur activity of the masses. Thus, in the 70s in Western countries, the old traditional associations were replaced by diverse new social movements. Their emergence was due to the aggravation of global problems of our time, the entry of Western countries into new stage Scientific and technological revolution, changes in mass consciousness, in the value orientations of society, a crisis of confidence in government structures and traditional political institutions. Old traditional voluntary associations (trade unions, youth, women's, etc.), being integrated into the political system, were not ready to adapt to new realities. This is largely due to the formalization of their activities, the bureaucracy of management structures, and the separation of the apparatus from the ordinary masses. New social movements are democratic protest movements with a broad social base, mass appeal, new issues and demands. The backbone of the new social movements consisted of environmental, anti-war, neo-feminist movements, movements in defense of civil rights, etc. Despite the diverse social composition, the mosaic nature of the concepts, the participants in these movements are united by a critical attitude towards many realities of modern society, the desire to find original solutions to global and some other current problems. A feature of new social movements was the search for new forms, style, way of life, diversity and unusual forms and methods of social protest. The so-called alternative movementsoriented towards a break with traditional forms of socio-political life and the establishment of new models of social development. For this purpose, unique types of cooperatives, agricultural communes, housing communities, alternative enterprises, schools, clinics, etc. are created. Using their own example, they strive to implement a new system of humanistic, post-materialist values. Close to alternative movements and civil initiatives- a form of local, spontaneous collective self-organization of citizens to protect their interests and mutual assistance from government decisions that infringe on them. Civil initiatives are fighting to satisfy any specific demands and implement certain projects in the fields of housing, education and upbringing, transport, urban development, culture, and ecology. As for the countries of so-called “real socialism,” there formally existed a wide network of public associations, covering a significant part of the population. But in fact, public organizations and movements played the role of an appendage of the state machine, a transmission belt from communist party to the masses and did not have a truly social, amateur character. With the democratization of society and the transformation of political systems in the USSR (CIS) and Eastern European countries, significant changes are taking place in the system of public associations. The growth of political activity of citizens found its expression not so much in the renewal of existing public structures, how much in the creation of new independent organizations and movements. The second half of the 80s was marked by the creation of many informal public formations - non-traditional, alternative organizations and movements that operated outside the framework of official structures, relying only on the initiative of the citizens themselves and without claiming official status. Their activities initially were mainly local, cultural, educational, and environmental in nature. But gradually there is a politicization of the informal movement, its connection with widespread popular uprisings. Of particular importance was the formation and activity of the Popular Fronts, as well as the development of labor, environmental and other movements. In many cases, informal groups and formations have become the prototype of new public organizations and even political parties. Bibliography
1.Anufriev E.M., Lesnaya P.A. Russian mentality as a socio-political phenomenon // Socio-political journal. 2007. No. 3-7. 2.Vyatr E. Sociology of political relations. - M., 2008. 3.Ivanov V.N., Nazarov M.M. Political mentality: experience and research prospects // Socio-political journal. 2008. No. 2. .Fundamentals of Political Science. Tutorial for higher educational institutions. Part 2. - M., 2005. .Political process: main aspects and methods of analysis: Collection educational materials/ Ed. Meleshkina E.Yu. - M., 2001. .Political science for lawyers: A course of lectures. / Edited by N.I. Matuzova and A.V. Malko. - M., 2007. .Political science. Lecture course. / Ed. M.N. Marchenko. - M., 2006. .Political science. Textbook for universities / Edited by M.A. Vasilika. - M., 2004. .Political science. encyclopedic Dictionary. - M., 2003.
One of the forms of identifying and realizing political interests certain groups and individual citizens are social political movements - these are unions and associations that are not part of state and party structures, connecting the solidary political activity of citizens aimed at achieving any significant political goal. www.mainedu.ru
Movements include citizens who are dissatisfied with the activities of certain state institutions, who do not want to limit themselves to statutory norms and program goals, as well as persons with spontaneous, implicitly expressed socio-political interests. Unlike political parties, the social base of socio-political movements is amorphous and more variegated. Representatives of various social, ideological, ethnic, regional and other groups may belong to the same movement.
As a rule, political movements adhere to a single concept and seek solutions to a narrow political task. Having achieved this goal, movements cease to exist and are transformed into other movements or parties. The UPD, unlike a party, does not set the goal of gaining political power; it only tries to influence the government, although there are often exceptions in political practice.
In addition to the above, there are general signs of OPD:
Some political movements manage to survive for quite some time. a long period, and they become a significant political force. They are forced to be taken into account. These include the movement in defense of human rights and the environment.
Classification of socio-political movements
1. In relation to the existing system
: conservative, reformist, revolutionary
2. By place in the political spectrum:
left, right, center
scale
: local, regional, international
4. By methods and modes of action
: legal, illegal, formal, informal.
5. By duration of existence
: ephemeral, long-lived.
A special place in the political system of society is occupied by public organizations
These include trade unions, scientific, scientific-technical, cultural-educational, sports and other societies and associations. They accumulate a wide range of public interests of people - from political and economic to leisure, from problematic (environmental, for example) to amateur.
Among public organizations, a prominent place, and primarily in terms of mass participation, is occupied by unions
They are busy with issues that relate to various aspects of life: economic, social, cultural and are aimed at improving the work, life, and recreation of people. But the main importance for them is to protect the rights and interests of workers, to involve them in the management of production and public affairs.
Thus, the emergence and functioning of new public organizations, the transformation of old ones is the key to the mobility, vitality and efficiency of any society; it always symbolizes an approach that has proven itself in history: the more opinions, the better the decision.
Political behavior of the individual. Conditions for political socialization of the individual
Determining a person’s place in the system of socio-political relations requires consideration of the concept of political socialization, that is, the complex of those socio-political processes that prepare a person for an active political life,...
Undemocratic trends in the political regime of modern Russia
In modern Russia, some totalitarian traditions that have their own specifics are still preserved. In this regard, it is of fundamental importance that in Russia the industrial revolution was carried out through the transformation of the entire mass of us...
Comparative characteristics of electoral behavior in Russia
Attitude Russian voters to the reforms taking place in the country and their actualization in the activities of political associations, two types of electoral behavior took shape: stable and unstable. Historical practice of the electoral process...
An integral element of any democratic society are socio-political organizations and movements. Socio-political organizations are voluntary associations of citizens that arise on their initiative and to realize their interests. Main characteristic features of public organizations are the following:
1. Lack of power relations and the inability to make binding decisions and demand their implementation.
2. Unlike political parties, they do not aim to seize state power, but their activities can acquire a political character.
3. These are voluntary organizations of citizens that arose on their initiative.
4. The state does not interfere in their activities, but regulates them in accordance with current legislation.
Social and political associations operate on the basis of the following principles :
- voluntariness;
- combination of personal and public interests;
- self management;
- equality of participants;
- legality;
- publicity.
Socio-political movements - associations, coalitions, alliances of various public groups to jointly solve problems that interest them.
Social movement:
- may not be structurally formalized;
- can unite organizations of different political orientations;
- As a rule, it is temporary in nature (to solve certain problems).
IN R development of social movement the following stand out stages :
Stage I
- the emergence of ideas;
- the emergence of activists;
- development of common views;
Stage II
- propaganda of views;
- agitation;
- attracting supporters;
Stage III
- clearer formation of ideas and requirements;
- development of socio-political activity;
- registration in a socio-political organization or party and participation in political life and the struggle for power;
- if goals are achieved or there are no prospects for achieving them, the movement fades.
Socio-political movements can be divided into:
- national (within one country);
- regional;
- continental;
- world.
Among socio-political organizations, trade unions occupy a special place. Trade union - is a non-state public organization of people working in the same profession or employed in the same industry.
Basic functions of trade unions :
- protection of economic and social interests of workers;
- cultural education and upbringing;
- socialization of workers;
- representing the interests of employees on issues of their work and life.
The most active socio-political and democratic movements are the following:
1. Women's movement.
2. Anti-war movement.
3. Environmental movement
4. Human rights movement
5. Youth movement
6. National movement
In addition, there are:
- non-aligned movement;
- movement against racial and national discrimination;
- movement to establish a new economic order;
- peasant movement for land and social rights;
- pacifist movements of scientists, doctors, lawyers and other movements.
Thus, the political life of society is rich and diverse. Important role it belongs to parties and socio-political movements and organizations.
22 . Interest groups, their essence and main characteristics.
Interest groups– associations of individuals created to defend significant interests of the government and influence the authorities in order to make decisions favorable to them. The main difference from parties is that these groups do not participate in power, but influence it. 2 types:
Groups of general significance (have a humanistic orientation) – environmental
Groups of specific interests (defending special interests - professional), industry, confessional, religious. The activities of these groups are detrimental to the activities of other groups.
Methods of influencing the authorities:
Lobbying is directly aimed at representing the authorities in efforts to promote their interests (implemented by formal and informal contracts). The effect itself. There is a direct impact on the subject. In the USA, the law on lobbying has existed since 1946. In the Russian Federation there is no such thing.
Organization of promotion of contacts in the media; organization mass actions to attract attention; use of PR; support for certain persons in elections.
The use of threats, blackmail, bribery, strikes, meetings, protests, terrorist actions.
Identify industry, ethical interest groups that have greatest influence to power.
24. Political ideology, its essence and functions.
Political ideology- this is a system of ideas, views, concepts on political life, ways of explaining the world of politics, which is based on values, orientations towards certain political phenomena, processes, structures. Levels of political ideology:
1. Theoretical-conceptual - formulation of basic provisions that reveal the interests and ideals of a social group, nation and state (doctrine).
2. Programmatic-political - development of programs, manifestos, slogans that form the ideological basis for making political decisions and mobilizing the masses (program).
3. Updated - the degree to which citizens have mastered the goals and principles of a given ideology, the measure of their implementation in practical actions (political practice).
Ideology schematizes reality, simplifying and coarsening it, and as a result, it is a tool for manipulating public consciousness.
Functions of political ideology:
1. Educational and upbringing - the introduction into consciousness of given assessments of the past, present and future, by which people should navigate in the sphere of political relations. Construction of group values.
2. Propaganda - creating a positive image of the political line being pursued, its compliance with the interests of social groups, the nation, the state.
3. Integrating - unity of society on the basis of national, patriotic or group values.
4. Mobilization - stimulating targeted actions of citizens to accomplish assigned tasks.
Types of political ideologies:
1) Conservatism. Main values: state, church, family, private property. Strengthening the foundations of the state. Against state capitalism, radical reforms and extremism. Society is characterized by inequality. Society changes evolutionarily.
2) Liberalism. Main values: democracy, individualism, guarantee of human rights, private property, economic freedoms. The absolute value of human life or the delimitation of the volume and spheres of state activity. Political equality of all people. Society changes with the help of reform. ABOUT
3) Radicalism. A decisive change in existing social and political institutions.
Political consciousness.
Political consciousness- this is a set of ideas and feelings, views and emotions, assessments and attitudes that express people’s attitude to the implemented and desired policies, determining the ability to participate in the management of the affairs of society and the state.
Political consciousness is one of the main forms of social consciousness; it arises along with the emergence of statehood and political power.
The essence of political consciousness is that it is the result and at the same time the process of reflecting and mastering political reality, taking into account the interests of people.
Functions political consciousness:
2) regulatory(gives guidance through ideas, perceptions, beliefs, etc. regarding political participation);
3) cognitive(the need for a person to understand various aspects of the world of politics)
4) ideological(the need to unite political parties, nations and states, to maintain the positions of power gained)
5) evaluative(promotes the development of attitudes towards political life, towards specific political events);
6) communicative(ensuring interaction between political subjects and government institutions)
7) integrating(promotes the unification of social groups of society on the basis of common values, ideas, attitudes);
8) educational(helps people assimilate political information, analyze the surrounding political reality);
9) prognostic(creates a basis for predicting the content and nature of the development of the political process, allows one to obtain information about future political relations);
10) educational(the ability to influence political behavior in accordance with certain goals, ideals)
11) mobilizing(encourages people to politically oriented behavior, to participate in social and political life in order to defend their interests, to unite with their like-minded people in parties, movements, and other associations).
Based on the depth of reflection of reality, the following levels of political consciousness are distinguished: ideological(formed by certain social groups on the basis of a targeted study of the political process and has such features as integrity, systematization, the ability to forecast, is associated with the development of concepts, ideas, concepts, embodied in declarations, programs, etc.); psychological(formed on the basis of people’s everyday life experience and has such features as inconsistency, superficiality, lack of systematization, emotionality, etc.).
Depending on the subjects, political consciousness can be:
- massive(expresses public opinion, mood and action of the masses);
- group(summarizes the attitudes and motives of political behavior of specific classes, strata, elites);
- individual(contains a system of information, motivational and value components that ensure a person’s knowledge of politics and participation in it).
Political consciousness is contained in concentrated form in mass ideologies.
Political consciousness - systemic education that has various levels.
1. State the level at which official policy is developed and justified. At this level of political consciousness, existing political orders and principles of governance are most consistently defended.
2. Theoretical level is represented by various kinds of concepts, ideas, views that are of a political nature. Understanding politics at a theoretical level allows you to:
a) set and solve the most important political goals and objectives - both fundamental (strategic) and current (tactical);
b) determine the means and methods of achieving them;
c) determine the directions and ways of organizational and political support for solving pressing problems;
d) develop conceptual approaches to social control over the implementation of political decisions and target programs;
e) adjust policies taking into account data from practical experience.
3. Empirical the level is based on direct practice, participation in the political process of various social communities. This level reflects political reality in the form of sensations, illusions, experiences, and ideas.
4. ordinary. This level is characterized by pronounced socio-psychological features: moods, feelings, emotions. This gives it special dynamism, the ability to react sensitively to changes in the political situation.
25. Conservatism and neoconservatism. Conservative ideas in Russian society. Conservatism is understood as a political ideology that advocates the preservation of the existing social order, mainly moral and legal relations embodied in the nation, religion, marriage, family, and property.
The new Russia turned out to have two pasts - pre-Soviet and Soviet. Therefore, researchers of this ideological movement have different interpretations of conservatism. Thus, Russian conservatism, which has taken on a state-socialist character, closely merging with national patriotism, is the opposite of Western conservatism.
Conservatism to a greater extent expresses the collectivist principles of social life, therefore it is close to the mentality of Russians. For Russian conservatives, vital values are equality, social justice, state support. Equality is understood in a socialist, redistributive sense and consists not in equality of opportunity, but in equality of results. Therefore, an emphasis is placed on state paternalism as the main instrument for the management and distribution of material and spiritual benefits.
In the political consciousness of conservative-minded Russians, private property is associated not with social activity, responsibility, and the desire for development, but with exploitation.
For a Western conservative, such values as a code of honor, respect for work, class and professional pride are important. The Russian conservative organically and naturally perceives the “solidarity” of people, which was a necessary condition for the basic survival of many of them.
Conservative tendencies are very strong in the political consciousness of Russians. From the point of view of G.P. Artemov and O.V. Popova, the most significant empirical signs of people’s orientation towards conservative values in the conditions of modern Russia include the following:
Confidence that order is more important than freedom, and justice is more important than human rights;
Loyalty to traditions and rejection of radical reforms;
Conviction that the interests of the state are higher than the interests of individual citizen;
Focus on a strong state as a factor in ensuring order and prosperity;
Recognition of the need for social inequality;
Allowing for the possibility of restricting certain rights of citizens in order to achieve state goals.
Fundamental changes in culture require a long time, since the conservative spirit has deep roots in thousands of years of Russian history. The consolidation of conservative thinking is facilitated by historical crises that sharply reduce the space in which liberalism is viable, which forces it to adapt to changing conditions.
In the post-war period, when conservatism was forced to turn to a more subtle and complex apologetics for the capitalist way of life, new forms of this ideology emerged. Having a much softer attitude towards state regulation of production and the participation of the population in management, these ideological movements decisively raised the issue of strengthening the rule of law, state discipline and order, and did not recognize the initiated reforms. Conservatives, in an effort to reconsider the idea of democracy from their own positions, even proposed supplementing the election of people's representatives with the nomination of the most “worthy” (from the point of view of the authorities) citizens to governing bodies.
Recent decades have marked a clear tendency of conservatism, on the one hand, towards irrational reactionary ideas (for example, the “new right” in France), and on the other, towards a greater inclination towards liberal values. The second direction in the evolution of conservative ideas was most clearly manifested in neoconservatism - an ideological movement that formed as a unique response to the economic crisis of 1973-1974, mass youth protest movements in Western Europe and the expansion of the influence of Keynesian ideas.
Neoconservatism offered society spiritual priorities of family and religion, social stability based on the moral mutual responsibility of the citizen and the state and their mutual assistance, respect for law and distrust of excessive democratization, strong state order and stability.
The main responsibility for preserving the human element in these conditions rested with the individual himself, who must first of all rely on his own strength and the local solidarity of his fellow citizens. This position was supposed to support his vitality and initiative and at the same time prevent the state from turning into a “cash cow” that corrupts people with its help.
Neoconservatism has absorbed those features of conservative ideology and way of thinking that today have proven capable of protecting people at the new technological stage of the industrial system, determining the priorities of individual and public programs life activity, to outline the shape of a policy that can lead society out of the crisis. Moreover, on such an ideological basis, neoconservatism synthesized many humanistic ideas not only of liberalism, but also of socialism, as well as a number of other teachings.
Social and political organizations and movements -This
voluntary associations of people to express and implement public interests by “pressuring” public authorities. They are “interest groups”, which are diverse groups of people who have certain goals and demands for political power, which become the reason for their collective actions (trade unions, youth and women's movements, ethnic and religious groups, associations, etc.).
In modern political science, interest groups are defined as voluntary organizations created to express and represent the interests of their members in relationships both with other groups and political institutions, and within the organizations themselves. Their way of action is persuasion, advice to those who govern, informing the public and political leaders about the needs and views of certain social groups, organized actions in support of their interests, for example, strikes, rallies; social control of citizens over government bodies; impact on the political decision-making process.
Public organizations can be defined as voluntary associations based on the commonality of private interests of citizens. Public organizations and associations are a tool for realizing the needs, social and political interests of people. They have a wide, massive and dynamic composition of participants, large territorial and national representation. They may exist outside of political parties, but parties are always based on them as their basis. Therefore, parties always struggle to win over their allies - socio-political organizations.
The hallmarks of a socio-political organization are its broad social basis, mass character, independence, effectiveness, direct expression of the interests of the people, recognition of power and opposition to it. The social base of socio-political organizations are the masses, social groups, corporate organizations, public, national and environmental movements.
Typology socio-political organizations and movements can be presented in accordance with interest groups:
Public organizations and movements in economic sphere and the sphere of labor (socio-economic);
In the social sphere;
In the field of recreation and leisure;
In the field of religion, science and culture;
In the socio-political sphere (except for political parties);
Regional, etc.
The task of public organizations is to express, protect and realize the interests of various social, professional, age and other groups of society. Unions and associations, meetings and associations, chambers and committees, armed groups and pressure groups - these are the main types of socio-political organizations.
An important element political systems are also social movements .
Social movements involve citizens who, to one degree or another, understand their interests and show some activity to protect them. A socio-political movement is a voluntary association of people with the aim of protecting public interests. The socio-political activity of the masses in movements has different levels, forms and degrees of actions. Passive actions are distinguished - simple interest in politics, a more active form of speaking at rallies, participation in mass movements (strikes, demonstrations, demarches), the highest form of socio-political activity can be considered membership in a political party.
During the formation of a democratic political system in our society, an important condition is the creation of a mechanism for effectively identifying, forming, coordinating and realizing the interests of various social groups and strata. This determines the increasing role of public organizations and movements in the political process. Through various public actions, such as campaigning, adoption and presentation of petitions, appeals, statements to the authorities, holding rallies, demonstrations, picketing, socio-political organizations directly influence the authorities.
As a rule, political movements adhere to a single concept and seek to solve a narrow political problem. Having achieved this goal, the movements cease to exist and are transformed into other movements or parties.
A socio-political movement, unlike a party, does not set the goal of gaining political power, although there are often exceptions in political practice. For example, the Romanian Popular Front gained political power in the country. The Sąjūdis organization also came to power in Lithuania. But in essence, these movements have already transformed into parties. Social movements try to influence the authorities to achieve their goals.
· Can be carried out classification of socio-political movements. The grounds are:
· scale (local, regional, national, global).
· goal (socio-political, cultural, ethno-political, confessional, economic);
· number of participants (mass movement, elite);
· place in the political spectrum (left, right, center);
· duration of existence (“ephemeral” and “long-livers”).
In the modern world, issues of political education have acquired particular relevance and significance. “Reasoning electorate” is not just a fashionable political science theory, but also a general civilizational standard, the prospect of a modern civil society, a necessary condition for the functioning of a rule-of-law state.
Electoral system
Loading...
