March 22, 2015 President of Poland Bronislaw Komorowski speaking in Brussels,. In this way, according to Komorowski, it is possible to ensure the survival of Ukraine and the successful implementation of reforms in it.

There has been talk of a new Marshall Plan for Ukraine since the victory of Euromaidan in February 2014. Both Western and Ukrainian politicians speak of the need for such a plan, in particular Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk.

Marshall Plan poster (translation: “Whatever the weather, we must move together”). Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

At the same time, an uninitiated audience has a rather vague idea of ​​the original "Marshall Plan". In Soviet historiography, he was given exclusively negative assessments, in the post-Soviet period - entirely complimentary.

The program, whose official name was "The Program for the Restoration of Europe", was first announced on June 5, 1947 in a speech US Secretary of State George Marshall, delivered at Harvard University.

Career military George Marshall in different years served as Chief of the General Staff and Secretary of Defense of the United States, and from 1942 to 1944 he actually directed all military operations of the American army.

In 1947, retired General Marshall took over as secretary of state in the presidential administration. Harry Truman.

Truman, who resolutely headed for escalation cold war, a person was needed who could advance American interests both by the military and economic methods... George Marshall was just right for this role.

"Europe Reconstruction Program"

By 1947, the economic situation in Europe was unenviable. Most of them were destroyed European countries, enormous human losses were incurred (55-60 million died, about 100 million were crippled). And two years after the end of the war, devastation reigned everywhere, there was an acute shortage of food and essential goods, European currencies were greatly depreciated due to galloping inflation.

The recovery of European economies proceeded extremely slowly, while in most countries the positions of the communists and other left-wing parties were strengthened, which in the United States was viewed as a direct threat to national security.

By the time the "European Recovery Program" was created, Marshall already had the experience of successfully implementing the anti-crisis program - in 1933 as part of the "New Deal" Franklin Roosevelt Marshall was organizing the Civilian Guard Corps the environment- a large-scale employment program for young unemployed people.

On July 12, 1947, representatives of 16 European countries gathered in Paris to discuss the Marshall Plan. The so-called "countries of people's democracy", which were part of the sphere of influence of the USSR, as well as Finland, refused to participate in the meeting.

The officially declared goal of the program was to restore the war-torn European economy, eliminate trade barriers, modernize the industry of European countries and develop Europe as a whole.

First page of the Marshall Plan text. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

The cycle of dollars in nature

The Marshall Plan came into effect on April 4, 1948. Within its framework, the United States provided $ 12.317 billion over four years in the form of gratuitous aid, cheap loans and long-term leases.

The aid was allocated according to preliminary agreements in accordance with the needs of the countries. The largest financial injections went to five states: England received 2.8 billion, France - 2.5 billion, Italy - 1.3 billion, Germany - 1.3 billion and the Netherlands - 1 billion US dollars.

In the "Marshall plan" it is necessary to distinguish between the economic and political components.

After World War II, the United States was the only major industrialized country with an undisturbed economy. Thanks to this, the United States was able to secure its place as a world economic leader for many years to come. At the same time, the dollar also became the world's main reserve currency, which gave the United States exceptional opportunities for decades to come.

But the successful American economy desperately needed sales markets, and in this regard, the economic recovery of Europe was a vital need for large American business.

In fact, in rebuilding Europe, the United States invested in its own further development.

An important point - according to the terms of the Marshall Plan, the allocated money was spent not on patching holes in the budget, but on the purchase of industrial and agricultural products.

Two-thirds of the supply structure consisted of food, fuel and fertilizers, and about a third of imports came from agricultural products, namely American flour. Ultimately, a significant portion of the Marshall Plan aid returned to the United States.

Political conditions

You need to be very clear that the US gratuitous aid is a kind of free cheese that can only be found in a mousetrap.

For example, the famous lend-lease deliveries of weapons and foodstuffs to the USSR. Their importance is still debated, but it is often forgotten that this was by no means a broad and disinterested gesture on the part of the United States. For tanks, planes and American stew Soviet Union paid in gold, and he had to pay off his lend-lease debts until the 1970s.

The Marshall Plan has indeed provided the participating countries with high rates of economic growth. In the first three years, industrial production exceeded the indicators of the pre-war period by 40%, and agriculture - by 20%. The unemployment rate dropped and inflation was curbed. American funds provided about 11% of the GDP of England, 12% of France, almost 22% of West Germany and just over 33% of Italy.

Memorial plaque on the monument to Marshall on Langwasser. Nuremberg. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

Marshall Plan enthusiasts are extremely reluctant to talk about its political component. Meanwhile, without her, it remains sharply incomprehensible negative attitude to the plan of the Soviet Union.

One of the mandatory requirements of the United States to the countries participating in the plan was the exclusion of the Communists from the government.

This provision was a continuation of the so-called "Truman Doctrine", according to which Greece and Turkey were allocated 400 million dollars to fight the "communist threat".

As already stated, the influence communist parties in European countries in post-war period was extremely large. The Marshall Plan effectively became the instrument by which the United States intervened in political life European countries with the aim of pushing the "pro-Soviet parties" to the sidelines.

Free Cheese Price

Indeed, in all countries participating in the Marshall Plan, communists were expelled from governments. At the same time, all democratic principles were violated, the loyalty to which the United States loudly declared both then and now.

But it wasn't just the communists. Formation itself political elites in the countries participating in the "Marshall Plan" was under the control of the United States. As a result, the price for economic recovery was the partial loss of political and economic independence.

The next stage was the creation of the military North Atlantic Alliance, of which many countries participating in the "Marshall Plan" became members.

By the way, after the termination in 1951 financial aid Under the Marshall Plan, the US military assistance program to its European allies in the North Atlantic Alliance came into effect in its place in accordance with the Law on Mutual Security.

The political component of the Marshall Plan effectively deprived Western Europe of an alternative, turning European countries into US satellites.

Attempts to escape this vicious scheme have been made repeatedly by such European leaders as French President Charles de Gaulle but on the whole they failed.

The suicidal and self-destructive position of the European Union in the “Ukrainian crisis” is nothing more than the consequences of European dependence on the United States, laid down by the “Marshall Plan”.

Cold war tool

The political component of the Marshall Plan was criticized in the United States itself. So, former Vice President of the United States Henry Wallace, who held this post at Franklin Roosevelt, bluntly called it an instrument of the Cold War against the USSR.

Of course, they saw this in the Soviet Union, whose authorities made every effort to prevent the involvement of countries that were in the sphere of influence of the USSR in this plan.

The Soviet Union could not have had any other choice. In response to the formation of NATO in Eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact Organization was formed, in response to the creation of the Atlantic common market, the Soviet Union created the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.

"The Marshall Plan" was a continuation of the famous speech Churchill in Fulton. If the speech of the British politician was the beginning of the political split in post-war Europe, then the "Marshall Plan" provided its economic component.

And the last thing worth remembering in connection with the Marshall Plan. Soviet Union and countries of Eastern Europe overcame the post-war devastation and reached high rates of economic growth without any American help. For decades, they competed quite successfully with Western countries. The crisis socialist system in the 1980s is a topic for a separate conversation, which has nothing to do with the "Marshall Plan".

In June 1947, the US Secretary of State gave a speech at Harvard University on how to overcome the economic crisis in Europe. (See article Reasons for the Marshall Plan.) He stated that the presidential administration Truman is ready to finance the program of economic recovery of Europe, if such will be presented by the Europeans. The Foreign Ministers of Great Britain and France, E. Bevin and J. Bidault, set about drawing up a corresponding draft.

Marshall Plan. Video

To participate in the "Marshall Plan" was invited and eastern European states including the Soviet Union. Western powers were in a hurry to revive ties with the East of Europe, not yet completely communized... It was about creating a mechanism economic regulation Europe with American money and informal American leadership. The Soviet Union could not agree to such a plan.

Consultations on the "Marshall Plan" took place in Paris on June 27 - July 2, 1947 at a meeting of the Foreign Ministers of the USSR, France and Great Britain. After a preliminary discussion on July 30, USSR Foreign Minister Molotov refused to talk on the merits of the plan, citing the inappropriateness of discussing the issue of Germany's participation in it three together with Britain and the United States, without the participation of the fourth occupying power - France.

Despite Moscow's demarche, the governments of France and Great Britain sent invitations to 22 countries, including Eastern European ones, to arrive in Paris on July 12, 1947 for a conference to discuss the Marshall Plan. The Soviet Union declined the invitation and forced the governments of the Eastern European countries and even Finland to do the same.

The conference in Paris, however, took place. It was decided to establish the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (hereinafter - the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD). Her task was to administer the Marshall Plan. Since the US Congress could begin considering a request for the allocation of funds for this plan no earlier than January 1948, the convention establishing the PEEN was officially signed only on April 14, 1948.

The governing body of the PEEN was a council of representatives of the participating countries, which, by consensus, could adopt non-binding recommendations. The Council proclaimed the task of the PEEN economic integration Western Europe, the creation of an extensive market with the elimination of restrictions on the flow of goods, currency barriers and tariff barriers within it. The PEEN Convention remained in force until 1960. The organization created on its basis did not limit the actions of individual member states and did not have supranational powers.

The Truman administration asked Congress for the Marshall Plan for $ 29 billion over 4 years - from 1948 to 1952. In fact, about $ 17 billion went to Europe. The aid was provided mainly in the form of the supply of American industrial products on the basis of loans and gratuitous. The main beneficiaries are France, Great Britain, Italy and West Germany. Distribution of funds across individual countries seen from the following table:

Country	1948/49 (million dollars)	1949/50 (million dollars)	1950/51 (million dollars)	For the entire period (million dollars)
Austria	232	166	70	468
Belgium and Luxembourg	195	222	360	777
Denmark	103	87	195	385
France	1085	691	520	2296
West Germany	510	438	500	1448
Greece	175	156	45	376
Iceland	6	22	15	43
Ireland	88	45	0	133
Italy	594	405	205	1204
Netherlands	471	302	355	1128
Norway	82	90	200	372
Portugal	0	0	70	70
Sweden	39	48	260	347
Switzerland	0	0	250	250
Turkey	28	59	50	137
United Kingdom	1316	921	1060	3297
Grand total	4,924	3,652	4,155	12,731

A government committee was created to study the state of the country's economy and its possibilities to provide such assistance.

War losses

By the end of World War II, most of Europe was destroyed. The constant aerial bombardment severely destroyed most of the major cities and industrial facilities... Many of largest cities continent, including Warsaw, Rotterdam and Berlin, lay in ruins. The economic structure of the region was destroyed and millions of people were left homeless. The general destruction of agriculture has led to famine in parts of the continent, with the greatest impact harsh winter 1946-1947 in the north-west of Europe [ ] .

The transport infrastructure was especially badly damaged, as railways, bridges and docks have been targets for air strikes; at the same time, many merchant ships were sunk. Although most small towns and villages in Western Europe were not damaged, the destruction of transport links left them in economic isolation. None of these problems could be resolved, as most countries were financially insolvent after the cost of the war.

The only Western countries whose infrastructure was slightly damaged during the war were Canada and the United States. But exports played an important role in the American economy. Therefore, the Marshall plan provided for the sale of goods and products to European countries.

The Marshall Plan set one of its goals to "unite" Europe, that is, the destruction of all currency and customs barriers both in Europe itself and between Europe and the United States, in particular, it assumed the unification of the Ruhr coal and the Lorraine iron ore and the creation of a single European market. In May 1950, this plan was embodied in a concrete form - the European Coal and Steel Community (the so-called "Schumann Plan"). Countries wishing to become members of such an association had to take a number of measures: 1) after these countries signed the Geneva and Havana conventions on the reduction of customs tariffs and on "multilateral" trade, in December 1949 they had to partially abolish the system of import licenses; 2) after the third decline in exchange rates by Britain and France, 28 other countries were forced to devalue their currencies again in September 1949. All these measures were aimed at providing American capital with the opportunity to purchase raw materials in these countries at low prices and to make capital investments in various European enterprises on more favorable terms.

Briefly list all the conditions under which different countries received aid under the Marshall Plan, it will become clear that it was not just about providing aid. First, with regard to the nature of the assistance, namely the nature of the supply of goods themselves, the desire of the countries receiving assistance was taken into account, while the final decision on the issue belonged to the United States. Therefore, the requirements of Western European countries that they were provided with the means of production, and not consumer goods, raw materials, and not finished products, were ignored, and a significant specific gravity food and other agricultural products were consigned to aid deliveries. This meant that the United States sought to sell the surplus of its agricultural products, and not to meet the economic needs of Western European countries that needed to rebuild their economies.

Second, the various clauses in the bilateral agreements that accompanied the provision of Marshall Plan assistance hindered free trade in the recipient countries. The most characteristic was the prohibition of trade between East and West. For example, under this ban, France could not import Polish coal, which cost about $ 12 per ton, and had to import American coal at a price of about $ 20 per ton. There is big number and other examples. England, for example, was even prohibited from importing wheat from Canada under the Marshall Plan.

Third, in the area of ​​the monetary system, the condition for the provision of assistance under the Marshall Plan was a categorical demand to restore the fiscal balance of Western European countries; not only the use of an equivalent fund, but also monetary circulation; the finances of these countries were in fact regulated at the discretion of the United States. Further, 20% of the total amount of aid was to be repaid through the export of raw materials, which had great importance because this facilitated the provision of the United States with strategic raw materials and their penetration into the colonies of Western European powers.

All of the above does not exhaust the question of the impact that the Marshall Plan had on the economies of Western European countries, but it all shows that as a result of the assistance provided by the Marshall Plan, the economic recovery of these countries took ugly forms and that this assistance only deepened the dependence of Western European countries on the United States.

Post-war situation

Slow recovery

The European economy recovered very slowly, as unemployment and food shortages led to strikes and unrest in several countries. In 1947, European countries were still well below their pre-war levels, but there were some signs of growth. Agricultural products accounted for 83% of the 1938 level, industrial production accounted for 88%, and exports only 59%. In the UK, the situation was not so dire. In Germany in 1945-1946, living conditions and food were poor, transport links were disrupted. In the western part of the country, after numerous bombings, 5 million houses and apartments were destroyed, and at the same time, 12 million refugees arrived from the eastern part (including territories ceded to Poland). Food production was only two-thirds of the pre-war level, while grain and meat were no longer supplied from the East. Large consignments of food from the occupied countries, which Germany received during the war, dried up.

results

• Industries that, as it seemed earlier, were hopelessly outdated and ineffective, were restructured into short time and without changing the national economic policy countries. As a result, the economies of European countries recovered from the effects of the war faster than could be expected.
• European countries were able to pay off their external debts.
• The influence of the communists and the USSR was weakened.
• The European middle class was restored and strengthened - the guarantor of political stability and sustainable development.
• For twenty years, the countries that received assistance have achieved an improvement in the standard of living of the entire population.

Countries received assistance:

• Austria
• Belgium
• United Kingdom
• West Germany
• Greece
• Denmark
• Ireland
• Iceland
• Italy
• Luxembourg
• Netherlands
• Norway
• Portugal
• Free Territory of Trieste
• Turkey
• France
• Sweden
• Switzerland

see also

• The Morgenthau Plan is a program for the post-war transformation of Germany, proposed by US Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau

• The Truman Doctrine is a program for the allocation of financial assistance to Greece and Turkey to prevent the strengthening of the communists in these countries.

• The Marshall Plan for Ukraine is an initiative of European and world politicians, businessmen, philosophers, public figures in creating a reform program for Ukraine, which are designed to bring the state out of the economic crisis as an analogue of the Marshall Plan for Europe after the Second World War.

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Notes (edit)

Footnotes

Links

• - an article based on the materials of the 5th volume of the Soviet military encyclopedia (in 8 volumes).
• - article in the magazine "Ogonyok" No. 05 from 01.02.99
• - an analytical article on the causes and consequences of the implementation of the Marshall Plan.

Major events (1945-1964) Major events (1964-1991) Special articles Main characters and participants General chronology Leaders: Joseph Stalin Georgy Malenkov Nikita Khrushchev Leonid Brezhnev Yuri Andropov Konstantin Chernenko Mikhail Gorbachev Harry Truman Dwight D. Eisenhower John F. Kennedy Lyndon Johnson Richard Nixon Gerald Ford Jimmy Carter / - Well, Count Pyotr Kirilich, how will the militia be assembled, and you will have to mount a horse? Said the old count, addressing Pierre. Pierre was silent and thoughtful throughout this dinner. He, as if not understanding, looked at the count at this address. - Yes, yes, to the war, - he said, - no! What a warrior I am! And yet, everything is so strange, so strange! I don’t understand myself. I do not know, I am so far from military tastes, but nowadays no one can answer for themselves. After dinner, the count sat down calmly in an armchair and with a serious face asked Sonya, who was famous for her reading skills, to read. - “The first capital of our Moscow. The enemy entered with great forces into the borders of Russia. He is going to ruin our dear fatherland, ”Sonya was diligently reading in her thin voice. The count, closing his eyes, listened, sighing impulsively in some places. Natasha sat stretched out, searchingly and looking directly at her father, then at Pierre. Pierre felt her gaze on him and tried not to look back. The Countess shook her head disapprovingly and angrily at every solemn expression of the manifesto. In all these words she saw only that the dangers threatening her son would not end soon. Shinshin, folding his mouth into a mocking smile, obviously prepared to scoff at what would be the first to be presented for mockery: over the reading of Sonya, over what the count would say, even over the very appeal, if no better pretext could be presented. After reading about the dangers that threaten Russia, about the hopes the tsar placed on Moscow, and especially on the famous nobility, Sonya, with a tremor of her voice, stemming mainly from the attention with which she was listened to, read the last words: “We will not hesitate to stand among our people in this capital and in other states of our places for the conference and leadership of all our militias, both now blocking the path of the enemy, and again arranged to defeat him, wherever they appear. Let death turn into which he thinks to bring us down, to his head, and let Europe, freed from slavery, exalt the name of Russia! " - That's it! - cried the count, opening his wet eyes and several times interrupting from puffing, as if a bottle of strong vinegar salt was being brought to his nose. - Just tell the emperor, we will sacrifice everything and will not regret anything. Shinshin had not yet had time to say the joke he had prepared on the count's patriotism, when Natasha jumped up from her seat and ran up to her father. - What a delight, this dad! She said, kissing him, and she again looked at Pierre with that unconscious coquetry that returned to her along with her animation. - That's a patriot! - said Shinshin. - Not a patriot at all, but simply ... - Natasha answered offendedly. - Everything is funny to you, but this is not a joke at all ... - What a joke! The count repeated. - Just say the word, we will all go ... We are not some Germans ... - And you noticed, - said Pierre, - that said: "for a meeting." - Well, it’s there for whatever ... At this time, Petya, to whom no one was paying attention, went up to his father and, all red, breaking, now in a coarse, now in a thin voice, said: - Well now, papa, I will resolutely say - and mamma, too, as you wish - I will resolutely say that you will let me into military service, because I cannot ... that's all ... The countess looked up in horror to heaven, threw up her hands and angrily turned to her husband. - So I agreed! - she said. But the count at the same moment recovered from his excitement. “Well, well,” he said. - Here's a warrior yet! Leave nonsense: it is necessary to study. - This is not nonsense, papa. Fedya Obolensky is younger than me and is walking too, and most importantly, I still can't learn anything now that ... - Petya stopped, blushed to the point of sweat and said the same: - when the fatherland is in danger. - Full, full, nonsense ... - Why, you yourself said that we will sacrifice everything. “Petya, I’m telling you, shut up,” shouted the count, looking back at his wife, who, turning pale, looked with fixed eyes at her younger son. - And I tell you. So Pyotr Kirillovich will say ... - I'm telling you - nonsense, the milk has not dried up yet, but wants to go to military service! Well, well, I tell you, - and the count, taking the papers with him, probably to read it again in his study before resting, went out of the room. - Pyotr Kirillovich, well, let's go have a smoke ... Pierre was confused and hesitant. Natasha's unusually bright and lively eyes, incessantly, more than affectionately addressing him, brought him into this state. - No, I think I'll go home ... - How home, but you wanted an evening with us ... And that rarely began to be. And this one of mine ... - said the count good-naturedly, pointing to Natasha, - only with you she was cheerful ... - Yes, I forgot ... I definitely need to go home ... Business ... - Pierre said hastily. “Well, goodbye,” said the count, leaving the room altogether. - Why are you leaving? Why are you upset? Why? .. - asked Pierre Natasha, defiantly looking into his eyes. “Because I love you! - he wanted to say, but he did not say it, he blushed to tears and lowered his eyes. - Because it is better for me to visit you less often ... Because ... no, I just have things to do. - From what? no, tell me, ”Natasha began resolutely, and suddenly she fell silent. They both looked at each other in fear and embarrassment. He tried to grin, but could not: his smile expressed anguish, and he silently kissed her hand and left. Pierre decided not to visit the Rostovs again with himself. Petya, after receiving a decisive refusal, went to his room and there, shutting himself away from everyone, wept bitterly. They did everything as if they had not noticed anything when he came to tea, silent and gloomy, with tear-stained eyes. The emperor arrived the next day. Several of the Rostov households asked for time off to go and have a look at the tsar. That morning Petya dressed for a long time, combed his hair and arranged his collars like those of big ones. He frowned in front of the mirror, made gestures, shrugged his shoulders, and finally, without telling anyone, put on his cap and left the house from the back porch, trying not to be noticed. Petya decided to go straight to the place where the sovereign was, and directly explain to some chamberlain (it seemed to Petya that the sovereign was always surrounded by chamberlains) that he, Count Rostov, despite his youth, wants to serve the fatherland, that youth cannot be an obstacle for devotion and that he is ready ... Petya, while he was getting ready, prepared a lot wonderful words which he will tell the chamberlain. Petya hoped for the success of his presentation to the sovereign precisely because he was a child (Petya even thought how everyone would be surprised at his youth), and at the same time, in the arrangement of his collars, in his hairstyle and in a sedate slow gait, he wanted to present himself as an old man. But the further he went, the more he entertained himself with the people who were arriving and arriving at the Kremlin, the more he forgot the observance of the gravity and slowness inherent in adults. Approaching the Kremlin, he already began to take care not to be pushed, and resolutely, with a menacing look, put his elbows on his sides. But at the Trinity Gate, despite all his decisiveness, people, who probably did not know for what patriotic purpose he was going to the Kremlin, so pressed him against the wall that he had to submit and stop while at the gate with a buzzing under the arches the sound of the carriages drove by. A woman with a footman, two merchants and a retired soldier stood near Petya. After standing at the gate for some time, Petya, without waiting for all the carriages to pass, wanted to move on ahead of the others and began to work decisively with his elbows; but the woman standing opposite him, to whom he first directed his elbows, angrily shouted at him: - What, barchuk, pushing, you see - everyone is standing. Well to climb that! “So everyone will climb,” said the footman, and, also starting to work with his elbows, pushed Petya into the stinking corner of the gate. Petya wiped off the sweat that covered his face with his hands and straightened his collars, soaked with sweat, which he had set up at home as well as the big ones. Petya felt that he had an unpresentable appearance, and was afraid that if he presented himself to the chamberlains like that, he would not be allowed to see the sovereign. But there was no way to recover and go to another place because of the cramped conditions. One of the passing generals was an acquaintance of the Rostovs. Petya wanted to ask him for help, but felt that it would be contrary to courage. When all the carriages had passed, the crowd rushed in and carried Petya out to the square, which was all occupied by people. Not only in the area, but on the slopes, on the roofs, there were people everywhere. As soon as Petya found himself on the square, he clearly heard the sounds of bells and the joyful folk dialect that filled the entire Kremlin. At one time the square was more spacious, but suddenly all heads opened, everything rushed forward somewhere else. Petya was squeezed so that he could not breathe, and everyone shouted: “Hurray! urrah! Hurray! ”Petya stood up on tiptoe, pushed and pinched, but could not see anything except the people around him. All faces had one common expression of tenderness and delight. One merchant's wife, who was standing beside Petya, was sobbing, and tears flowed from her eyes. - Father, angel, father! She said, wiping her tears with her finger. - Hooray! - shouted from all sides. For a minute the crowd stood in one place; but then she rushed forward again. Petya, unable to remember himself, gritted his teeth and brutally rolled his eyes, rushed forward, working with his elbows and shouting "hurray!" with the same cries of "hurray!" “So that's what the sovereign is! - Petya thought. “No, I can't submit a petition to him myself, it's too bold!” Despite the fact that he was still desperately pushing forward, and from behind the backs of the front ones he flashed an empty space with a red cloth-covered passage; but at this time the crowd hesitated back (from the front the police pushed those who had advanced too close to the procession; the emperor was passing from the palace to the Assumption Cathedral), and Petya unexpectedly received such a blow in the side on the ribs and was so crushed that suddenly everything in his eyes became clouded and he lost consciousness. When he came to, some clergyman, with a bun of gray hair back and in a worn blue cassock, probably a sexton, held him under his arm with one hand, and guarded him from the crowding with the other. - Barchonka was crushed! - said the deacon. - Well so! .. easier ... run over, run over! The sovereign went to the Assumption Cathedral. The crowd evened out again, and the deacon led Petya, pale and not breathing, to the tsar's cannon. Several people took pity on Petya, and suddenly the whole crowd turned to him, and there was already a crush around him. Those who stood closer, served him, unbuttoned his coat, seated him on the platform of the cannon and rebuked someone - those who crushed him. - That way you can crush to death. What is this! Do murder! You see, heartfelt, as the tablecloth has become white, - said the voices. Petya soon came to his senses, the color returned to his face, the pain passed, and for this temporary nuisance he got a place on the cannon, with which he hoped to see the emperor who had to go back. Petya no longer thought about filing a petition. If only he could see him - and then he would consider himself happy! During the service in the Assumption Cathedral - a joint prayer service on the occasion of the arrival of the sovereign and thanksgiving prayer for the conclusion of peace with the Turks - the crowd spread; shouting sellers of kvass, gingerbread, poppy, to which Petya was especially a hunter, appeared, and ordinary conversations were heard. One merchant's wife showed her torn shawl and reported how expensive it was bought; another said that today all silk fabrics have become dear. The sexton, the savior of Petit, talked with the official about who and who is serving with the Right Reverend today. The sexton repeated several times the word soborny, which Petya did not understand. Two young tradesmen joked with the courtyard girls gnawing nuts. All these conversations, especially jokes with girls, which were especially attractive for Petya at his age, all these conversations now did not interest Petya; ou sat on his cannon dais, still agitated at the thought of the sovereign and of his love for him. The coincidence of the feeling of pain and fear, when he was squeezed, with a feeling of delight, made him even more aware of the importance of this moment. Suddenly they heard from the embankment cannon shots(they were shooting to commemorate peace with the Turks), and the crowd rushed swiftly to the embankment to watch the shooting. Petya also wanted to run there, but the deacon, who had taken the little man under his protection, did not let him go. Shots still continued, when officers, generals, chamberlains ran out of the Assumption Cathedral, then others came out not so hastily, again the caps were removed from their heads, and those who ran away to watch the guns ran back. Finally, four more men in uniforms and ribbons emerged from the doors of the cathedral. "Hooray! Hooray! The crowd shouted again.

The real winners in World War II were the USSR and the USA. The Soviet Union significantly expanded its sphere of influence in Europe and Asia. Königsberg and some part of Finnish territory were added to his pre-war acquisitions in the west. In the east, the Soviet Union captured the Kuril Islands and southern part Sakhalin. Port Arthur became a Russian naval base again.

Manchuria, North Korea, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania, Yugoslavia fell into the sphere of Soviet influence. Russian tanks were stationed on the Elbe and were not going to leave there. The influence of the Soviet Union in northern regions Iran and Austria - there were Soviet troops.

In turn, the United States became the universally recognized leader of the capitalist world. Although their territorial gains were insignificant, the influence of the United States in the world increased dramatically. Industrial and agricultural production in the United States has exceeded the total production of the major Western European countries. The United States, maintaining a monopoly on atomic weapon have become a world superpower. This was confirmed, in particular, by the deployment of the UN Headquarters in New York.

Great Britain gained nothing but new debts. And when the USSR and the United States supported the policy of decolonization, England began to turn into a minor power.

France had one more problem than England - the communists entered the government of this country.

Germany and Japan lost a significant part of their territories, and a large number of Germans and Japanese died.

West Germany produced only half of what it produced in 1936. Store shelves were empty. The card system was in effect. The monthly rate of meat per person was 100 g. All major cities in Germany lay in ruins. The total mass of broken stone and twisted iron in them was estimated at half a billion tons. . Most of the industrial enterprises stood idle, tens of millions of Germans were unemployed.

The situation was aggravated by the division of the country into four zones of occupation, the need to pay the winners for reparations, a large number of Germans were in captivity. Millions of refugees have been expelled from their homes. Hitler and the Nazis, loving Germany, brought it to almost complete destruction.

Expansion plans of the USSR

Weakened by the war, England and France, as well as other European states, could not serve as a barrier on the path of communist expansion.

The fact that she was preparing is evidenced by numerous facts:

at the Potsdam Conference, Stalin insisted on a joint Soviet-Turkish defense of the Black Sea Straits;

Stalin spoke in favor of the annexation of the eastern regions of Turkey to Armenia;

in Iranian Azerbaijan and Kurdistan, with the support of the USSR, autonomies were proclaimed, which refused to obey the Tehran authorities.

Soviet troops were not going to leave Manchuria, whose territory was actively used as a base for the Chinese Red Army.

The United States was forced to secretly threaten the USSR with the use of nuclear weapons. Only after that were the Soviet troops withdrawn from Iran and Manchuria, and Stalin was forced to moderate his appetites. In March 1947, Truman proclaimed the "doctrine of containment." It was supposed to contain the communist expansion.

Economic situation in the USSR and European countries

By this time, the economic situation in the USSR was very difficult. Most of European territory The union lay in ruins. There was a catastrophic shortage of cars, machine tools and equipment, many types of raw materials, electricity and especially food. And although the Soviet authorities carefully concealed the true human losses of the past war, according to some sources they reached 25 million people. At the same time, the exorbitant size of the Red Army remained, which gradually began to lag behind in technical terms from Western countries... For example, the Soviet Union did not have jet aircraft. And what huge expenditures were required by the Soviet atomic program and the ambitious fleet building program? In a war-torn country, funds for these imperial plans were sorely lacking.

But Europe also needed money and goods. The revival of the European economy and its modernization required significant investment, and the rate of inflation was such that it undermined money circulation. Western European countries at the expense of own production could meet their need for grain only by 40%, in fats - by 15%. Reducing imports of these goods from the United States could lead to hunger. By 1947, however, it had become clear that Europe had nothing to pay for American imports. The gold and foreign exchange reserves of European countries were completely depleted.

George Marshall announces his plan

At the same time, the United States faced the threat of an economic crisis. Overproduction of many types of goods, including foodstuffs, has been outlined. The low purchasing power of the European market threatened the United States with a depression similar to the one that occurred after the First World War. Under these conditions, on June 5, 1947, US Secretary of State George Marshall delivered a ten-minute speech at Harvard University in connection with the award of an honorary doctorate. In it, he first formulated the principles of a new American policy to provide economic aid Europe. The speech had the effect of an exploding bomb, and in the event of its negative perception by the country's leadership, it could cost Marshall a career. But first, the President, and then the Senate and Congress, supported the concept of a new European policy, which later became known as the Marshall Plan. It has brought significant benefits to both the European and American economies. It was the one rare case when morality and economic benefit coincided.

As is often the case in history, Marshall was not the direct creator of this plan. Charles Bohlen wrote a draft of the speech, and the outline of the plan was taken from an aide-memoire compiled by George Kennan's team. And although Marshall has repeatedly objected to assigning his name to the program for the restoration of Europe, let's give him his due: he appreciated the proposals of his assistants and attached huge effort to implement the plan.

George Catlett Marshall was the Chief of Staff of the United States Army during World War II. In his post-war speeches, he insisted that the United States, in its own interests, accept historical responsibility for the fate of post-war Europe.

In November 1945, 65-year-old Marshall submitted his resignation letter from military service... President Truman, who highly valued D. Marshall, offered him the post of Secretary of State. In his new career, Marshall was initially plagued by setbacks. In China, he failed to reconcile the Communists and the Kuomintang. At a conference of foreign ministers in Moscow, tensions between former allies only intensified. All the more impressive was the success of Marshall's speech at Harvard. The British and French immediately proposed that a meeting of the Foreign Ministers of Great Britain, France and the Soviet Union be convened in Paris. The fact is that Marshall offered American assistance to all European countries, including the USSR.

The Soviet Union was extremely interested in American loans for the restoration and reconstruction of the national economy, so the Soviet leadership agreed to hold a meeting of foreign ministers. On the other hand, Soviet leaders strongly rejected any form of international control in relation to the economy of the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe.

It should be noted that Stalin was an outstanding schemer, but a rather bad politician. After the war, he managed to make many unforgivable mistakes. A few examples: the Soviet representative, in protest, did not participate in the meeting of the UN Security Council, at which the question of korean war... This allowed the Americans to fight in Korea under the flag of the United Nations. Stalin did not sign a peace treaty with Japan, and now the Japanese have reason to claim part of the Kuril Islands. With territorial claims to Turkey and Iran, Stalin pushed these countries towards an alliance with the United States. Instead of helping to create a united and neutral Germany, Stalin insisted on dividing the country, which contributed to the FRG's entry into NATO. Many mistakes were made in relation to the countries of "people's democracies".

But back to the Paris meeting of the foreign ministers of the three powers. It ended with the refusal of the USSR delegation to participate in the implementation of the Marshall Plan. Stalin considered that the danger of increasing US influence in the countries of Eastern Europe outweighed the possible benefits of receiving American aid.

The USSR not only refused American aid, but did not allow Albania, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Finland to receive it. Was this the dictator's mistake?

The countries of Eastern Europe have managed to restore their economy without this. True, the living standard in them turned out to be lower than the level of the leading Western countries, but one should not forget that even before the war in Poland people lived worse than in Belgium. And the standard of living in Czechoslovakia both before the war and under the communists was higher than the level of many Western European countries.

As some American politicians admitted, if the USSR had accepted the Marshall Plan, the United States would have to abandon it themselves. Stalin's actions, in turn, made it possible to present the Soviet Union as the initiator of the split of Europe.

Europe adopts the Marshall Plan

On July 12, delegates from 16 countries gathered in Paris: Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Ireland, Iceland, Portugal, Austria, Switzerland, Greece and Turkey. By September 22, 1947, the representatives of these countries drew up a report, which determined the resources available to Europe and its needs for 1948-1951.

On April 2, 1948, Congress passed the European Recovery Act, and the next day President Truman signed it into law.

It was supposed to spend 17 billion dollars in four years, which is equivalent to about 220 billion of the current one. The Economic Cooperation Administration was established to implement the Marshall Plan. The former head of the Studebaker corporation, Paul Hoffman, became the chief administrator. It was Hoffman who, speaking to members of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation, created in Europe in April 1948 at ( PEEN ) , first put forward the idea of ​​creating a common European market.

The goal of the Marshall Plan was to achieve economic independence and prosperity for European countries. The strategic policy was based on the following principle: trade liberalization with the coordination of investments. In other words, it was supposed to develop the capitalist foundations of the economy with a centralized impact on macroeconomic processes.

Under the Marshall Plan, aid was provided from the US federal budget in the form of grants and loans. European countries were obliged to spend the allocated funds primarily in the United States, purchasing equipment, materials and services there.

Each year, the United States made grants for food, fuel, and clothing. The local currency generated from the sale of these products was used by European governments to reduce their deficits. state budgets... The same funds were used to finance an increase in the production of steel, cement, coal, oil products and vehicles. Industrial equipment supplies were paid for with loans International Bank... Supply of raw materials, agricultural machinery, industrial goods and spare parts were financed through the US Export-Import Bank.

Bottom line: annual assistance of 4-5 billion dollars allowed to increase production in Europe by 20 billion dollars in just 3 years.

Marshall Plan and West Germany

Since 1948, the Marshall Plan was extended to the western occupation zones of Germany. West Germany received $ 1.39 billion in aid. And although this amount is not so significant, the Germans managed to dispose of it. the best way... Germany owed this to Ludwig Erhard, the father of the German economic miracle.

In 1948, he was director of the Department of Economics at the Frankfurt Council, a German governing body that operated under the occupation administration. The economic recovery of West Germany began in the summer of 1948 with a monetary reform, accompanied by the adoption of a package social laws developed by the department of L. Erhard.

The implementation of this reform was entrusted to the American banker Dodge. It was carried out on a tight schedule along with growth-oriented activities industrial production... On June 21, 1948, in Germany, everyone who passed 40 Reichsmarks received 40 new German marks in return. The rest of the money was exchanged in the ratio: 1: 15, i.e. for fifteen old Reichsmarks they gave one new one.

Progressive taxes on property and savings were introduced, and bank deposits were frozen. Within a few weeks, stores began to fill up with merchandise. To encourage people to do capital investment, it was allowed to lend to businesses from frozen bank accounts of citizens. Loans were provided only to those firms that repaid debts. From June 1948 to July 1949 labor productivity increased by 30% (!). The consequence of this was a decrease in the price level.

A number of objective factors also contributed to the successful implementation of the reforms. Thus, West German industry largely survived after the war. The country had reserves of skilled labor. In addition, the millions of German settlers and refugees who arrived in Germany were willing to work for a small fee. In addition, after the military disaster, the population needed literally everything.

Effectively using favorable factors, Erhard, who headed the Ministry of Economy in the first government of the Federal Republic of Germany, managed to achieve outstanding results. In 1950 the FRG reached the pre-war level of production, and by 1956 it had doubled. The Ministry of Economy has skillfully directed investments in the development of the main branches of heavy industry. And its rise contributed to the development of processing and light industry... This, in turn, created favorable conditions for the development of medium and small businesses. Export-oriented enterprises were especially encouraged. At the same time, the state allocated subsidies for the training of workers, and half of the apartments built were provided to citizens at reduced prices. In April 1951, the Bundestag passed the Law on the Participation of Workers in Production Management.

It was at this time that the foundations of a new, democratic and prosperous Germany, Germany, in which we all live today, were laid.

December 10, 1953 George Marshall received in Oslo Nobel Prize The General considered this award the most expensive of all the awards he received.

S. Wickmann (Hannover)

The main provisions of the plan were put forward by US Secretary of State George Marshall on June 5, 1947, at a speech at Harvard University. The Marshall Plan was supported by Great Britain and France, who proposed at the Paris meeting of the foreign ministers of the USA, Great Britain, France and the USSR (June-July 1947) to create a "steering committee" in Europe, which would be engaged in clarifying the resources and needs of European countries and determining the development of the main industries industry. The USSR also agreed to accept American aid, but rejected any form of control over its distribution and use. In this regard, the countries of the socialist camp refused to participate in the Marshall Plan.

16 Western European states agreed to participate in the Marshall Plan: Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Ireland, Iceland, Portugal, Austria, Switzerland, Greece, Turkey. On July 12, 1947, in Paris, these countries concluded a convention establishing a Committee (later Organization) for European Economic Cooperation, which was supposed to develop a joint "program for the restoration of Europe." West Germany joined the Marshall Plan in December 1949.

The Marshall Plan began to be implemented in April 1948, when the law on the four-year program "aid foreign states", Which provided for the provision of assistance to Western European countries on the basis of bilateral agreements. Such agreements were signed in 1948 with all participating countries (excluding Switzerland, which refused to sign the agreement, although it participated in the Marshall Plan). The participating countries pledged to promote the development of "free enterprise", encourage private American investment, cooperate in reducing customs tariffs, supply some scarce goods to the United States, ensure financial stability, create special funds in national currency released as a result of receiving American aid, the spending of which was controlled would the United States submit regular reports on the use of funds received. To control the execution of the Marshall Plan, the Economic Cooperation Administration was created, headed by major American financiers and politicians.

The aid was provided from the US federal budget in the form of grants and loans. From April 1948 to December 1951, the United States spent about $ 17 billion under the Marshall Plan, with the bulk (about 60%) going to Great Britain, France, Italy and West Germany. On December 30, 1951, the Marshall Plan formally ended and was replaced by the Mutual Security Act (passed by Congress on October 10, 1951), which provided for the simultaneous provision of military and economic assistance.