Development of Western European integration. — stages of Western European integration. Assignment for independent work

Features of integration processes in Europe Main European institutions

Single European Act, Maastricht and Amsterdam Treaties Common Agricultural and Social Policy of the EU

Features of integration processes in Europe

In the European region, international economic integration has reached its greatest level of development. The ideological basis for Western integration European countries became the desire to create an international economic order that would be based on liberalization trade relations and cooperation between countries. The Second World War, which led to an unprecedented economic crisis, the decline of all spheres of production, unemployment and poverty, forced Western European countries to turn to the experience of the interwar period, which showed that self-isolation and the desire to solve national problems independently and alone do not give the desired result.

Integration processes in Europe that began after the end of World War II, determined by patterns economic development, were the result political decisions leadership of the leading states of the European continent. The Marshall Plan played an important role in the development of European integration, within the framework of which significant material assistance was provided to Western Europe. Moreover, the result of destruction colonial empires there was a forced need for the former metropolises to reconsider their foreign policy strategy and set a course for establishing ties with neighboring states.

However, the basis of integration in Western Europe was not only the increasing interdependence of national economies and markets. As economic ties deepened, the need for mutual adaptation and conscious joint regulation became more and more clearly evident. economic processes states and bodies of the European Economic Community (EEC), founded in 1957 on the basis of the European Coal and Steel Community, on the scale of the entire emerging economic complex. The purpose of such regulation was to eliminate national barriers to the mutual exchange of goods and services and interaction between states, to ensure equal conditions for economic entities of these countries, to emancipate competition, to create, through coordination and harmonization of internal and external macroeconomic policies, a single economic space, towards a spontaneous market process in the direction determined by jointly developed economic and social priorities.

The initial goal of integration policy in the EU was to create favorable conditions For economic cooperation European countries, the formation of a pan-European market for goods and services, free movement of capital and labor. Theoretical basis Western European economists who dealt with the feasibility of international economic integration in Europe came up with the principle of comparative advantage.

The practical application of economic and political ideas and models in European integration required the creation of supranational mechanisms that would take on the function of organizing, planning and controlling financial and economic interaction between the participating countries. Despite the fact that the predecessor of the European Union - the European Economic Community - was founded only in 1957, the first step towards the creation of a modern EU can be considered the Paris statement of the French Foreign Minister R. Schumann, made on May 9, 1950, in which he proposed to combine the coal and steel production of France and Germany as a preventive measure further wars between Germany and France. The result was the signing in April 1951 of the Paris Treaty establishing European Coal and Steel Community(ECSC), which included six states: Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany, France, Italy. The treaty came into force in 1953.

The next level of European integration was laid down as a result of the Messina Conference, held in June 1955, the theme of which was the Benelux Memorandum (an intergovernmental organization representing a political, customs and economic union between Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, founded in 1921) on a European integration. The talk was about creating a united Europe through the creation of common institutions, the gradual merging of national economies, the formation of a common market and the harmonization of social policies. The provisions of the Messina Conference were formalized on March 25, 1957 in the Treaties of Rome, which established European Economic Community(EEC), based on a customs union and a common policy in the field Agriculture, and European Atomic Energy Community(Euratom). The Treaties of Rome became the link between the ECSC, the EEC and the Euras.

The EEC Treaty set the main goal of creating a customs union, which would provide for the freedom of movement of goods across the territory of the participating countries, the abolition of quotas and other barriers to cross-border trade, as well as freedom of movement of capital, labor and services. The purpose of the Treaty of Rome was to formulate a common policy in agriculture, in the areas social protection and legislation, in foreign trade, etc., while issues of macroeconomic and financial policy were not addressed in the document. There are still questions beyond the scope of the agreement foreign policy, which continued to be the responsibility of nation states.

In accordance with the developed schedule, a gradual decline began on January 1, 1959 customs duties on a wide range of goods for trade within the European Economic Community. Only duties on agricultural products were not affected. The completion of the customs union was planned for January 1, 1970, but this happened a full year and a half earlier - by July 1, 1968.

Studying the history of the development of European integration, we mention that simultaneously with the formation of the European Economic Community, the formation of another competing association was underway: on May 3, 1960, the creation of European Free Trade Association(EFTA), which included Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK. Despite the fact that the organization was created as an alternative to the modern European Union, it failed to reach the level of integration of the European Economic Community. EFTA was initially conceived as a purely economic organization, in contrast to the EEC, which also set itself political and social goals, and perhaps this is one of the reasons for the failure of EFTA, which gradually began to look for points of convergence with the EEC. Thus, since 1973, free trade agreements between the EEC and some EFTA member states came into force, to which other member countries gradually joined. The result of the agreement was the non-application of the EEC common customs tariff in trade with these countries, which led to the actual entry of these countries into the EEC free trade area (from the late 1960s into the customs union), but they did not participate in the general Community programs.

The next stage in strengthening the integration of the two communities was the conclusion in October 1991 between the EEC and EFTA of the framework Agreement on the creation of the European Economic Area (EEA), which established special advantages for the EFTA countries in terms of access to the markets of the EEC countries. The agreement gave EFTA member countries the right to participate in the development of laws and regulations related to the formation of a single market, but did not have the opportunity to participate in other areas of international relations with EEC countries. However, the existence of complex approval procedures ultimately made it possible to resolve almost all issues of interaction between countries within the framework of the Agreement. Currently, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland are members of EFTA, and other EFTA countries are included in the European Union.

In December 1969, a decision was made in The Hague to expand the EEC and deepen integration. Political leaders The communities, striving to achieve qualitatively new results in the development of the integration association, set the task of creating the European Union. According to the Tindemans plan, which by the end of 1980 envisaged the creation of an economic and monetary union using a common currency for the countries.

However, the creation of the Tindemans Plan did not take into account the existence of significant fundamental differences between member states regarding the constitutional structure and the necessary institutional reforms to create it. An additional factor that negatively influenced the development of European integration in the 1970s was also the energy and financial crisis: Western European countries at that time were already widely involved in international economic life, and global economic turmoil has had a major impact on them. These factors made it impossible to implement Tindemans' plan within the established time frame.

However, in the 1970s, new instruments were developed to coordinate the national policies of the EEC member countries in order to develop a unified Community policy. The result was the creation European political cooperation - institution for coordinating joint foreign policy. The second important step was the creation in 1979. European monetary system(EMU), the purpose of which was to ensure a zone of monetary stability in Europe.

The result of the Hague decisions regarding the expansion of the EEC was the accession of Denmark, Ireland and Great Britain to the “six” on January 1, 1973, in 1981 - Greece, in 1986 - Spain and Portugal, and in 1995 - Austria, Finland and Sweden. Since May 2004, the European Union has already included 25 states, and since July 1, 2013 - 28 states.

Practical experience in the formation and development of international economic integration in Western Europe generally corresponded to theoretical aspects which were discussed above. Theorists of the development of the European Union point out that for the successful development of international economic integration, the basis of the economy of the integrating countries should be the manufacturing industry, while the integration of agricultural and raw materials countries is ineffective and unpromising. The reason that highly developed industrial production has a significant positive impact on the progress of integration is that it has enormous potential for intra-industry division of labor. A developed market economy contributes to the creation of strong partnerships between companies of the participating countries, which no longer depend on the economic and political policies of governments, but become an objective reality. Polycentrism combined with the leadership of individual participating countries are important factors for the formation of supranational institutions.

Many experts emphasize that the participants in the emerging integration association must have a homogeneous socio-economic structure, while the diversity of the economy hinders integration. Also important are the manifestations of the strongest political will of all the merging countries and the willingness to make concessions on certain issues.

The development of an integration association requires the resolution of contradictions that naturally accompany integration processes. To solve problems arising during the integration process and avoid regression, it is necessary to develop an adequate mechanism for resolving disputes and ongoing coordination of the positions of the parties.

Let us emphasize one more very important aspect. As the development practice of the European Union shows, hasty steps and the desire of leading circles to artificially speed up integration processes do not always lead to understanding on the part of citizens of the participating countries. Proposed political elite significant projects, especially of a political nature, must find the support of the majority of ordinary citizens of the countries participating in the integration. In particular, an example of political miscalculations in this regard was the proposal to form a European Defense Union (EDU) immediately after the formation of the ECSC in 1952, as well as to adopt a Constitution for Europe, the ratification process of which revealed a complex of unforeseen and unexpected complications. The expanded EU Constitution has not yet been approved, and therefore a decision was made to develop and introduce its compact version.

And they signed an agreement on the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which laid the first stone in the economic foundation of the future. In March 1957, in Rome, the same countries signed agreements on the creation of the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). Later, all three organizations became united governing bodies and the common name is the European Economic Community (EEC).

With the signing of the Treaty on European Union on February 7, 1992 in Maastricht (the Netherlands), new stage European integration. The construction of an economic, monetary and political union began with the gradual elimination of internal borders between countries. A single internal market has been formed, ensuring the free movement of people, goods, services and capital.

The desire for close integration in the second half of the 20th century. was due to a number of factors:

• the contradiction between the rapid internationalization of the modern economy and the tightness of national-state borders for its functioning;
• the desire for external expansion of the most successful national producers;
• the loss of Europe's position as a world center in the process of the collapse of colonial empires;
• the desire to strengthen the overall economic and military-strategic potential in the context of confrontation between two political and economic systems until the early 1990s;
• democratization of post-war life and the realization of the rights and freedoms of citizens.

The creation of a single pan-European economic space proceeded gradually over several decades. This is natural, since such large-scale systemic changes are always painful. Increased competition inevitably leads to an exacerbation of the problem of bankruptcy of insolvent industries and unemployment. It is especially difficult for less developed countries to integrate into pan-European structures. For example, in the late 1980s. After joining the EEC, unemployment reached 25% of the economically active population. Many socio-economic problems have worsened in countries that are backward by European standards. Nevertheless, life has already proven to the residents of these countries that in long term the benefits outweigh the costs of the “long way”.

To date, citizenship of the European Union has been established. The rights of EU citizens are defined, including freedom of movement, choice of place of residence, education, purchase and sale of real estate and business activity, as well as the procedure for protecting the rights of Union citizens. All this stimulates people's initiative and creates enormous opportunities for everyone who is ready to take advantage of them.

Currently European Union pursues a policy of bringing together the levels of development of the former national economies of its members and forming a common economic space. The most important step in this direction was in the late 1990s. was the creation of the Monetary Union and the gradual introduction of a single pan-European currency (euro), which began in 1999. From January 1, 2002, cash transactions with national money ceased.

In essence, the creation of a single pan-European economic space, the final transition to the euro and the introduction of a pan-European passport mean the abandonment of such traditional attributes of statehood as borders, national economies, and citizenship. Despite serious and inevitable growth problems, the European Union has already become one of the key actors in the political and economic maps peace. Today this is a unique union of states with a population almost 1.5 times greater than the population of the United States of America and 2.5 times the population. Average per capita GDP (PPP) in the second half of the 1990s. exceeded 20 thousand US dollars. The EU is becoming one of the most attractive regions for investment in the world. At the European Union Forum in Barcelona (March 2002), a course was proclaimed to achieve EU leadership in the world economy by 2010. The starting positions in order to “catch up and overtake” the most important economic indicators are advantageous in many respects. Time will show the realism of the put forward slogan.

European integration developed under special conditions, a combination of which is not found in any other region of the world. The most important of them are the following.

Highly developed market economy. Even after World War II, countries Western Europe represented the most industrially advanced part of the continent and ranked 2nd in the world in terms of economic power. Practice shows that the possibility of creating a successful integration association directly depends on the level of industrial development of the participating states. Producing countries wide range finished (and especially technically complex) products, are objectively interested in the development of international industrial specialization and cooperation. On the contrary, countries exporting minerals and agricultural products compete with each other in markets for similar products. They all need manufactured goods that they do not produce themselves. Therefore, having created an integration association, such states do not receive large benefits, and the turnover of their mutual trade remains insignificant.

At the time of the creation of the EEC, all states participating in it had an established market economy. Integration between countries with market economy develops through inter-firm connections, and the integration of countries with planned economies - through interstate connections. Within the framework of the CMEA, bilateral protocols on mutual supplies were signed every year, which approved the volumes, nomenclature and approximate price of goods. This system allowed the CMEA countries to easily survive the collapse of the Bretgon Woods currency system in 1971 and the oil crises of the 1970s. With the end of the Cold War, the socialist community collapsed, and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) began the transition to a market economy. Without strong intercompany ties, socialist economic integration ceased to exist.

It is extremely difficult, or rather almost impossible, to integrate countries that have a multi-structured economy with elements of a feudal natural economy. Numerous attempts to create economic unions in Africa and Latin America have failed precisely for this reason. So far there are no examples in the world of successful integration of countries with dissimilar economic structures.

Polycentric structure. A feature of the EU was also the presence of several strong countries approximately the same size. At first it was France, Germany and Italy, later they were joined by Great Britain and Spain. This feature - very rare for the regional grouping. Currently, it is typical only for the EU and partly for ASEAN. In NAFTA the undisputed leader is the United States, in the CIS - Russia, in Mercosur - Brazil, in ECOWAS - Nigeria.

The polycentric structure is a key prerequisite for the creation of supranational authorities within the group. If one country predominates in an association, this does not allow for a fair distribution of votes in the common legislative body. If the principle of “one country - one vote” is used, the largest state loses the opportunity to adequately represent the interests of its population at the level of association. With the distribution of votes depending on population size, small countries cannot actively influence the group’s policies. Of course, the presence of supranational bodies is not a necessary condition for integration. However, it is difficult to do without them at high levels of integration.

The current situation in the European Union is far from what existed in the 1970s and 1980s. Of the fifteen countries that joined the EU in 1995, 2004 and 2007, only two (Poland and Romania) have average populations by European standards. Of the remaining thirteen, five have between 8 and 10 million people, and eight have between half a million and 5.5 million inhabitants. The new distribution of power between large and small member states seriously complicates the work of EU institutions.

General culture and history. Today's Europe is a conglomerate of numerous peoples and cultures, which has evolved over more than two millennia of their coexistence and interaction. It is difficult or even impossible to give a precise and consistent definition of what modern European civilization is. However, it is also certain that it exists as a separate whole. There is extensive information available in this regard scientific literature reveals several main characteristics. These include: democracy and human rights; the system of separation of powers and the rule of law; political tradition (social contract of J.-J. Rousseau); urban autonomy and developed local identity; the concept of property as an absolute right and market economy.

The historical basis of modern European culture is the heritage of Antiquity common to all of Europe (translations of ancient Greek and Roman writers, philosophers, mathematicians and natural scientists, as well as ancient mythology, architecture and sculpture); medieval scholastic philosophy; Gothic; Renaissance and Baroque art; romanticism; ideological heritage of the Enlightenment; Christianity, primarily Catholicism, and from the 16th century. Protestantism. Let us add that almost all the peoples of Europe (except the Basques) speak languages ​​belonging to the Indo-European family, primarily the languages ​​of the Romance, Germanic and Slavic groups, which have much in common.

In the Middle Ages, the institutional basis of European unity served, along with Catholic Church, an education system that was practically international: students and professors traveled from university to university.

Mutual understanding among the inhabitants of Europe was facilitated by the widespread use of Latin, which served as a means of interethnic communication among scientists, lawyers, doctors, university teachers and students. Until the beginning of the 18th century. Scientific literature was published in Latin, dissertations were written and defended, scientific correspondence and debates were conducted. A kind of virtual basis of European unity is the common Greco-Latin basis of scientific, political and legal terminology, as well as a common (also of ancient origin) system of artistic images.

Multinational, densely populated Europe, limited in land and raw materials, has long been in need of unification, which was dreamed of from ancient times by politicians and thinkers who promoted the idea of ​​a united Europe (for more details, see Chapter 4). However, it was in Europe that took shape in the 19th century. The nation state system led to two world wars. The flip side of national sovereignty (in its unlimited form) was aggression, fascism and the suppression of human rights.

Bitter experience of the first half of the 20th century. showed that the region needs a system of international relations that would transfer to the interstate level the rules of democracy and the principles of separation of powers inherent in a rule-of-law state that have already taken root in many countries. The time has come to limit national sovereignty and consciously delegate part of it to supranational bodies. The first step in this direction was the Treaty on the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951. France and Germany, both recent opponents in the war, voluntarily transferred strategic industries: coal and steel, under common control. Integration was based on such elements of Western European society as a rule of law, centuries-old experience of the coexistence of peoples, cultural and religious community, traditions of the European idea and the lessons of two world wars.

The peculiarities of the post-war situation in Europe also contributed to the successful advancement of integration.

Firstly, Western European countries had to restore their war-ravaged economies. It was impossible to do this autonomously, without active trade and industrial cooperation with neighbors. During the war, Europe lost its position as a world economic leader; its place was taken by the United States. In order not to become deeply economically dependent on the United States, Western European states had to unite their efforts.

Secondly, the outcome of the war led to a sharp strengthening of the USSR and the formation in Central and Eastern Europe Soviet bloc. In 1949, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was created, and in 1955, the Warsaw Pact was signed. The split of the continent into two camps and the beginning of the Cold War further pushed Western European countries to consolidate and create their own bloc.

Thirdly, after the war, the influence of the European metropolises - Great Britain, France, the Netherlands and Belgium - on their colonies in Africa and Asia noticeably weakened. In 1945, Indonesia declared independence from Holland. France was drawn into two colonial wars that ended in defeat: in 1946-1954. in Vietnam and in 1954-1962. in Algeria. In 1947-1950 Burma (now Myanmar), Pakistan and India gained independence from Britain. In 1951, Libya, which previously belonged to Italy, became independent. In 1960, almost all French colonies in Western and Equatorial Africa, as well as the Belgian Congo (now Zaire). Western Europe risked losing traditional markets for its goods, as well as sources of cheap raw materials and colonial goods. The creation of an integration association provided a chance to compensate for these losses.

From my point of view, it is impossible for Europe to remain “dependent” for long on the United States economically - almost exclusively on its loans, and in terms of security - on its military strength.

The actions of the countries of Western Europe, in order to be on the level of the circumstances and the danger threatening us, as well as on the level of American efforts, must become the united actions of the Western Federation, the creation of which is a prerequisite for success.

Monnet Jean. From a letter to Robert Schumann, 1948

Conclusions, problems, trends

1. The formation and spread of regional integration as a phenomenon occurred in the second half of the 20th century. in close connection with the development of globalization processes. Integration is based on the common economic and political interests of neighboring states and on their awareness of the unity of their future historical fate. An active integration association allows us to shift the balance of benefits and costs of globalization in favor of member countries.

2. Regional integration helps to solve several major problems: achieving and maintaining political stability in the region, economic development and growth in the welfare of the participating countries, as well as strengthening the group’s position in the world. For integration to be successful, certain conditions must be met, including the presence of collective responsibility, the existence of an effective mechanism for making and executing decisions, as well as a gradual movement from simple forms of integration to complex ones.

3. The activities of the integration group give rise to persistent contradictions. Their source is the discrepancy between common and national interests, the need to delegate national sovereignty to supranational bodies, difficulties in maintaining a uniform pace of integration by all its participants, as well as the need to ensure public support for integration plans.

4. The success of the European Union was made possible by the unique combination of factors in Europe that contributed to integration. These include the presence of developed industrial potential, the presence in the association of several large countries same size, close cultural and historical community European peoples, as well as the peculiarities of the post-war situation in Western Europe. However, at the beginning of the 21st century. The balance of power between large and small EU members has been disrupted, and European cultural traditions are subject to growing influence from outside.

Control questions

1. What benefits and risks does globalization bring?

2. How are regional integration and globalization related?

3. How and what tasks they help their participants solve integration associations, existing in different parts peace?

4. Does the existence of a regional association always imply a limitation of the national sovereignty of its participants?

5. How does a free trade zone differ from a common market?

6. Like having traditions rule of law contributed to the development of Western European integration?

Topic 4.2 Integration in Europe and North America

Plan

1.Integration processes

- economic interdependence of states;

— contradictions and competition in the information society;

2. Development of integration processes in Europe

— stages of Western European integration;

— achievements and contradictions of European integration;

— integration processes in Europe at the present stage;

1. Work with text
2. Questions on the topic
3. Assignment for independent work
4. Bibliography

1. Integration processes

Economic interdependence states

Thanks to the activities of TNCs and TNBs, foreign trade of Western countries in the second half of the twentieth century. developed twice as fast as industrial production. The economic interdependence of states has increased. On this basis, stable unions of states have emerged, whose economies integrated, that is, it represents single economic complex.

Western Europe has advanced the furthest along the path of integration, where it has developed European Union (EU). Integration processes are progressing successfully in North America, where the USA, Canada and Mexico have created free trade area (NAFTA), V South-East Asia(organization ASEAN), in Latin America ( MERCOSUR and the Andean Pact). There are projects to create a North Atlantic Free Trade Zone and an Asia-Pacific Integration Zone.

In the context of the globalization of the world economy, integration makes it possible to limit the influence of TICs and TNBs. A group of countries agrees on general rules entrepreneurial activity and implementation of social policy. arise common economic spaces. The giants of transnational business are forced to take them into account. For example, in the territory of the European Union countries there is antimonopoly legislation, uniform standards for the quality of manufactured products, private businesses are required to demonstrate social responsibility and respect the rights of employees. In NAFTA countries, especially in the United States, tax evasion and violation of “business ethics” by corporations, that is, respect for the interests of consumers and business partners, are legally prosecuted. The activities of TNB in ​​offshore zones are monitored.

Thus, the role of common economic spaces is increasing, and political and economic decisions are increasingly being made by supranational structures.

Contradictions and competition in the information society

The struggle for markets for goods, control over natural resources persists even in the conditions of existence information society. Periodically arise and "trade wars", however, they have their own characteristics. The economic interdependence of the most developed countries of the world excludes the possibility of major conflicts between them. It becomes pointless to impose high customs duties on goods produced in another country if they are vital for own development. Folds up competitive cooperation model, when interaction and competition combine. Not only states and their associations, but also the largest corporations now participate in both competition and cooperation.

Competitive fight in modern conditions, it is fought, first of all, for preferential terms of access to sources of raw materials and energy resources. It becomes more acute the higher the prices for oil, gas and rare earth metals. Thus, Western countries at the beginning of the 21st century. are particularly interested in gaining direct access to the oil and gas resources of the Central Asian CIS states and Azerbaijan. Accordingly, plans are being developed to build gas and oil pipelines bypassing Russia. At the same time, TNCs are striving to achieve preferential conditions for the operation of energy resources and oil pipelines of the Russian Federation. The struggle for markets for products does not stop, which became especially tough after China joined it. For example, for the rapidly growing Russian market Car sales are competed by American, Western European, Japanese, Korean and Chinese auto giants who are interested in creating their own branches in our country. In this struggle, methods of political pressure, information warfare (discrediting competitors and their products), economic means and even corruption are used.

Especially Intense competition exists in the field of knowledge and information production. States and corporations that succeed in this area are able to conquer new markets without weapons, offering new products with higher consumer qualities. Having the appropriate knowledge, it is possible to compensate for the lack of raw materials and energy resources through the use of alternative types of energy (sun, wind, sea tides, bio-fuels, etc.), energy and resource saving technologies. Having full information about competing countries and corporations, it is not difficult to identify their weaknesses.

Under these conditions, becoming increasingly important data protection and fight against industrial espionage- illegal acquisition or theft of knowledge and inventions.

It becomes important to ensure the growth of the intellectual potential of society. This is achieved by improving the education system, preventing "brain drain" from the country. Many countries of the world, in particular Western Europe and the CIS, are faced with a situation where US corporations offer their young and talented citizens preferential employment conditions.

Competition does not exclude, but implies cooperation. It is necessary to solve environmental problems and overcome the consequences natural disasters, often affecting many states, ensuring the safe operation of nuclear power plants, air and sea transport, preventing epidemics, etc.
Cooperation in the scientific and technical sphere is often beneficial because it facilitates the implementation of large-scale projects that are difficult to implement by a single state or corporation. Thus, interaction in the peaceful exploration of space is successfully developing, as exemplified by the work International Space Station(ISS). Scientists from different countries are jointly studying the problems of using thermonuclear energy for peaceful purposes. In many areas of activity (aircraft manufacturing, automotive industry, etc.) competing corporations from different countries successfully cooperate, combining their achievements.

1. Development of integration processes in Europe

Stages of Western European integration

The development of Western European integration went through several stages.

1. In 1947, 23 of the most economically developed countries concluded General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT). They pledged to promote the development of foreign trade by mutually reducing taxes on imported products and abandoning customs wars. Subsequently, the GATT framework expanded to include many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, and it was transformed into World Trade Organization(WTO).
2. In 1948 it was created Organization for European Economic Cooperation(OEES). Its original functions were to distribute aid provided to Europe under the Marshall Plan. It opened up broad opportunities for multilateral economic consultations and exchange of economic information. In 1960, the OEES was renamed OECD(Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), Japan joined its activities, then South Korea.
3. The first Western European structure itself, designed to promote policy coordination in the economic, social, cultural, scientific, legal and administrative spheres, was Council of Europe. It was created in 1949 its founders were Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Great Britain.
4. After the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany (1949), there was a danger of a revival of Franco-German rivalry. To avoid this, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman put forward the idea of ​​combining the economic potentials of Germany and France. IN 1951. Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg established European Coal and Steel Community(ECSC). This meant the creation of a common market for the coal and metallurgical industries, the abolition of mutual customs duties, and the implementation of a unified customs policy in relation to products from countries outside the organization. The decisions adopted by the ECSC received the force of law in the territory of the participating countries.
5. In 1957, members of the ECSC formed European Economic Community(EEC) And European Atomic Energy Community(Euratom). This was of great importance for the development of European unity. The principles of free movement of goods, capital, services and labor were proclaimed, which meant formation of a common market. It was planned to adopt uniform standards of tax and social policy. Were first formed supranational bodies: European Parliament as a legislative body Council of Ministers as a body of political leadership, Commission European communities as an executive body Court of Justice of the European Communities. On integration issues they had the right to make decisions of direct action that came into force without approval national governments and parliaments. In addition, meetings are held twice a year European Council- summit of heads of state and government, making strategic decisions on ways to develop integration.

Alternative model Northern European countries tried to create integration by establishing the European Free Trade Association in 1960 (EFTA). Its members are Great Britain, Austria, Denmark, Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and Portugal. The purpose of EFTA was to gradually reduce customs duties on industrial products only. The creation of supranational bodies and the convergence of legislation was not envisaged. This model, which provided a lower level of integration than the EEC, turned out to be less viable. In 1973, Great Britain, Ireland and Denmark joined the EEC. The countries remaining in the EFTA signed an agreement on the creation of a free trade area with the EEC states in 1977, and on a single European economic space in 1991.

Achievements and contradictions of European integration

The rapprochement of European countries has brought them significant benefits. Companies and firms of the EEC countries, knowing how much product they could produce and sell within the quotas established for them, sought to increase their profits through accelerated modernization of production. The movement of labor to richer countries made it possible to solve employment problems in less developed countries. The most backward regions received assistance within the framework of pan-European development programs.

Not all Western European countries have joined European integration. Norway in 1972 and 1994, following the results of referendums held in it, refused to become a member of the “united Europe”. Switzerland refused to join. Sweden, which joined the European Union in 1995, experienced significant economic difficulties.

The fact is that, under the influence of integration, a unified economic policy model, common to all developed Euro-Atlantic countries. States that did not comply with it (higher level of government intervention in the economy, different social policies, etc.) inevitably faced greater problems. Thus, after Sweden joined the EU, an outflow of capital began from the country to other EU countries, where taxes were lower.

Carrying out the previous special social and economic policies in individual country, which had embarked on the path of integration, became impossible. Successful solutions are immediately borrowed by partners, while unsuccessful ones, causing an outflow of capital, are forced to be revised. In addition, each integration participant is obliged to comply with the decisions of supranational bodies, which also limits the possibility of carrying out socio-economic experiments. This was the most important reason for the convergence of positions on fundamental issues social development main political parties all countries of Western Europe, regardless of their ideologies and programs.

Integration processes in Europe at the present stage

The development of European integration proceeds in two ways
main directions.

Firstly, behind further account recessesintegration. Status has been upgraded European Parliament, which, since the creation of the EEC, has been only a forum for communication between representatives of the national parliaments of its member countries. IN 1979. The first direct elections to the European Parliament took place. In 1993, according to Maastricht agreements(signed in 1992 in the Dutch city of Maastricht), the European Union (EU) was formed. In 1995 they began to implement Schengen agreements, which abolished visa controls on the territory of the European Union. Citizens of EU countries have the right to participate in local elections in any of them. Folds up united European system legal norms. In 1997, in Amsterdam, EU countries agreed to pursue a coordinated security and defense policy. In 1998 it was established European Central Bank, and in 2002. a common currency was introduced - the euro. The exceptions were Denmark, Sweden and Great Britain, which retained their currencies.

Secondly, due to inclusion of new members. For countries that, due to the level and nature of economic development, are not ready for full integration, a system was introduced associate membership. It implies preferential treatment in trade and economic relations with the countries of the European Community, and gradual progress towards full membership. Turkey and many former colonies of France in North Africa(Morocco, Tunisia), Eastern European states. IN 2004. 10 new states were admitted to the European Union - Hungary, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Czech Republic and Estonia. IN 2007 joined the EU Bulgaria And Romania. A transition period has been established for all these countries, during which they must bring their legislation, finances and economies into line with the requirements of a united Europe. The enlargement of the EU to include less developed countries has led to great difficulties. The need to direct significant assistance from the EU budget to support new, economically weak participants in integration has caused alarm among Western Europeans. They feared a drop in living standards and an influx of cheap labor from Eastern Europe.

The increased influence of “Eurosceptics,” as opponents of further integration are called, affected the results of the 2005 referendums on the Constitution of United Europe. The majority of voters in France and Holland rejected the proposed project. However, leading EU politicians believe that these are temporary difficulties that will be overcome.

1. Integration processes in North America

In 1988, the United States and Canada entered into an agreement to create a free trade area. Since 1992, Mexico has joined it. The new structure was named North American Free Trade Agreement(NAPHTHA). This agreement reflected the pre-existing unity of the North American economies. Thus, over 2/3 of the exports of Canada and Mexico were sent to the United States. The United States and Canada had a single union membership system. Cheap Mexican labor - up to 10-12 million people seasonal workers- has long been annually attracted by American farmers for harvesting. NAFTA only legalized this phenomenon by providing legal protection for Mexican workers in the United States.

NAFTA is a comprehensive agreement that aims to smoothly reduce trade barriers in a wide variety of (almost all) sectors of the economy of three countries, ensure and facilitate access for goods and services of one country to the markets of the other two, and move closer to the creation of a common market.

NAFTA does not come into full force at once, but within a 15-year period from the date of signing. This delay is provided in order to weaken the effect of an immediate increase in competition between the so-called “sensitive” (least competitive) sectors of industry or agriculture of the three countries. These industries are provided with an island for optimization or displacement (exit) to other sectors of the economy.

The document contains 22 chapters and, including tariff schemes, has approximately two thousand pages. Of course, if this were truly a free trade agreement, it would take less than one page to remove all trade restrictions. In reality it is:

— An act of liberalization that promotes integration through both the reduction and elimination of most trade and investment barriers;

— Act of Coordination of the ongoing policy on measures taken to ensure clear competition, trade in services, government regulation, and protection of intellectual property rights.

In addition, the introduction to the treaty expresses a commitment to respecting fundamental workers' rights.

NAFTA opened a new stage in the conclusion of trade agreements. For the first time, a free trade agreement focuses on environmental issues by developing pollutant standardization treaties. The treaty eliminates quotas on textiles and fabrics, removes restrictions on trade in services (a very significant sector of telecommunications and insurance), and guarantees free market access for all agricultural products after a transition period of 15 years.

NAFTA provides for the gradual (but not progressive) elimination of tariffs. The average rate on Mexican exports was 3.9% (2.5% for motor vehicles); The average tariff rate for imports from the United States was 10% (20% for motor vehicles). Most of the tariffs were removed already on January 1, 194, the day NAFTA came into effect, the rest - within 5 years. Tariffs on imports from Mexico in the most sensitive sectors of the US economy will be reduced to zero over 15 years. Quotas and import licenses were abolished, but, nevertheless, each party reserved the right to urgently restrict trade in order to preserve (if threatened) human life, animal life or the existence of plants and preserve the environment. But from the moment the agreement is signed, no party will be able to restrict the actions of the exporter to a greater extent than it restricts its manufacturer. But here, too, special rules are provided for the agricultural sector, the automotive industry, the energy sector and the textile industry.

To control the use of Mexican territory by Japanese and other foreign (non-Canadian and non-US) manufacturers as a production platform for preferential exports to the United States, NAFTA imposes strict rules of origin conditions. This means that taxes must be paid on those goods for which a significant portion of the value (whether labor, components or materials) is produced outside North America. Severe restrictions are placed on cars, the minimum share of their value produced in the US for tax-free export to the US must be 62.5%. This threshold exceeds that established in the treaty between the US and Canada, which is caused by lobbying of US auto industry unions, since the assembly of Japanese cars in Mexico sharply reduces their cost. The agreement also provides for an “emergency” option for establishing (restoring) duties if the increase in exports of any category of goods poses a threat to the existence of one’s own production.

The signed tripartite Agreement provides for:

— elimination of all customs duties by 2010;

— gradual elimination of a significant number of non-tariff barriers to trade in goods and services;

— easing the regime for North American investment in Mexico;

— liberalization of conditions for the activities of American and Canadian banks on financial market their southern partner;

— settlement of issues related to intellectual property rights;

— creation of a tripartite arbitration commission.

Between the EU countries and NAFTA, in addition to the military-political union (NATO) and the Interparliamentary Association (North Atlantic Assembly), common membership in the OECD, WTO and other international economic organizations, agreements have already been concluded on the prevention of “trade wars” and trade rules. It is possible that in the near future a North Atlantic free trade area will be created, which will unite the most highly developed countries of the world with a similar political culture, a common civilizational heritage, and similar foreign policy interests.

So, integration processes have covered all regions of the world. They are based on economic interests, but permeate all spheres of human life. On this moment Two models of economic development have emerged: North American and Western European. The inconsistency of integration is manifested in their simultaneous competition and tendency towards unification - transformation into a single transnational model.

4. Working with text

From the book by P. Drucker “New realities in government and politics, in economics and business, in society and worldview” (1990):
Economic theory still continues to assert that sovereign nation state is the only, or at least the dominant, unit capable of carrying out effective economic policy. In fact, there are four such units in a transnational economy. These units are what mathematicians call “partially dependent variables”: they are related and interdependent, but neither one controls the other. One of these units is nation state; individual countries - especially large, developed ones - certainly matter. However, decision making is increasingly moving to the second unit - region, such as, for example, the European Economic Community, North America, and in the near future, perhaps, the Far East, united around Japan. The third unit is a genuine and almost autonomous world economy money, credit and investment flows. It exists thanks to information that today knows no national boundaries. And finally, the fourth unit is a transnational enterprise, which, by the way, is not necessarily a large business; from his point of view, all developed<…>the world is a single market, a single “space”, both for the production and sale of goods and services.

Issues for discussion:

What four “economic units” is the author talking about? How are they interconnected?

From the Treaty of Six European States establishing the European Economic Community (March 25, 1957):

Article 2

The Community aims, through the establishment of a common market and consistent convergence of the economic policies of the Member States, to promote the harmonious development of economic activity throughout the Community, the continuous And uniform growth, greater stability, accelerated improvements in living standards and closer relations between the states it brings together.

Article 3

In order to achieve the objectives declared in the preceding article, the Community shall act in accordance with the conditions and pace provided for in this Treaty, in:

a) abolition between the Member States of customs law and quantitative restrictions on the import and export of goods, as well as all other

measures that cause equivalent consequences;

b) establishing a common customs tariff and customs policy in relation to third countries;

c) removing obstacles to the free movement of persons, services and capital between Member States;

d) introduction of a common policy in the field of agriculture;

e) introduction of a common policy in the field of transport;

f) establishing a regime that ensures the inadmissibility of distortions of competition in the common market;

g) applying procedures to coordinate the economic policies of the member states and prevent imbalances in the balance of payments;

h) convergence of national legislations to the extent necessary for the functioning of the common market;

i) the institution of the European social fund, with a view to improving the ability to hire workers and improve their living standards

j) the establishment of a European investment bank designed to facilitate the economic growth of the Community through the generation of new resources.

Issues for discussion:

How were the goals of creating the Unified Energy System determined, and what methods were supposed to be used to achieve them?

5. Questions on the topic

1) Which associations of Western European and North American countries do you think have achieved the greatest results in integration and why?

2) What are the problems and contradictions of integration processes?

3) Analyze the main features of two models of economic development of Euro-Atlantic countries: North American and Western European. What is their difference?

4) At what stage of integration are the countries of Western Europe currently? What are the prospects for their further rapprochement? When answering this question, use materials from the Internet and current press.

6. Assignment for independent work

Fill out the table “Main stages of Western European integration”:

What conclusions can be drawn based on it about the development of integration?

7. References

Main

1. Zagladin N.V. General history. Late XIX – beginning of XXI v./ N.V. Zagladin. – M.: LLC “TID” Russian word"- RS", 2010. – P. 295-303.

Additional

1. Vladimirova I.G. Globalization of the world economy: problems and consequences // Management in Russia and abroad. - No. 3, - 2001.

Internet resource: http://www.cfin.ru/press/management/2001-3/10.shtml

1. Integration processes in certain regions of the world

Internet resource: http://5ballov.qip.ru/referats/preview/41411