Mountain oil from. Thinking about a food product or a cosmetic product? A resident of the Middle Kingdom would have thought of something else.
Mountain oil in China is called oil. Shi yo, that’s roughly what its name sounds like in the original. In the 21st century, oil is produced everywhere.
But China is the first country where a well was drilled. This happened back in 347. Bamboo trunks were used for drilling.
Oil reserves used as fuel to evaporate seawater. The Chinese received it from it.
Oil was also supplied to the army of the Celestial Empire. they poured fuel into ceramic pots, set them on fire and threw them at enemies.
As you can see, even at the beginning of our era, the people of China knew and appreciated the properties of oil. But the Chinese found it difficult to answer what it is. By the 21st century, scientists have understood this issue in detail.
What is oil
Oil - black gold . A well-known phrase emphasizes the importance of liquid and its significant role in history.
However, oil has nothing in common with anything else. The nature of the precious metal is inorganic.
The same is a mineral of presumably organic origin.
From 80 to 90 percent of its composition are hydrocarbons. Another 9-18 percent is occupied by simple hydrogen.
Oxygen, , and other inorganic components account for no more than 10%.
However, hydrocarbons, which are considered to be a consequence of the decomposition of organic matter, that is, plant remains and may also be of inorganic origin.
Theories related to this include: oil is formed. There are three of them. Details in a separate chapter. For now, let's continue looking at fuel.
It is liquid and really oily. Depending on the composition, oil and petroleum products There are brown, greenish, yellowish.
There is even completely transparent fuel. This exists, for example, in the Caucasus.
From an economic point of view oil today- This is a raw material product, the price of which determines the cost of other products.
A separate chapter will also be devoted to this issue. From a political point of view, liquid energy is the cause of large-scale wars and local conflicts.
Everyone wants to control oil fields, but not everyone has them. The presence of deposits is not yet a guarantee of success and economic well-being.
Oil formula may be different, which means the properties will also differ. The efficiency of the fuel, its quality parameters, and “requests” for modification depend on them.
Properties of oil
Eat oil fields flowing like water and resinous. It's a matter of energy density.
The higher the number of asphalt-resinous substances, the higher the indicator. This is a high-molecular organic compound based on sulfur, hydrogen, oxygen and carbon.
The presence of asphalt resins promotes the formation of water-oil emulsions, that is, mixtures of mutually insoluble components.
Industrialists have to purify hydrocarbons from water, which increases the cost of processing. Conclusion: Tar oil is considered low quality.
Resinous hydrocarbons have increased sulfur content. This is another risk. Sulfur accelerates the corrosion of equipment, and in oil production, as is known, it is not cheap.
The density of oil varies from 8 to 9.98 grams per cubic centimeter.
The lower bar is energy carriers rich in light fractions. It is from them that gasoline and diesel distillates are obtained.
It turns out that less dense, light oil is more valuable than dark, oily oil. However, benefits can be gained from both types. We'll talk about this in the "Application" chapter.
Light fractions of oil boil away at temperatures up to 350 degrees Celsius. A 60% presence of light components is desirable.
This is the norm, for example, for the production of diesel fuel. If the content of the light fraction is less, it means there is a lot of paraffins. They negatively affect the quality of the fuel.
The properties of oil are also affected by the concentration of chlorides. Their presence in the composition is a consequence of contamination of the raw material during its extraction.
You have to carry out desalting. Otherwise, as with excess sulfur, equipment corrosion increases.
It manifests itself especially “brightly” if it is carried out oil refining saturated with water.
At high temperatures, it dissolves chloride salts, which means hydrogen chloride is formed. This is what corrodes the surfaces.
Water is often included in oil emulsions, the same ones that are found in abundance in resinous varieties.
But there is also an energy carrier in which moisture is contained in its pure form, separately.
Water, by the way, is a constant companion of oil. If it is not part of it, then it is located nearby.
Oil formation
The presence of water next to oil is one of the evidence of its organic origin. It is also called biogenic.
It is believed that the energy resource was formed in reservoirs. Necessary conditions are standing water, its heat, abundance of life, and therefore death.
When algae, fish, and plankton died, they sank to the bottom, where they rotted. There is little oxygen in stagnant water, so the process was not completed completely.
When organic matter decomposed, gases were released. Sand and water were squeezed between biogenic materials.
If the reservoir was located among sandstones and other porous rocks, silty masses from the bottom seeped through them.
Encountering impenetrable masses along the way, the masses stopped, spreading between structurally contrasting layers of the earth's crust.
Now all that remained was to cover the oil with an impenetrable layer on top. The reservoir disappeared over time.
Movements of lithospheric plates, weathering and other stones containing , led to sedimentation over oil lakes.
So the raw materials fell into the trap. Below and above there are layers, on the sides there is water.
After all, it also seeped through the rocks, almost did not mix with hydrocarbons, moving away from them.
Oil lies in traps in anticlines. They serve as evidence of the tectonic processes to which the area was once subjected.
Anticlines are rock layers that curve upward. Deposition of the earth's crust is formed horizontally.
If waves appear, it means that something was pressing from below, and this is magma breaking through between the lithospheric plates when they crack and collide.
It turns out that oil should be looked for where there once were seas, lakes, and tectonic activity.
According to the biogenic theory of the origin of the energy carrier, it takes millions of years to form.
Some scientists even believe that oil is a stage of anthracite transformation, that is,.
It takes approximately 400,000,000 years to form. What then can we say about liquid hydrocarbons?
In general, if we adhere to the organic theory, oil is an irreplaceable product, since it is consumed faster than it is produced.
Second theory of origin liquid fuel– inorganic or mineral.
It was put forward in 1805, and by 1877 it was even supported by an adherent of biogenic views on the birth of oil.
The essence of the hypothesis is the formation of raw materials at great depths, where high temperatures reign.
If there is water and metal carbides here, they will react. This is how it is formed oil.
TO 2016 A lot of successful experiments were carried out in the inorganic synthesis of hydrocarbons.
The first experiments took place in the 1870s. Reaction example: 2FeC + 3H 2 O = Fe 2 O 3 + H2COCOCH 4.
According to the mineral theory, oil can be quickly replenished, and humanity is in vain raising alarm bells about its shortage.
You just need to look for newly formed deposits. Over time, tectonic movements and pressure push them closer to the surface.
Biogenic and mineral theories of oil formation are rivals. But there is a third hypothesis, which stands apart and is supported by few.
Promoted at the end of the 19th century, it can be considered a subspecies of inorganic. It is said that oil was formed from the same mineral substances, but at the initial stage of the planet’s life.
This idea was prompted by the presence of hydrocarbons in the tails of comets. At first, hydrocarbons were in the gaseous shell of the Earth.
But as it cooled, rocks formed. They absorbed hydrocarbons and accumulated them.
If this is true, then oil, as in the case of biogenic origin, is a non-renewable resource.
Oil production
What kind of oil in anticlines? Unrefined, of course. Hydrocarbons are mixed with gases and water.
The pressure generated in the trap depends on their quantity and temperature in the layers of the deposit.
It may be weak. In this case, industrialists have to install special pumps to pump the liquid to the surface.
But the pressure can go off scale. Then, the raw materials independently rush to wells that are not yet equipped, which creates problems.
The movement of fluid to the well is the first stage of production. Oil rate from the bottom to the mouth - the second stage.
Collection of raw materials and their separation into fractions is the pre-final stage. All that remains is to purify the oil and transport it to refiners.
Application of oil
When oil is processed, gas is released. But it is not used due to non-compliance with guests.
It takes a lot of effort and money to ensure that the resource can be put through pipes.
Start supplying gas from oil in unprocessed form, this is best case scenario, end up with soot in rooms with gas stoves.
Now, about the hydrocarbons used oil. Russia, like other countries, consumes about 5 main fractions.
The lightest is gasoline. It is used to produce gasoline, both aviation and automobile.
The second fraction is naphtha, needed for tractor fuel. Kerosene hydrocarbons are purchased for launching rockets and jet aircraft.
Diesel fuel- This is the fourth fraction, called gas oil. Compared to the light fraction, its boiling point increases at least 3.5 times.
The fifth fraction of oil is fuel oil. This is the heaviest component, consisting of hydrocarbons with a large number atoms.
Separated from them barrel of oil- a hot commodity. But there are also benefits in fuel oil. Solar and lubricating oils, petroleum jelly and paraffins are obtained from it.
Do not forget that oil serves as a raw material for the production of many synthetic fabrics, rubbers, and plastics.
In general, there are much more hydrocarbons in a person’s life than there are in the tank of a personal car.
Oil price
The energy standard is considered Brent oil. It is mined in the North Sea, that is, it is Russian.
The product is not just one type of fuel, but a mixture of several. As of June 22, 2016 oil price Brent stamp is almost 51 rubles.
For the domestic economy, this is better than the established average annual forecasts of 40 rubles per barrel, that is, about 160 liters.
Foreign currencies and the cost of almost all products largely depend on the price of oil.
Even what is produced domestically often contains imported components and components. So, "Brent" - chief of Russia and her main hope for a bright future.
Brief information about oil
TO category:
Car fuel equipment repair
Brief information about oil
Oil is a liquid fossil, flammable substance. In appearance the oil is viscous oily liquid dark brown, sometimes brownish-green in color with a specific odor.
The chemical composition of oil is heterogeneous. It is a mixture large quantity various substances: numerous hydrocarbons, sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen and other compounds.
The composition of oil produced in different geographical areas and even from different layers of the same field differs greatly from one another. Any oil consists of the following chemical elements(%): carbon 83-87, hydrogen H -14, nitrogen 0.3-2.3, sulfur 0.1-6, oxygen 0.1 -1.3 and a small amount of various metals. Oil contains hydrocarbons, which are divided into paraffinic (alkanes), naphthenic (cyclanes) and aromatic (arenes).
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In addition to paraffin hydrocarbons of normal structure, there are isomeric ones. Hydrocarbons of the paraffin series with the number of carbon atoms of 4 or more can have an isomeric structure. Isomeric paraffin hydrocarbons improve the combustion process of gasoline, and normal paraffin hydrocarbons increase the self-ignition of diesel fuels.
Hydrocarbons are contained in oil in significant quantities. The presence of light naphthenic hydrocarbons in gasoline improves its properties. Naphthenic hydrocarbons have high chemical stability, that is, the ability not to enter into chemical reactions with other substances.
Automotive fuels should not contain oxygen, nitrogen and especially sulfur compounds, which cause severe corrosion of metals.
Oil is one of the world's most important minerals (hydrocarbon fuels). These are raw materials for the production of fuels, lubricants and other materials. For its characteristic dark color and great value For the world economy, oil (a mineral) is nicknamed black gold.
General information
This substance is formed together with gaseous hydrocarbons at a certain depth (mainly from 1.2 to 2 km).
The maximum number of oil deposits is located at a depth of 1 to 3 km. Near earth's surface this substance becomes thick malta, semi-solid asphalt and other materials (for example, tar sand).
In terms of its original origin and chemical composition, oil, the photo of which is presented in the article, is similar to natural flammable gases, as well as ozokerite and asphalt. Sometimes all these fossil fuels are combined under one name - petrolites. They are also classified as more wide group- caustobiolites. They are flammable minerals of a biogenic nature.
This group also includes such minerals as peat, shale, hard and brown coals, and anthracite. Based on their ability to dissolve in organic liquids (chloroform, carbon disulfide, alcohol-benzene mixtures), oil, like other petrolites, as well as substances that are extracted with these solvents from peat, coal or their processed products, are classified as bitumens.
Usage
Currently, 48% of the energy consumed on the planet comes from oil (a mineral). This is a proven fact.
Petroleum (mineral resource) is the source of many chemicals used in various industries in the production of fuels, lubricants, polymer fibers, dyes, solvents and other materials.
The increase in oil consumption led to an increase in its prices and to the gradual depletion of the subsoil. This makes us think about switching to alternative energy sources.
Description of physical properties
Oil is a liquid from light brown to dark brown (almost black) in color. Sometimes emerald green specimens are found. Molecular average weight oil is from 220 to 300 g/mol. Sometimes this parameter ranges from 450 to 470 g/mol. Its density indicator is determined in the region of 0.65-1.05 (mostly 0.82-0.95) g/cm³. In this regard, oil is divided into several types. Namely:
- Easy. Density - less than 0.83 g/cm³.
- Average. The density indicator in this case is in the region from 0.831 to 0.860 g/cm³.
- Heavy. Density - over 0.860 g/cm³.
This substance contains a significant number of different organic matter. As a result, natural oil is characterized not by its own boiling point, but by entry level this indicator for liquid hydrocarbons. Mostly it is >28 °C, and sometimes ≥100 °C (in the case of heavy oil).
The viscosity of this substance varies within significant limits (from 1.98 to 265.9 mm²/s). This is determined by the oil fractional composition and its temperature. The higher the temperature and the number of light fractions, the lower the viscosity of the oil. This is also due to the presence of resinous-asphaltene type substances. That is, the more there are, the higher the viscosity of the oil.
The specific heat capacity of this substance is 1.7-2.1 kJ/(kg∙K). Parameter specific heat combustion is relatively low - from 43.7 to 46.2 MJ/kg. The dielectric constant of oil is from 2 to 2.5, and its electrical conductivity is from 2∙10-10 to 0.3∙10−18 Ohm-1∙cm-1.
The oil, photos of which are presented in the article, flares up at temperatures from -35 to +120 °C. This depends on its fractional composition and the content of dissolved gases.
Oil (fuel) in under ordinary conditions does not dissolve in water. However, it is capable of forming stable emulsions with liquid. Oil is dissolved by certain substances. This is done using organic solvents. In order to separate water and salts from oil, certain actions are carried out. They are very significant in technological process. This is desalting and dehydration.
Description of chemical composition
When discussing this topic, all the features of the substance in question should be taken into account. These are the general, hydrocarbon and elemental compositions of oil. Next, let's look at each of them in more detail.
General composition
Oil is a mixture of approximately 1000 substances of different nature. The main components are the following:
- Hydrocarbons are liquid. This is 80-90% by weight.
- Organic heteroatomic compounds (4-5%). Of these, the predominant ones are sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen.
- Organometallic compounds (mainly nickel and vanadium).
- Dissolved gases of the hydrocarbon type (C1-C4, from tenths to 4 percent).
- Water (from traces to 10%).
- Mineral salts. For the most part chlorides. 0.1-4000 mg/l and above.
- Solutions of salts, organic acids and mechanical impurities (particles of clay, limestone, sand).
Hydrocarbon composition
Basically, oil contains paraffin (usually 30-35, rarely 40-50% of the total volume) and naphthenic (25-75%) compounds. Aromatic compounds are present to a lesser extent. They occupy 10-20%, and less often - 35%. This affects the quality of the oil. The substance in question also includes compounds of mixed or hybrid structure. For example, naphtheno-aromatic and paraffin.
Heteroatomic components and description of the elemental composition of oil
Along with hydrocarbons, the product contains substances with impurity atoms (mercaptans, di- and monosulfides, thiophanes and thiophenes, as well as polycyclic and the like). They significantly affect the quality of oil.
Oil also contains substances containing nitrogen. These are mainly homologues of indole, pyridine, quinoline, pyrrole, carbazole, and porphyrites. They are concentrated mostly in residues and heavy fractions.
The oil contains oxygen-containing substances resinous-asphaltene, phenols and other substances). They are usually found in high-boiling type fractions.
In total, over 50 elements were found in oil. Together with the mentioned substances, this product contains V (10-5 - 10-2%), Ni (10-4-10-3%), Cl (from traces to 2∙10-2%), and so on. The content of these impurities and compounds in raw materials from various deposits varies widely. As a result, talking about average oil chemical composition only conditionally.
How is this substance classified according to its hydrocarbon composition?
In this regard, there are certain criteria. Types of oil are divided into the class of hydrocarbons. There should be no more than 50%. If one of the classes of hydrocarbons is at least 25%, then mixed types of oil are distinguished - naphthenic-methane, methane-naphthenic, naphthenic-aromatic, aromatic-naphthenic, methane-aromatic and aromatic-methane. They contain more than 25% of the first component, and more than 50% of the second.
Crude oil is not used. It is processed to obtain technically valuable products (mainly motor fuel, raw materials for the chemical industry, solvents).
Product research methods
The quality of the specified substance is assessed in order to correctly select the most rational schemes for its processing. This is done using a set of methods: chemical, physical and special.
General characteristics of oil - viscosity, density, pour point and other physicochemical parameters, as well as the composition of dissolved gases and the percentage of resins, paraffins and resinous-asphaltene substances.
The main principle of a phased study of oil comes down to combining methods of separating it into certain components with a consistent simplification of the composition of some fractions. They are then analyzed using all sorts of physical and chemical methods. The most common methods for determining the primary fractional composition of petroleum are various types of distillation (distillation) and rectification.
According to the results of the selection for narrow (boiling in the region of 10-20 °C) and wide (50-100 °C) fractions, a curve (ITC) of the true boiling temperatures of a given substance is constructed. Then the potential content of individual elements, petroleum products and their components (kerosene gas oil, gasoline, oil distillates, diesel, as well as tars and fuel oils), hydrocarbon composition, as well as other commodity and physico-chemical characteristics are determined.
Distillation is carried out using conventional distillation apparatus. They are equipped with distillation columns. In this case, the cutting capacity corresponds to 20-22 pieces of theoretical plates.
The fractions that were isolated as a result of distillation are further divided into components. Then, using a variety of methods, their content is determined and their properties are established. According to the methods of expressing the oil composition and fractions, its group, individual, structural-group and elemental analyzes are distinguished.
In group analysis, the content of naphthenic, paraffin, mixed and aromatic hydrocarbons is determined separately.
In structural group analysis, the hydrocarbon composition of petroleum fractions is determined in the form of the average content of naphthenic, aromatic and other cyclic structures, as well as chains of paraffin elements. In this case, one more action is carried out - the calculation of the relative amount of hydrocarbons in naphthenes, paraffins and arenes.
The personal hydrocarbon composition is determined exclusively for gasoline and gas fractions. In elemental analysis, the petroleum composition is expressed by the amount (in percent) of C, O, S, H, N and trace elements.
The main method for separating aromatic hydrocarbons from naphthenic and paraffin hydrocarbons and separating arenes into poly- and monocyclic ones is liquid adsorption chromatography. Typically, the absorber in this case is a certain element - a double sorbent.
The composition of hydrocarbon petroleum multicomponent mixtures of a wide and narrow range is usually deciphered using a combination of chromatographic (in liquid or gas phase), adsorption and other separation methods with spectral and mass spectrometric research methods.
Since there are trends in the world to further deepen such a process as oil development, its detailed analysis (especially high-boiling fractions and residual products - tars and fuel oils) is becoming essential.
Main in Russia
There are deposits of this substance on the territory of the Russian Federation significant amount. Oil (mineral resource) is the national wealth of Russia. It is one of the main export products. Oil production and refining is a source of significant tax revenues for the Russian budget.
Oil development in industrial scale was started in late XIX century. Currently, Russia has large operating oil production areas. They are located in different regions of the country.
Name Place of Birth | opening date | Retrievable stocks | Oil production areas |
| Great | 2013 | 300 million tons | Astrakhan region |
| Samotlorskoye | 1965 | 2.7 billion tons | Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug |
| Romashkinskoe | 1948 | 2.3 billion tons | Republic of Tatarstan |
| Priobskoe | 1982 | 2.7 billion tons | Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug |
| Arlanskoe | 1966 | 500 million tons | Republic of Bashkortostan |
| Lyantorskoye | 1965 | 2 billion tons | Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug |
| Vankorskoye | 1988 | 490 million tons | Krasnoyarsk region |
| Fedorovskoe | 1971 | 1.5 billion tons | Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug |
| Russian | 1968 | 410 million tons | Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug |
| Mamontovskoe | 1965 | 1 billion tons | Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug |
| Tuymazinskoe | 1937 | 300 million tons | Republic of Bashkortostan |
Shale oil in the USA
IN last years The hydrocarbon fuel market has undergone major changes. The discovery and development of technologies for its extraction in a short time brought the United States among the major producers of this substance. This phenomenon has been described by experts as the “shale revolution.” At the moment, the world is on the verge of an equally grandiose event. It's about on the massive development of oil shale deposits. If earlier experts predicted the imminent end of the oil era, now it can last indefinitely. Thus, conversations about alternative energy become irrelevant.
However, information about the economic aspects of developing oil shale deposits is very contradictory. According to the publication "However", produced shale oil in the United States costs approximately $15 per barrel. At the same time, it seems quite realistic to further reduce the cost of the process by half.
The world leader in the production of “classical” oil, Saudi Arabia, also has good prospects in the shale industry: the cost of a barrel here is only $7. Russia is losing in this regard. In the Russian Federation shale oil will cost about 20 dollars.
According to the aforementioned publication, shale oil can be produced in all world regions. Each country has significant reserves. However, the reliability of the information provided raises doubts, since there is no information on the specific cost of shale oil production yet.
Analyst G. Birg provides the opposite data. In his opinion, the cost of a barrel of shale oil is $70-90.
According to Bank of Moscow analyst D. Borisov, the cost of oil production in the Gulf of Mexico and Guinea reaches $80. This is approximately equal to the current market price.
G. Birg also claims that oil deposits (shale) are distributed unevenly across the planet. More than two-thirds of the total volume is concentrated in the United States. Russia accounts for only 7 percent.
To extract the product in question, large volumes of rock have to be processed. The process of shale oil production is carried out using the quarry method. This seriously harms nature.
According to Birg, the complexity of such a process as shale oil production is compensated by the prevalence of this substance on Earth.
If we assume that shale oil production technologies reach a sufficient level, then world oil prices may simply collapse. But so far no fundamental changes have been observed in this area.
With existing technologies, shale oil production can be profitable in a certain case - only when oil prices are $150 per barrel or higher.
Russia, according to Birg, will not be harmed by the so-called shale revolution. The fact is that this country benefits from both scenarios. The secret is simple: high oil prices bring high profits, and a breakthrough in the production of shale products will increase exports through the development of the corresponding deposits.
In this regard, I am not so optimistic. The development of shale oil production, in his opinion, promises a collapse in prices on the oil market and a sharp drop in Russia's export revenues. True, there is no need to be afraid of this in the near future, since shale developments still remain problematic.
Conclusion
Mineral resources - oil, gas and similar substances - are the property of each state in which they are mined. You can verify this by reading the article presented above.
State educational institution
Secondary school No. 2011
Named after three times hero of the Soviet Union, Air Marshal I.N. Kozhedub
ABSTRACT
By subject:
The world
Composition and use of oil.
History of oil development 4
Oil composition 6
Oil production, development, refining and use 7
Conclusion 12
History of oil development
In ancient times, oil was also used for military purposes. Chronicles say that the ancient Greeks tied a vessel with a mysterious mixture to a throwing spear launched by a giant sling. When the shell reached the target, an explosion occurred and a cloud of smoke rose. The flames immediately spread in all directions. Water couldn't put out the fire. The composition of “Greek fire” was kept strictly secret, and only Arab alchemists of the 12th century managed to unravel it. The entire basis of this mysterious recipe was oil with the addition of sulfur and saltpeter.
In the XVII-XVIII centuries. oil was also used as a medicine. IN mid-17th century V. French missionary Paret Joseph de la Roche d. Allen discovered mysterious “black waters” in western Pennsylvania. The Indians added them as a binder to paints to paint their faces. From these waters, which were nothing more than lakes of oil, the priest created his miraculous balm. In many European countries it was used as a medicine.
However, oil did not receive the proper assessment everywhere. In 1840, the Russian governor of Baku sent samples of Baku oil to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in order to determine its suitability for industrial needs. He received a very “instructive” answer: “This stinking substance is only suitable for lubricating wheels and carts.”
Only in the second half of the last century did man discover the amazing possibilities of “black gold”. The development of industry required a huge amount of lubricants, new fuel that was cheaper and more efficient than coal, and fundamentally new light sources. Only oil could provide all this. Moloch industry increasingly and more insistently demanded oil and petroleum products for its growth. Its widespread mining began. The dawn of a new oil era was dawning. The first herald was the oil rigs of Colonel Drake. In the North American town of Titesville, Pennsylvania, his well produced oil. This happened on August 27, 1859. The modern oil industry of the world dates back to this date.
The race for oil has begun. In all corners of the world, in inhabited and unexplored areas, on land and at the bottom of the ocean, they searched for this black and brown “earth blood”, oily to the touch and with a characteristic pungent odor. The oil rush was spurred by the invention in January 1861 of cracking, a modern method of oil refining. The substance, to which few people paid attention for thousands of years, began to be widely used for industrial and military purposes, became an object of trade and speculation, and became a kind of bone of contention for various states of the world.
However, despite active exploration, at the end of the last century, only about 5 million tons of oil were produced per year, which is a drop in the ocean by today’s standards. Mining was carried out in a primitive way.
In Absheron, where the enterprising Swedish businessman E. Nobel was in charge, oil was delivered in wineskins from simple wells. At the end of the 80s of the last century, more than 25 thousand workers worked for his “oil empire”. Naturally, it was difficult to increase oil production using such means.
As science and technology developed, the process of drilling oil wells and their operation improved. As a result, already in 1900, 20 million tons of “black gold” were produced worldwide.
The real explosion of oil production occurred in the post-war years: in 1945, 350 million tons of oil were produced in the world, in 1960 - over 1 billion tons, and in 1970 - about 2 billion tons. Maximum production falls in 1979 (3.2 billion tons), and then its pace decreased. Now about 3 billion tons of “black gold” are pumped out of the earth’s interior annually (2.8 billion tons in 1984) (Fig. 1).
The production of oil's constant satellite, combustible gas, developed at the same pace. Its use begins only in the first half of the 20th century. In 1920, annual gas production amounted to only 35 billion m3, and in 1950 it increased to 192 billion m3. Since 1960, gas production has increased sharply, reaching a maximum in 1984 (1560 billion m3).
The development of modern industry is unthinkable without hydrocarbons. This is, first of all, the most profitable and efficient type of fuel. Oil and combustible gas provide 65% of the world's energy needs and 100% of transport fuel. 90-95% of extracted hydrocarbons are used to obtain energy. However, D.I. Mendeleev also said that burning oil and gas in furnaces is the same as heating a furnace with banknotes.
Oil and gas are sources of many vital products. These are synthetic rubber and plastics, building materials and artificial fabrics, dyes and detergents, insecticides and herbicides, explosives and medications, aromatic compounds for perfumes and fertilizers, growth stimulants and artificial food protein, various oils, gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, without which the operation of machines, automobiles, airplanes, and missiles is impossible.
If the sources of oil and gas suddenly dried up, world civilization would be on the brink of disaster. As we see, people are very dependent on oil. This was felt especially acutely in the early 70s of this century, when the “fuel crisis” broke out. Its echo was the general increase in the high cost of living in Western countries. People have become even more dependent on oil. To get rid of this dependence, a person is looking for an alternative source of energy, using the energy of wind, rivers, atom, coal. Some progress has been made in this direction, but for the next 20-30 years, oil and gas will determine the “fuel face” of the world.
Oil composition
IN 
oil composition secrete hydrocarbon, asphalt-resinous and ash components. Also as part of oil also secrete porphyrins and sulfur. Hydrocarbons contained in oil are divided into three main groups: methane, naphthenic and aromatic. Methane (paraffin) hydrocarbons are the most chemically stable, while aromatic hydrocarbons are the least stable (they have the minimum hydrogen content). At the same time, aromatic hydrocarbons are the most toxic oil components.
The asphalt-resin component of oil is partially soluble in gasoline: the soluble part is asphaltenes, the insoluble part is resins. Interestingly, in resins the oxygen content reaches 93% of its total amount as part of oil.
Porphyrins are nitrogenous compounds of organic origin; they are destroyed at a temperature of 200-250°C. Sulfur present as part of oil either in a free state or in the form of compounds of hydrogen sulfides and mercaptans. Sulfur is the most common corrosive contaminant that must be removed in the refinery. Therefore, the price of high-sulfur oil is much lower than that of low-sulfur oil.
Ash part of oil composition- This is the residue obtained when it is burned, consisting of various mineral compounds.
Crude oil is called oil obtained directly from wells. When leaving an oil reservoir, oil contains rock particles, water, as well as salts and gases dissolved in it. These impurities cause corrosion of equipment and serious difficulties during transportation and processing of petroleum raw materials. Thus, for export 
this or delivery to oil refineries remote from production sites is necessary industrial crude oil processing: water, mechanical impurities, salts and solid hydrocarbons are removed from it, gas is released. Gas and the lightest hydrocarbons must be separated from composition of crude oil, T.To. they are valuable products and may be lost during storage. In addition, the presence of light gases during transportation of crude oil through the pipeline can lead to the formation of gas bags on elevated sections of the route. Purified from impurities, water and gases crude oil supplied to oil refineries (refineries), where during the processing process various types of petroleum products are obtained from it. Quality like crude oil and petroleum products obtained from it are determined by its composition: it is this that determines the direction of oil refining and affects the final products.
The most important characteristics of the properties of crude oil are: density, sulfur content, fractional composition, as well as viscosity and content of water, chloride salts and mechanical impurities.
Oil density, depends on the content of heavy hydrocarbons such as paraffins and resins.
Extraction, development, refining and use of oil.
Oil production has been carried out by mankind since ancient times. At first, primitive methods were used: collecting oil from the surface of reservoirs, processing sandstone or limestone soaked in oil using wells. The first method was used in Media and Syria, the second - in the 15th century in Italy. But the beginning of the development of the oil industry is considered to be the appearance of mechanical drilling for oil in 1859 in the USA, and now almost all the oil produced in the world is extracted through drilling wells.
Over more than a hundred years of development, some fields have been depleted, others have been discovered, the efficiency of oil production has increased, oil recovery has increased, i.e. completeness of oil extraction from the reservoir. But the structure of fuel production has changed.
The main machine for oil and gas production is a drilling rig. The first drilling rigs, which appeared hundreds of years ago, essentially copied a worker with a crowbar. Only the crowbar of these first machines was heavier and shaped more like a chisel. That's what it was called - a drill bit. He was suspended on a rope, which was then raised with the help of a gate, then lowered. Such machines are called shock-rope machines. They can be found here and there even now, but this is already a thing of the past: they make a hole in the stone very slowly and waste a lot of energy in vain.
Another method of drilling is much faster and more profitable - rotary, in which the well is drilled. A thick steel pipe is suspended from an openwork metal four-legged tower the height of a ten-story building. It is rotated by a special device - a rotor. At the lower end of the pipe there is a drill. As the well gets deeper, the pipe is lengthened. To prevent the destroyed rock from clogging the well, a clay solution is pumped into it through a pipe. The solution flushes the well and carries destroyed clay, sandstone, and limestone up through the gap between the pipe and the walls of the well. At the same time, the dense liquid supports the walls of the well, preventing them from collapsing.
But rotary drilling also has its drawbacks. The deeper the well, the harder it is for the rotor motor to work, the slower the drilling goes. After all, it is one thing to rotate a pipe 5-10 m long when drilling a well is just beginning, and quite another thing to rotate a pipe string 500 m long.
In 1922, Soviet engineers M.A. Kapelyushnikov, S.M. Volokh and N.A. Kornev were the first in the world to build a machine for drilling wells in which it was not necessary to rotate the drill pipes. The inventors placed the engine not at the top, but at the bottom, in the well itself - next to the drilling tool. Now the engine spent all its power only on rotating the drill itself.
This machine also had an extraordinary engine. Soviet engineers forced the same water, which previously only washed away destroyed rock from the well, to rotate the drill. Now, before reaching the bottom of the well, the mud rotated a small turbine attached to the drilling tool itself.
The new machine was called a turbodrill; over time it was improved, and now several turbines mounted on one shaft are lowered into the well. It is clear that the power of such a “multi-turbine” machine is many times greater and drilling is many times faster.
Another remarkable drilling machine is an electric drill, invented by engineers A.P. Ostrovsky and N.V. Aleksandrov. The first oil wells were drilled with an electric drill in 1940. The pipe string of this machine also does not rotate, only the drilling tool itself works. But it is not a water turbine that rotates it, but an electric motor placed in a steel jacket - a casing filled with oil. The oil is always under high pressure, so surrounding water cannot penetrate into the engine. In order for a powerful engine to fit in a narrow oil well, it was necessary to make it very high, and the engine turned out to look like a pillar: its diameter is like a saucer, and its height is 6-7 m.
Drilling is the main work in oil and gas production. Unlike, say, coal or iron ore, oil and gas do not need to be separated from the surrounding mass by machines or explosives, and they do not need to be lifted to the surface of the earth by conveyor belts or in trolleys. As soon as the well reaches the oil-bearing formation, the oil, compressed in the depths by the pressure of gases and groundwater, itself rushes upward with force.
As the oil flows to the surface, the pressure decreases and the remaining oil in the depths stops flowing upward. Then water begins to be injected through wells specially drilled around the oil field. Water puts pressure on oil and pushes it to the surface through the newly revived well. And then there comes a time when only water can no longer help. Then a pump is lowered into the oil well and oil begins to be pumped out of it.
The development of an oil field means implementation of the process of moving liquids and gas in formations to production wells. Control of the process of movement of liquids and gas is achieved by placing oil, injection and control wells in the field, the number and order of their commissioning, the operating mode of the wells and the balance of reservoir energy. The oil field development system adopted for a specific deposit predetermines the technical and economic indicators. Before drilling a deposit, a development system is designed. Based on exploration and trial operation data, the conditions under which the operation will take place are established: its geological structure, reservoir properties of rocks (porosity, permeability, degree of heterogeneity), physical properties fluids in the reservoir (viscosity, density), saturation of oil rocks with water and gas, reservoir pressure. Based on these data, an economic assessment of the system is made and the optimal one is selected.
In deep-lying reservoirs, high-pressure gas injection into the reservoir is successfully used in some cases to enhance oil recovery.
Oil is extracted from wells either by natural flow under the influence of reservoir energy, or by using one of several mechanized methods of lifting fluid. Typically, in the initial stage of development, flowing production operates, and as flowing weakens, the well is transferred to a mechanized method: gas lift or air lift, deep pumping (using rod, hydraulic piston and screw pumps).
The gas lift method makes significant additions to the usual technological scheme of the field, since it requires a gas lift compressor station with a gas distributor and gas collection pipelines.
An oil field is a technological complex consisting of wells, pipelines, and installations for various purposes, with the help of which oil is extracted from the bowels of the Earth in the field.
In the process of oil production, an important place is occupied by in-field transportation of well products, carried out through pipelines. Two infield transport systems are used: pressure and gravity. With pressure systems, self-pressure at the wellhead is sufficient. In case of gravity flow, the movement occurs due to the elevation of the wellhead mark above the mark of the group collection point.
When developing oil fields confined to continental shelves, offshore oil fields are created.
Oil refining
Cleaningoil– this is the removal of undesirable components from petroleum products that negatively affect the performance properties of fuels and oils.
Chemical cleaningoil is produced by the action of various reagents on the removed components of the purified products. Most in a simple way is purification with 92-92% sulfuric acid and oleum, used to remove unsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons. Physico-chemical purification is carried out using solvents that selectively remove undesirable components from the product being purified. Non-polar solvents (propane and butane) are used to remove aromatic hydrocarbons from oil refining residues (tars) (deasphalting process). Polar solvents (phenol, etc.) are used to remove polycyclic aromatic carbons with short side chains, sulfur and nitrogen compounds from oil distillates.
During adsorption purificationoil Unsaturated hydrocarbons, resins, acids, etc. are removed from petroleum products. Adsorption purification is carried out by contacting heated air with adsorbents or filtering the product through adsorbent grains.
Catalytic purificationoil- hydrogenation under mild conditions, used to remove sulfur and nitrogen compounds.
Application of oil.
Various products are isolated from petroleum, having a large practical significance. First, dissolved hydrocarbons (mainly methane) are separated from it. After distilling off volatile hydrocarbons, the oil is heated. Hydrocarbons with a small number of carbon atoms in the molecule and having a relatively low boiling point are the first to go into the gaseous state and are distilled off. As the temperature of the mixture increases, hydrocarbons with a higher boiling point are distilled. In this way, individual mixtures (fractions) of oil can be collected. Most often, this distillation produces three main fractions, which are then subjected to further separation.
Currently, thousands of products are obtained from oil. The main groups are liquid fuel, gaseous fuel, solid fuel (petroleum coke), lubricating and special oils, paraffins and ceresins, bitumen, aromatic compounds, soot, acetylene, ethylene, petroleum acids and their salts, higher alcohols. These products include flammable gases, gasoline, solvents, kerosene, gas oil, household fuels, a wide range of lubricating oils, fuel oil, road bitumen and asphalt; This also includes paraffin, petroleum jelly, medicinal and various insecticidal oils. Oils from petroleum are used as ointments and creams, as well as in the production of explosives, medicines, cleaning products; petroleum products are most used in the fuel and energy industry. For example, fuel oil has almost one and a half times higher calorific value compared to the best coals. It takes up little space during combustion and does not produce solid residues when burned. Replacing solid fuels with fuel oil at thermal power plants, factories and in railway and water transport provides huge cost savings and contributes to rapid development main industries and transport.
The energy direction in the use of oil still remains the main one throughout the world. The share of oil in the global energy balance is more than 46%.
However, in recent years, petroleum products are increasingly used as raw materials for chemical industry. About 8% of produced oil is consumed as raw material for modern chemistry. For example, ethyl alcohol is used in approximately 150 industries. The chemical industry uses formaldehyde (HCHO), plastics, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, ammonia, ethyl alcohol, etc. Petroleum products are also used in agriculture. Growth stimulants, seed protectants, pesticides, nitrogen fertilizers, urea, greenhouse films, etc. are used here. In mechanical engineering and metallurgy, universal adhesives, parts and pieces of apparatus made of plastic, lubricating oils, etc. are used. Petroleum coke is widely used as an anode mass in electric smelting. Pressed carbon black is used for fire-resistant linings in furnaces. IN Food Industry Polyethylene packaging, food acids, preservatives, paraffin are used, protein and vitamin concentrates are produced, the starting raw materials for which are methyl and ethyl alcohols and methane. In the pharmaceutical and perfume industry, ammonia, chloroform, formalin, aspirin, petroleum jelly, etc. are produced from petroleum derivatives. Petroleum derivatives are found wide application and in the woodworking, textile, leather and footwear and construction industries.
Conclusion
Oil is the most valuable natural resource, which has opened up amazing possibilities for “chemical transformation” for humans. In total, there are already about 3 thousand oil derivatives. Oil occupies a leading place in the global fuel and energy economy. Its share in total energy consumption is constantly growing. Oil forms the basis of the fuel and energy balances of all economically developed countries. Currently, thousands of products are obtained from oil.
Oil will remain in the near future the basis for providing energy to the national economy and raw materials for the petrochemical industry. Here, much will depend on successes in the field of prospecting, exploration and development of oil fields. But natural oil resources are limited. The rapid expansion of their production over the past decades has led to the relative depletion of the largest and most favorably located deposits.
In the problem of rational use of oil, increasing the coefficient of their useful use is of great importance. One of the main directions here involves deepening the level of oil refining in order to meet the country's needs for light oil products and petrochemical raw materials. Another effective direction is to reduce the specific fuel consumption for the production of thermal and electrical energy, as well as a widespread reduction in the specific consumption of electrical and thermal energy in all parts of the national economy.
Sedimentary minerals most typical for platforms, since the platform cover is located there. These are mainly non-metallic minerals and fuels, the leading role among which is played by gas, oil, coal, and oil shale. They were formed from the remains of plants and animals accumulated in the coastal parts of shallow seas and in lake-marsh land conditions. These abundant organic residues could only accumulate in sufficiently moist and warm conditions, favorable for lush development. In hot, dry conditions, in shallow seas and coastal lagoons, salts accumulated, which are used as raw materials in.
Mining
There are several ways mining. Firstly, this open method, in which rocks are mined in quarries. It is more economically beneficial, as it helps to obtain a cheaper product. However, an abandoned quarry can cause a wide net to form. The mine method of coal mining requires large expenditures and is therefore more expensive. The cheapest method of oil production is flowing, when oil rises through a well under oil gases. The pumping method of extraction is also common. There are also special methods of mining. They are called geotechnological. With their help, ore is mined from the depths of the Earth. This is done by downloading hot water, solutions into layers containing the necessary minerals. Other wells pump out the resulting solution and separate the valuable component.
The need for minerals is constantly growing, the extraction of mineral raw materials is increasing, but minerals are exhaustible Natural resources, therefore it is necessary to spend them more economically and fully.
There are several ways to do this:
- reducing losses of minerals during their extraction;
- more complete extraction of all useful components from the rock;
- integrated use of mineral resources;
- search for new, more promising deposits.
Thus, the main direction in the use of minerals in the coming years should not be an increase in the volume of their production, but a more rational use.
In modern searches for mineral resources, it is necessary to use not only the latest technology and sensitive instruments, but also a scientific forecast for the search for deposits, which helps to conduct targeted subsoil exploration on a scientific basis. It was thanks to such methods that diamond deposits in Yakutia were first scientifically predicted and then discovered. A scientific forecast is based on knowledge of the connections and conditions for the formation of minerals.
Brief description of the main minerals
The hardest of all minerals. Its composition is pure carbon. It is found in placers and as inclusions in rocks. Diamonds are colorless, but they are also found in various colors. A cut diamond is called a diamond. Its weight is usually measured in carats (1 carat = 0.2 g). The largest diamond was found in Yuzhnaya: it weighed more than 3,000 carats. Most diamonds are mined in Africa (98% of production in the capitalist world). In Russia large deposits diamonds are located in Yakutia. Clear crystals are used to make gemstones. Before 1430, diamonds were considered common gemstones. The trendsetter for them was the Frenchwoman Agnes Sorel. Due to their hardness, opaque diamonds are used industrially for cutting and engraving, as well as for polishing glass and stone.
Soft malleable metal yellow color, heavy, does not oxidize in air. In nature it is found mainly in its pure form (nuggets). The largest nugget, weighing 69.7 kg, was found in Australia.
Gold is also found in the form of placers - this is the result of weathering and erosion of the deposit, when grains of gold are released and carried away, forming placers. Gold is used in the production of precision instruments and various jewelry. In Russia, gold lies on and in. Abroad - in Canada, South Africa, . Since gold occurs in nature in small quantities and its extraction is associated with high costs, it is considered a precious metal.
Platinum(from the Spanish plata - silver) - a precious metal from white to steel-gray color. It is characterized by refractoriness, resistance to chemical influences and electrical conductivity. It is mined mainly in placers. It is used for the manufacture of chemical glassware, in electrical engineering, jewelry and dentistry. In Russia, platinum is mined in the Urals and Eastern Siberia. Abroad - in South Africa.
Gems (gems) - mineral bodies with beautiful color, brilliance, hardness, and transparency. They are divided into two groups: stones used for cutting and semi-precious stones. The first group includes diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, amethyst, and aquamarine. The second group includes malachite, jasper, and rock crystal. All precious stones, as a rule, are of igneous origin. However, pearls, amber, and coral are minerals of organic origin. Precious stones are used in jewelry and for technical purposes.
Tuffs- rocks of various origins. Calcareous tuff is a porous rock formed by the precipitation of calcium carbonate from sources. This tuff is used to produce cement and lime. Volcanic tuff - cemented. Tuffs are used as construction material. Has different colors.
Mica- rocks that have the ability to split into thin layers with a smooth surface; found as impurities in sedimentary rocks. Various micas are used as a good electrical insulator, for the manufacture of windows in metallurgical furnaces, and in the electrical and radio industries. In Russia, mica is mined in Eastern Siberia, in. Industrial development of mica deposits is carried out in Ukraine, the USA, .
Marble- crystalline rock formed as a result of limestone metamorphism. It comes in different colors. Marble is used as a building material for wall cladding, architecture and sculpture. In Russia there are many of its deposits in the Urals and the Caucasus. Abroad, the most famous marble is mined in.
Asbestos(Greek: inextinguishable) - a group of fibrous, fireproof rocks that split into soft greenish-yellow or almost white fibers. It occurs in the form of veins (a vein is a mineral body that fills a crack in the earth’s crust, usually has a slab-like shape, extending vertically to great depths. The length of the veins reaches two or more kilometers), among igneous and sedimentary rocks. It is used for the manufacture of special fabrics (fire insulation), tarpaulins, fire-resistant roofing materials, as well as thermal insulation materials. In Russia, asbestos mining is carried out in the Urals, in, and abroad - in and other countries.
Asphalt(resin) - a brittle, resinous rock of brown or black color, which is a mixture of hydrocarbons. Asphalt melts easily, burns with a smoky flame, and is a product of changes in certain types of oil, from which some of the substances have evaporated. Asphalt often penetrates sandstones, limestones, and marl. It is used as a building material for road surfaces, in electrical engineering and the rubber industry, for the preparation of varnishes and mixtures for waterproofing. The main asphalt deposits in Russia are the Ukhta region, abroad - in, in France,.
Apatity- minerals rich in phosphorus salts, green, gray and other colors; found among various igneous rocks, in some places forming large clusters. Apatites are mainly used for the production of phosphate fertilizers, they are also used in the ceramics industry. In Russia, the largest deposits of apatite are located in, on. Abroad, they are mined in the Republic of South Africa.
Phosphorites- Sedimentary rocks rich in phosphorus compounds that form grains in the rock or bind various minerals together into a dense rock. The color of phosphorites is dark gray. They, like apatites, are used to produce phosphate fertilizers. In Russia, phosphorite deposits are common in the Moscow and Kirov regions. Abroad, they are mined in the USA (Florida Peninsula) and.
Aluminum ores- minerals and rocks used to produce aluminum. The main aluminum ores are bauxite, nepheline and alunite.
Bauxite(the name comes from the area of Beau in the south of France) - sedimentary rocks of red or brown color. 1/3 of the world's reserves lie in the north, and the country is one of the leading countries in their production. In Russia, bauxite is mined in. The main component of bauxite is aluminum oxide.
Alunites(the name comes from the word alun - alum (French) - minerals that contain aluminum, potassium and other inclusions. Alunite ore can be a raw material for the production of not only aluminum, but also potash fertilizers and sulfuric acid. Alunite deposits are in the USA , China, Ukraine, and other countries.
Nephelines(the name comes from the Greek “nephele”, which means cloud) - minerals of complex composition, gray or green in color, containing a significant amount of aluminum. They are part of igneous rocks. In Russia, nephelines are mined in and in Eastern Siberia. Aluminum obtained from these ores is a soft metal, produces strong alloys, and is widely used in the production of household goods.
Iron ores- natural mineral accumulations containing iron. They are varied in mineralogical composition, the amount of iron in them and various impurities. Impurities can be valuable (manganese chromium, cobalt, nickel) and harmful (sulfur, phosphorus, arsenic). The main ones are brown iron ore, red iron ore, and magnetic iron ore.
Brown iron ore, or limonite, is a mixture of several minerals containing iron with an admixture of clay substances. It has a brown, yellow-brown or black color. It is most often found in sedimentary rocks. If the ores of brown iron ore - one of the most common iron ores - have an iron content of at least 30%, then they are considered industrial. The main deposits are in Russia (Ural, Lipetsk), Ukraine (), France (Lorraine), on.
Hematite, or hematite, is a red-brown to black mineral containing up to 65% iron.
It is found in various rocks in the form of crystals and thin plates. Sometimes it forms clusters in the form of hard or earthy masses of a bright red color. The main deposits of red iron ore are in Russia (KMA), Ukraine (Krivoy Rog), USA, Brazil, Kazakhstan, Canada, Sweden.
Magnetic iron ore, or magnetite, is a black mineral containing 50-60% iron. This is high quality iron ore. Composed of iron and oxygen, highly magnetic. It occurs in the form of crystals, inclusions and solid masses. The main deposits are in Russia (Ural, KMA, Siberia), Ukraine (Krivoy Rog), Sweden and the USA.
Manganese ores- mineral compounds containing manganese, the main property of which is to give steel and cast iron malleability and hardness. Modern metallurgy is unthinkable without manganese: a special alloy is smelted - ferromanganese, containing up to 80% manganese, which is used to smelt high-quality steel. In addition, manganese is necessary for the growth and development of animals and is a microfertilizer. The main ore deposits are located in Ukraine (Nikolskoye), India, Brazil and the Republic of South Africa.
Tin ores- numerous minerals containing tin. Tin ores with a tin content of 1-2% or more are being developed. These ores require beneficiation - increasing the valuable component and separating waste rock, so ores are used for smelting, the tin content of which has been increased to 55%. Tin does not oxidize, which is why it is widely used in the canning industry. In Russia, tin ores are found in Eastern Siberia and on, and abroad they are mined in Indonesia, on the peninsula.
Nickel ores- mineral compounds containing nickel. It does not oxidize in air. The addition of nickel to steels greatly increases their elasticity. Pure nickel is used in mechanical engineering. In Russia it is mined on the Kola Peninsula, the Urals, and Eastern Siberia; abroad - in Canada, in Brazil.
Uranium-radium ores- mineral accumulations containing uranium. Radium - product radioactive decay uranium. The radium content in uranium ores is negligible - up to 300 mg per 1 ton of ore. are of great importance, since the fission of the nuclei of each gram of uranium can produce 2 million times more energy than burning 1 gram of fuel, so they are used as fuel in nuclear power plants to generate cheap electricity. Uranium-radium ores are mined in Russia, the USA, China, Canada, Congo, and other countries of the world.
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