People who follow the news feed quite often hear words such as land mine, high-explosive mine or high-explosive fragmentation mine in the description of emergency events and incidents. Today, in the era of the heyday of the terrorist threat, not only adults, but also children know what a landmine is. A high-explosive mine has become a favorite weapon of terrorists, with which they can keep the population of cities in fear, inflicting painful blows on social infrastructure. Although literally some 20 years ago such terminology was the lot of the military and in most cases we only heard about landmines in reports from military conflict zones.
Despite the fact that combat tactics have undergone significant changes, landmines continue to be used as a means of deterring enemy advances. Artillery of all calibers massively use fragmentation ammunition. Armor-piercing high-explosive ammunition continues to be used to equip tank units and anti-tank forces.
The ability to inflict enormous destruction and cause significant casualties in a matter of seconds makes the landmine the main fire weapon.
What is the difference between a high-explosive charge and a high-explosive projectile?
It should be said right away that artillery shell, mine or aircraft bomb is a device of ammunition, which may differ in the principle of impact, purpose and scope of application. However, all of the ammunition listed is based on one single principle - high-explosive action, i.e. striking effect. Both mines and shells can be high explosive. Any ammunition that contains an explosive is high explosive. This can be either a concrete-piercing or high-explosive fragmentation projectile or anti-tank ammunition with a combined effect.
High explosive charge is an engineering term describing a certain amount of explosive used for detonation. The blast wave in this case is the main damaging effect. The secondary damaging factors in a landmine explosion are the explosion products. Detonation of explosives can be of direct or indirect action. As a rule, to activate a high-explosive charge, it is used electrical discharge, chemical reaction, fire method or mechanical impact. An electric spark and a fire cord are the main means of detonating a stationary high-explosive charge, while the impact mechanism and incendiary tube become detonators of directional ammunition. The explosive, enclosed in a casing or container, is an already defined type of ammunition, ready for use. The high-explosive projectile and aerial bomb are the main ammunition of artillery systems and aviation, the mine is the main fire engineering and technical means.
High explosive projectile. Operating principle
The main area of application of high-explosive ammunition is the destruction of buildings and structures, shelters and shelters for manpower. In field and combat conditions, these are, as a rule, trenches and dugouts, brick and wooden structures and structures. High-explosive artillery shells are most often used as a fire engineering tool used by large-caliber artillery systems. When a projectile hits a target, as a result of the detonation of explosives, a high-explosive effect on objects occurs. The power of the ammunition to impact objects is determined by the high explosiveness of the charge. High explosiveness characterizes the ability of an explosive to create a certain amount of explosion products in a short period of time that can have a destructive effect.
The more powerful the charge, the greater the pressure created on the surrounding airspace, and the stronger the shock wave. In simple terms, the high-explosive effect of detonating a charge is manifested in splitting and throwing environment at the point of explosion. A distinctive feature of high-explosive shells is the specificity of their destructive effect. Under normal conditions, in open space, the shock wave created by the detonation of a high-explosive charge diverges evenly over the entire radius of action, losing the intensity of its impact on objects as the distance increases. When a charge is detonated in a confined space or in a limited area, the damaging effect of a landmine increases. Compared to other types of ammunition, high-explosive shells are significantly inferior in terms of damaging power.
It should be taken into account that the high explosiveness of the charge may be different. The measure of high explosiveness of each ammunition depends on the potential of the explosive (HE) and the specific energy released by it at the moment of explosion. The performance of explosives used to fill ammunition may vary. The force and power of the explosion are influenced by the specific volume and composition of gaseous products resulting from the detonation of explosives. It is quite difficult to accurately determine the actual performance of a particular explosive, therefore the high explosiveness of a certain explosive charge is usually expressed in relative units. As a rule, the high-explosive effect of an explosive is compared with the result of the action of a certain amount of TNT. The specific volume of products resulting from the explosion is measured in TNT equivalent.
Based on these data, we can draw a conclusion. The power of a high explosive projectile is determined by the amount and type of explosive. An increase in the number of explosives leads to an increase in the caliber of ammunition. More powerful explosives make it possible to achieve the required destructive effect without increasing the caliber of the projectile. For example, for armor-piercing high-explosive anti-tank shells, the main thing is not the caliber, but a certain damaging effect. Due to their high penetrating power, such projectiles can penetrate deep into the armor, after which the high-explosive charge leads to its further destruction.
Unlike a high explosive mine or bomb, a projectile is a percussion munition. those. The high-explosive action is preceded by a shock action caused by the kinetic energy of the projectile's flight. The flight of the projectile can have a canopy or flat flight path. Howitzers and mortars are most often used to defeat enemy personnel and destroy defensive structures. Tank guns and anti-tank artillery use mainly armor-piercing high-explosive shells to combat armored vehicles. The main task that needs to be solved in this case is to disable armored vehicles by overcoming the armored protection.
Various types and types of high explosive shells
Shells, mines, aerial bombs, and grenades are fire weapons and can have varying degrees of high-explosive action, primary or auxiliary. This determines the purpose of the ammunition, for what purpose this or that projectile is intended. In order to achieve a great destructive and damaging effect, projectiles are used in which high-explosive action is the main one. High-explosive shells and aerial bombs are used to destroy long-term structures and field shelters. To combat heavy armored vehicles, directional landmines and armor-piercing high-explosive shells are used. This type of ammunition is distinguished by the enormous kinetic energy possessed by the projectile fired from the barrel. The penetrating ability of armor-piercing projectiles is achieved due to the high speed of the projectile and the core made of the strongest metal alloy. Once in the armor plate, the projectile destroys the surface layer, after which a high-explosive charge detonates, destroying the armor plate.
In those ammunition where the main purpose of their use is to achieve a certain result, the high-explosive effect is auxiliary. Here the main emphasis is on other damaging factors. High-explosive fragmentation shells, like hand grenades, are used to destroy manpower. The high-explosive action in this case serves as an auxiliary factor, due to which the projectile body is destroyed into small fragments. When detonated, projectile fragments or fragments specially included in the ammunition receive enormous kinetic energy, becoming the main damaging factor.
High-explosive fragmentation shells are the main fire weapon of artillery. This type of projectile is the most widespread. The main reason is the versatility of this type of ammunition. With the help of mini-shells and shells of this type, you can simultaneously achieve not only the destruction of defensive structures and infrastructure, but also defeat enemy personnel. Unlike high-explosive ammunition, high-explosive fragmentation bombs and shells have a thick shell and have a smaller explosive charge. In this case, the relative mass of the projectile itself is much higher.
Today, high-explosive shells have been practically replaced by high-explosive fragmentation ammunition. Modern types shells possessed by artillery systems allow them to solve a full range of tasks on the battlefield. Volumetric explosion ammunition is used to destroy large defensive structures and long-term fortifications. As for armor-piercing high-explosive ammunition, they continue to be used in tank units as the main means of destroying enemy armored vehicles. The advent of cumulative ammunition has significantly increased the tactical capabilities of anti-tank defense weapons. Land mines will remain for a long time perhaps the main means of armed struggle on the battlefield.
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Possessing immeasurably higher combat properties. However, at present, some types of conventional weapons, based on the latest achievements of science and technology, are very close in their effectiveness to weapons of mass destruction.
Conventional weapons comprise all fire and strike weapons using artillery, anti-aircraft, aviation, small arms and engineering ammunition and missiles in conventional ammunition, incendiary ammunition and mixtures.
Conventional weapons can be used independently and in combination with nuclear weapons to destroy enemy personnel and equipment, as well as to destroy and destroy various particularly important objects.
The best means for destroying small-sized and dispersed targets in combat conditions using conventional weapons are fragmentation, high-explosive, cumulative, concrete-piercing and incendiary ammunition, as well as volumetric explosion ammunition.
Fragmentation projectile
Fragmentation ammunition designed primarily to kill people. The most effective ammunition of this type are ball bombs, which are dropped from aircraft in cassettes containing from 96 to 640 bombs. Above the ground, such a cassette opens, and the bombs scatter and explode over an area of up to 250 thousand m 2. destructive force destructive elements (metal balls with a diameter of 2-3 mm) of each bomb are stored within a radius of up to 15 m. Cluster bombs can be equipped, in addition to balls, with cubes, shrapnel, etc.
High explosive projectile
Main purpose high explosive ammunition— destruction of industrial, residential and administrative buildings, railways and highways. Defeat of equipment and people. The main damaging factor of high-explosive ammunition is the air shock wave that occurs during the explosion of a conventional explosive with which these ammunition is loaded. They are characterized by a high filling factor (the ratio of explosive mass to the total mass of ammunition), reaching 55%, and have calibers ranging from tens to hundreds and thousands of pounds. From shock wave and fragments of high-explosive and fragmentation ammunition effectively protect shelters, shelters of various types, and blocked crevices. You can hide from ball bombs in buildings, trenches, terrain folds, and sewer wells.
HEAT projectile
Cumulative ammunition designed to destroy armored targets. Their principle of operation is based on burning through an obstacle with a powerful jet of explosive detonation products with a temperature of 6 - 7 thousand degrees and a pressure of 5 * 10 5 - 6 * 10 5 kPa (5 - 6 thousand kgf / cm 2). The formation of a cumulative jet is achieved due to the cumulative recess of a parabolic shape in the explosive charge. Focused detonation products can burn several tens of centimeters and cause fires. To protect against cumulative ammunition, you can use screens made of various materials located at a distance of 15 - 20 cm from the main structure.
Concrete-piercing projectile
Concrete-piercing ammunition designed to destroy high-strength reinforced concrete structures, as well as to destroy airfield runways. The ammunition body contains two charges - cumulative and high-explosive and two detonators. When encountering an obstacle, an instantaneous detonator is triggered, which detonates the shaped charge. With some delay (after the ammunition passes through the ceiling), the second detonator is triggered, detonating the high-explosive charge, which causes the main destruction of the object.
Incendiary projectile
Incendiary ammunition are intended to destroy people, destroy by fire buildings and structures of industrial facilities and populated areas, rolling stock and various warehouses. The basis of incendiary ammunition is made up of incendiary substances and mixtures based on petroleum products (napalm); metallized incendiary mixtures (pyrogels); thermite and thermite compounds; ordinary and plasticized phosphorus.
From the family napalm Napalm B is considered the most effective. In addition to petroleum products, napalm B includes polystyrene and salts of naphthenic and palmitic acids. In appearance, it is a gel that adheres well even to wet surfaces. Pieces of napalm burn for 5-10 minutes, developing a temperature of 1200 ° C and releasing toxic gases. Burning napalm is capable of penetrating through holes and cracks and causing damage to people in shelters and equipment.
Pyrogels- thickened metallized fire mixtures based on petroleum products, containing magnesium or aluminum shavings (powder), therefore they burn with flashes, developing temperatures up to 1600 ° C and higher. The slag formed during combustion can burn through thin sheets of metal.
Mixtures
Thermite compounds are mechanical mixtures consisting of powdered metals (for example, aluminum) and metal oxides (for example, ferrous oxide). When thermite compositions burn, temperatures reach 3000 °C. Since as a result of the ongoing chemical reaction Oxygen is released from metal oxides; thermite compositions can burn without access to air.
White phosphorus spontaneously ignites in air, developing a combustion temperature of up to 900 °C. This produces a large amount of white toxic smoke (phosphorus oxide), which, along with burns, can cause severe injuries to people.
The basis of incendiary ammunition of various types are aviation incendiary bombs and tanks. In addition, it is possible to use incendiaries barrel and rocket artillery, using incendiary bombs, grenades and bullets.
To protect wooden structures and surfaces from incendiary weapons, they can be coated with damp earth, clay, lime or cement, and in winter, a layer of ice can be frozen on them. The most effective protection of people from incendiary weapons is provided by protective structures. Temporary protection can be outerwear, individual protection means.
Volumetric explosion ammunition (BON)
The principle of operation of such ammunition is as follows: liquid fuel, having high thermal conductivity (ethylene oxide, diborane, acetic acid peroxide, propyl nitrate), placed in a special shell. During the explosion, it sprays, evaporates and mixes with oxygen in the air, forming a spherical cloud of fuel-air mixture with a radius of about 15 m and a layer thickness of 2-3 m. The resulting mixture is detonated in several places by special detonators. In the detonation zone, a temperature of 2500-3000 °C develops in a few tens of microseconds. At the moment of explosion, a relative void is formed inside the shell from the fuel-air mixture. Something similar to an explosion of the shell of a ball with evacuated air occurs (“vacuum bomb”).
The main damaging factor of a BW is the shock wave. In terms of their power, volumetric explosion ammunition occupies an intermediate position between nuclear and conventional (high-explosive) ammunition. Excess pressure in the shock wave front of the explosive explosive device, even at a distance of 100 m from the center of the explosion, can reach 100 kPa (1 kgf/cm2).
Precision guided weapons
One of the most important directions of the new stage in the development of conventional weapons is the creation high-precision guided weapons. Its distinctive feature is the high probability of hitting a target with the first shot at any time of the day and under any meteorological conditions. The stationary location of economic objects allows the enemy to establish in advance their coordinates and the most vulnerable places in the technological complex. One of the goals of creating high-precision guided weapon— eliminating casualties among civilians during military conflicts. But, as the experience of its use by American troops in Yugoslavia, Iraq, and Afghanistan has shown, these casualties cannot be avoided.
High-precision weapons include reconnaissance-strike complexes (RUK) and guided aerial bombs(UAB).
RUKs are designed for guaranteed destruction of well-protected, durable and small-sized objects with minimal means. They combine two elements: lethal means(aircraft, missiles equipped with homing warheads) and technical means, ensuring their combat use (reconnaissance, communications, navigation, control systems, processing and displaying information, generating commands).
UABs resemble conventional bombs, but differ from them in their control system and small wings. Aimed at hitting small targets. Depending on the type and nature of the latter, bombs can be concrete-piercing, armor-piercing, anti-tank, cluster, etc.
Armor-piercing shells- the main type of projectile that can be fired by almost any weapon. This projectile deals damage only if the armor is broken enemy (accompanied by the messages “Breakthrough” and “There is a penetration”). He can also damage modules or crew, if it gets into Right place(accompanied by the messages “Hit” and “There is a hit”). If the penetrating power of the projectile is not enough, it will not penetrate the armor and will not cause damage (accompanied by the message “Did not penetrate”). If a projectile hits the armor at too sharp an angle, it will ricochet and also cause no damage (accompanied by the message “Ricochet”).
High Explosive (HE) shells
High-explosive fragmentation shells- have greatest potential damage, But insignificant armor penetration. If a shell penetrates the armor, it explodes inside the tank, causing maximum damage and additional damage to modules or crew from the explosion. A high-explosive fragmentation projectile does not need to penetrate the target's armor - if it does not penetrate, it will explode on the tank's armor, causing less damage than if it penetrates. The damage in this case depends on the thickness of the armor - the thicker the armor, the more damage from the explosion it absorbs. In addition, tank screens also absorb damage from explosions of high-explosive shells. High-explosive fragmentation shells can also damage several tanks at the same time, since the explosion has a certain radius of action. Tank shells have a smaller high-explosive radius, while self-propelled gun shells have a maximum radius. It is also worth noting that only when firing high-explosive shells is it possible to receive the Bombardier award!
Sub-caliber (AP) shells
Sub-caliber shells- These are the most common premium shells in the game, installed in almost any weapon. The operating principle is similar to armor-piercing ones. They are distinguished by increased armor penetration, but they lose more penetration with distance and have less normalization (they lose more effectiveness when firing at an angle to the armor).
Cumulative (CS) projectiles
HEAT shells- premium shells for self-propelled guns and many other tanks in the game. Their penetration is noticeably higher than that of standard armor-piercing shells, and the damage they cause is at the level of armor-piercing shells for the same weapon. The penetration effect is not achieved through kinetic energy projectile (like an BB or BP), but due to the energy of the cumulative jet formed when an explosive of a certain shape is detonated at some distance from the armor. Hence the differences from BB and BP - cumulative shells do not ricochet, they are not subject to the normalization rule, three calibers, and they do not lose armor penetration with distance.
Penetration rules for cumulative projectiles
Update 0.8.6 introduces new penetration rules for cumulative projectiles:
- The cumulative projectile can now ricochet when the projectile hits armor at an angle of 85 degrees or more. When ricocheting, the armor penetration of the ricocheted cumulative projectile doesn't fall.
- After the first penetration of the armor, the ricochet can no longer work (due to the formation of a cumulative jet).
- After the first penetration of the armor, the projectile begins to lose armor penetration at the following rate: 5% of the armor penetration remaining after penetration - per 10 cm of space traversed by the projectile (50% - per 1 meter of free space from the screen to the armor).
- After each penetration of the armor, the armor penetration of the projectile is reduced by an amount equal to the thickness of the armor, taking into account the angle of inclination of the armor relative to the flight path of the projectile.
- Now the tracks also serve as a screen for cumulative projectiles.
Changes to ricochet in update 0.9.3
- Now, when a ricochet occurs, the projectile does not disappear, but continues its movement along a new trajectory, both for armor-piercing and sub-caliber projectile 25% of armor penetration is lost, and the armor penetration of a cumulative projectile does not change.
What type of projectile should I use?
Basic rules when choosing between armor-piercing and high-explosive fragmentation shells:
- Use armor-piercing shells against tanks of your level; high-explosive fragmentation shells against tanks with weak armor or self-propelled guns with open deckhouses.
- Use armor-piercing shells in long-barreled and small-caliber guns; high-explosive fragmentation - in short-barreled and large-caliber. The use of small-caliber HE shells is pointless - they often do not penetrate, and therefore do not cause damage.
- Use high-explosive fragmentation shells at any angle, do not fire armor-piercing shells at an acute angle to the enemy's armor.
- Targeting vulnerable areas and shooting at right angles to the armor are also useful for HE - this increases the likelihood of breaking through the armor and taking full damage.
- High-explosive fragmentation shells have a high chance of inflicting small but guaranteed damage even if they do not penetrate armor, so they can be effectively used to knock down a grapple from the base and finish off opponents with a small margin of safety.
For example, the 152mm M-10 gun on the KV-2 tank is large-caliber and short-barreled. How larger caliber projectile, the greater the amount of explosive it contains and the more damage it causes. But due to the short length of the gun's barrel, the projectile is fired with a very low initial velocity, which leads to low penetration, accuracy and range. In such conditions, an armor-piercing projectile, which requires an accurate hit, becomes ineffective, and a high-explosive fragmentation one should be used.
Classifications of modern conventional weapons
Characteristics of modern weapons.
Fire and strike weapons (ammunition)
Fragmentation ammunition - designed to kill people. The peculiarity of ammunition with ready-made or semi-finished lethal elements is a huge number (up to several thousand) of elements (balls, needles, arrows, etc.) weighing from fractions of a gram to several grams. The radius of scattering of fragments is up to 300m.
Ball bombs - come in sizes from a tennis ball to a soccer ball and contain up to 200 metal or plastic balls with a diameter of 5 mm. The radius of destruction of such a bomb, based on the caliber, is 1.5-15 m. Ball bombs are dropped from aircraft in cassettes containing 96-640 bombs. Expanding ball bombs explode over an area of up to 250,000 square meters.
High-explosive ammunition - designed to destroy large ground objects (industrial and administrative buildings, railway junctions, etc.) with a shock wave and fragments. Bomb mass from 50 to 10000kᴦ.
Cumulative ammunition — designed to destroy armored targets.
The principle of operation is based on burning an obstacle with a powerful jet of high-density gases with
temperature 6000-7000 0 C. Focused detonation products are capable of burning holes in armored floors several tens of centimeters thick and causing fires.
Concrete-piercing ammunition - designed to destroy airfield runways and other objects with a concrete surface. The Durandal concrete-piercing bomb weighs 195 kg and is 2.7 m long and has a warhead mass of 100 kᴦ. It is capable of piercing a concrete coating 70 cm thick; after breaking through the concrete, the bomb explodes (sometimes with a delay), forming a crater 2 m deep and 5 m in diameter.
Volumetric explosion ammunition - designed to destroy people, buildings, structures and equipment with an air shock wave and fire.
What is a land mine? What types of high-explosive shells are there?
The principle of operation is to spray gas-air mixtures in the air, followed by detonation of the resulting cloud of aerosols. The explosion results in enormous pressure.
Incendiary ammunition has a damaging effect on people, equipment, etc.
objects are based on direct exposure to high temperatures.
Incendiary substances are divided into:
● Compositions based on petroleum products (napalm)
● Metallized incendiary mixtures
● Termites and termite compounds
● White phosphorus
Characteristics of incendiary ammunition:
● Compositions based on petroleum products. NAPALM- a mixture of gasoline and thickener powder (90-97: 10-3). It ignites well even on wet surfaces and is capable of creating a high-temperature fire (1000 - 1200°C) with a burning duration of 5-10 minutes. Lighter than water.
● Metallized incendiary mixtures. ELECTRON - an alloy of magnesium, aluminum and other elements (96:3:1). It ignites at 600 0 C and burns with a dazzling white or bluish flame, reaching a temperature of 2800 ° C.
● Thermite compositions are compressed powder of aluminum and oxides of refractory metals. Burning thermite heats up to 3000˚C.
● White phosphorus is a translucent wax-like solid. Capable of self-ignition when combining with oxygen in the air. Flame temperature 900-1200˚С. It is most often used as a napalm igniter and smoke-generating agent.
Precision weapons:
Reconnaissance and strike complexes (RUK) - RUK combines two elements: destructive weapons (aircraft, missiles equipped with homing warheads capable of selecting the desired targets among other objects and local objects) and technical means that ensure their combat use (reconnaissance means, communications, navigation, control systems, processing and display, information, command generation).
Guided aerial bombs are designed to destroy small targets that require high precision. Taking into account the dependence on the type and nature of targets, UABs can be concrete-piercing, armor-piercing, anti-tank, cassette, etc.
The probability of hitting a UAB is not lower than 05.
Nuclear weapon. Damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. Characteristics of the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. Nuclear weapons are weapons of mass destruction, the action of which is based on the use of fission energy of heavy nuclei of certain isotopes of uranium and plutonium or on thermonuclear reactions of synthesis of light nuclei of hydrogen isotopes of deuterium and tritium.
Nuclear weapons are divided according to their power: (Ultra-small (less than 1 kt), Small (1-10 kt), Medium (10-100 kt), Large (100-1000 kg), Extra-large (more than 1000 kt))
DAMAGED FACTORS
Shock wave (direct or indirect effect on the body)
Light radiation – thermal burns skin and eyes.
Penetrating radiation is a stream of neurons and gamma rays.
Radioactive contamination of the area.
Electromagnetic pulse
Feature: combined lesions.
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125MM HIGH EXPLOSIVE AND SPECIAL AMMUNITION
GENERAL INFORMATION
Unlike a number of Western countries, which are continuously increasing their accent tank weapons in the fight against tanks by reducing the tank’s ability to fight enemy manpower, in accordance with the traditional Soviet worldview, tanks are the most effective means combating enemy personnel and fortifications on the battlefield, and this is reflected in the range of anti-personnel ammunition developed for the 125 mm gun, and the share of such ammunition in a typical ammunition load (about 40% high-explosive fragmentation ammunition, in addition to approximately 45% cumulative, also suitable for combating enemy personnel; this share may be even greater depending on the combat mission).
The most common type of ammunition is the fin-stabilized multi-purpose high-explosive fragmentation projectile. Its scope of application was further expanded with the introduction of the Ainet system for remote electronic detonation of ammunition. There are also other specialized projectiles, such as SGPE and incendiary, but these are less common.
125-mm OFS have good accuracy (normative dispersion: 0.23 etc.) and are similar in lethality to 122-mm artillery ammunition.
The suitability of these ammunition for fighting tanks is limited, however, tests in a number of countries have shown that a direct hit of OFS on armored vehicles can cause loss of mobility, and with a high probability - loss or significant reduction in firepower. Light armored vehicles are highly likely to be completely destroyed.
AMMUNITION DIAGRAM
Soviet OFS have the following structure: the explosive charge is placed in a housing (3), equipped with two driving belts (4). In the nose of the projectile there is a fuse (2) with a protective cap (1). The tail contains 4 folded stabilizers (6), attached to the base (7) and held in the folded position by stoppers (5) and a plastic ring (8). The latter is destroyed during the firing process and releases the stabilizers, which open along the axes of rotation (9) and ensure the stability of the projectile along the trajectory.
The required operation mode (high-explosive, high-explosive fragmentation or fragmentation) is set by installing the fuse valve in one of two positions and the presence or absence of a protective cap:
OF mode : fuse valve in position “O” (open), cap installed. Response time - 0.01 sec. This is a standard operation mode, ensuring the correct functioning of the projectile in most cases, and does not require any special preparatory actions by the crew.
High-explosive shells: standard designs and promising developments
F mode : tap in position “Z” (closed), cap installed. Response time - 0.1 sec. This special mode is designed to increase the depth of the projectile before detonation, to destroy fortifications and destroy manpower and equipment covered with earthen parapets. To use a projectile in this mode, you need to turn the fuse tap with a special key before loading the projectile.
Mode O : fuse valve in position “O” (open), cap missing. Response time - 0.001 sec. This special mode is mainly intended for the correct firing of the projectile on soft soil and marshy soils at distances less than 3000 m. Due to the extreme sensitivity of the projectile in this mode, it is prohibited to use it while moving, through the protective cover of the gun, or during rain or hail .
OFS shells use a standard propellant charge (4Zh-40 or 4Zh-52) and have a n.s. 850 m/s.
An incendiary weapon is called military means, the action of which is based on the use of the damaging properties of incendiary substances. Incendiary weapons (IW) are designed to destroy enemy personnel, destroy their weapons, military equipment, material reserves and to create fires in combat areas. The main damaging factors of hazardous liquids are the thermal energy released during its use and combustion products that are toxic to humans.
Incendiary weapons have damaging factors that operate in time and space. They are divided into primary and secondary. Primary damaging factors (thermal energy, smoke and toxic combustion products) manifest themselves on the target from several seconds to several minutes during the use of incendiary weapons. Secondary damaging factors, as a consequence of emerging fires, manifest themselves from several minutes and hours to days and weeks.
The damaging effect of incendiary weapons on people is manifested:
- in the form of primary and secondary burns of the skin and mucous tissues due to direct contact of burning incendiary substances with the skin of the body or uniform;
- in the form of damage (burns) to the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract, followed by the development of swelling and suffocation when inhaling highly heated air, smoke and other combustion products;
- in the form of heat stroke, as a result of body overheating;
- exposure to toxic products of incomplete combustion of incendiary substances and combustible materials;
- the inability to continue the respiratory function due to partial burnout of oxygen from the air, especially in closed buildings, basements, dugouts and other shelters;
- in the mechanical impact on humans of fire storms and whirlwinds during massive fires.
Often these factors appear simultaneously, and their severity depends on the type of incendiary substance used and its quantity, the nature of the target and the conditions of use. In addition, incendiary weapons have a strong moral and psychological impact on a person, reducing his ability to actively resist fire.
An incendiary substance or an incendiary mixture of substances capable of igniting, burning steadily and releasing a large amount of thermal energy. Figure 7 shows the main groups of incendiary substances and mixtures.
Rice. 7. Main groups of incendiary substances and mixtures
According to combustion conditions, incendiary substances and mixtures can be divided into two main groups:
- burning in the presence of atmospheric oxygen (napalm, white phosphorus);
- burning without access to air oxygen (thermite and thermite compounds).
Incendiary mixtures based on petroleum products can be unthickened or thickened (viscous). This is the most common type of mixture, capable of infecting manpower and igniting flammable materials.
Unthickened mixtures are prepared from gasoline, diesel fuel and lubricating oils. They are highly flammable and are used in backpack flamethrowers for a short flamethrowing range.
Thickened mixtures (napalms) are viscous, jelly-like, sticky masses consisting of gasoline or other liquid hydrocarbon fuel mixed in a certain ratio with various thickeners. Thickeners are substances that, when dissolved in a flammable base, impart a certain viscosity to mixtures. Aluminum salts of organic acids, synthetic rubber, polystyrene and other polymeric substances are used as thickeners.
The self-igniting incendiary mixture is triethylaluminum thickened with polyisobutylene.
The damaging effect of a high-explosive fragmentation projectile
The appearance of the mixture resembles napalm. The mixture has the ability to spontaneously ignite in air. The mixture is also capable of self-ignition on wet surfaces and on snow due to the addition of sodium, potassium, magnesium or phosphorus.
Metallized incendiary mixtures (pyrogels) consist of petroleum products with additives of powdered or shavings of magnesium or aluminum, oxidizing agents, liquid asphalt and heavy oils. The introduction of combustible materials into the composition of pyrogels increases the combustion temperature and gives these mixtures a burning ability. Unlike ordinary napalm, pyrogens are heavier than water and burn for 1-3 minutes.
Napalms, self-igniting incendiary mixtures and pyrogens adhere well to various surfaces of weapons, military equipment, and human uniforms.
They are highly flammable and difficult to remove and extinguish. When burning, napalms develop a temperature of about 1000-120000C, pirogels - up to 1600-200000C. Self-igniting incendiary mixtures are difficult to extinguish with water. When burning, they develop a temperature of 1100-130000C. Napalms are used for flamethrowing from tank and backpack flamethrowers, for equipping aircraft bombs and tanks, and various types of fire mines.
Self-igniting incendiary mixtures and pyrogens are capable of causing severe burns to personnel, setting fire to weapons and military equipment, and also creating fires in the area, in buildings and structures. Pyrogels are also capable of burning through thin sheets of metal.
Termite– a compressed mixture of powdered iron oxides with granulated aluminum. Thermite compositions, in addition to the listed components, contain oxidizing agents and binders (magnesium, sulfur, lead peroxide, barium nitrate). When thermites and thermite compositions burn, thermal energy is released as a result of the interaction of the oxide of one metal with another metal, forming liquid molten slag with a temperature of about 300,000C. Burning thermite compounds can burn through iron and steel. Thermite and thermite compositions are used to equip incendiary mines, shells, small-caliber aircraft bombs, hand-held incendiary grenades and checkers.
White phosphorus- a solid, waxy, toxic substance. It dissolves well in liquid organic solvents and is stored under a layer of water. In air, phosphorus spontaneously ignites and burns, releasing a large amount of acrid white smoke, developing a temperature of 100,000C.
Plasticized white phosphorus It is a plastic mass made of synthetic rubber and particles of white phosphorus; it is more stable during storage; when used, it is crushed into large, slowly burning pieces, and is capable of sticking to vertical surfaces and burning through them.
Burning phosphorus causes severe, painful burns that take a long time to heal. It is used in incendiary and smoke-generating artillery shells, mines, aircraft bombs and hand grenades, and also as an igniter for napalm and pyrogel.
Electron– an alloy of magnesium (96%), aluminum (3%) and other elements (1%). It ignites at a temperature of 60,000C and burns with a dazzling white or bluish flame, developing a temperature of up to 280,000C. Used for the manufacture of casings for small-sized aviation incendiary bombs.
Alkali metals, especially potassium and sodium, have the property of reacting with water and igniting. They are dangerous to handle, so they are not used independently, but are used as a rule, to ignite napalm or as part of self-igniting mixtures.
For the effective use of incendiary substances and mixtures, special means are used. Combat means - a specific design of a combat device or ammunition that ensures delivery to the target and the effective transfer of an incendiary substance or mixture into a combat state.
Combat weapons include: aviation and artillery incendiary ammunition, grenade launchers, flamethrowers, fire mines, grenades, cartridges, checkers. Means and methods of protection against incendiary weapons. To protect personnel from the damaging effects of incendiary weapons, use:
- closed fortifications;
- weapons and military equipment;
- natural shelters, as well as various local materials;
- personal protective equipment for skin and respiratory organs;
- overcoats, pea coats, padded jackets, short fur coats, raincoats, etc.
To protect weapons and military equipment from incendiary weapons, use:
- trenches and shelters equipped with ceilings;
- natural shelters;
- tarpaulins, awnings and covers;
- coverings made from local materials;
- standard and local fire extinguishing agents.
Protection of troops from incendiary weapons is organized with the goal of preventing or maximally weakening their impact on troops, maintaining their combat effectiveness and ensuring that they carry out their assigned combat missions, as well as preventing the occurrence and spread of massive fires and, if necessary, ensuring their localization and extinguishing.
The organization of protection of troops from incendiary weapons is carried out by commanders and staffs of all levels in all types of combat activities of troops simultaneously with the organization of protection from other means of mass destruction. The general management of the organization of protection against incendiary weapons is carried out by the commander. It determines the most important activities and the timing of their implementation.
On the basis of the commander, the headquarters, together with the chiefs of services, develops measures to protect units (units) from incendiary weapons and monitors the implementation of these measures.
- The main measures to protect against incendiary weapons are:
- forecasting the occurrence and spread of fires;
- conducting continuous reconnaissance and surveillance, timely detection of enemy preparations for the use of incendiary weapons;
- timely warning of troops about the threat and the beginning of the use of incendiary weapons;
- dispersal of troops and periodic change of areas where they are located;
- engineering equipment for troop deployment areas;
- use of protective and camouflage properties of the terrain, protective properties weapons and military equipment, personal protective equipment;
- providing troops with the necessary forces and means of fire extinguishing and fire-fighting measures;
- ensuring the safety and protection of troops when operating in the zone of massive fires;
- identifying and eliminating the consequences of the enemy’s use of incendiary weapons.
Conventional means of destruction(OSP) is a complex of small arms, artillery, engineering, naval, missile and aviation weapons or ammunition that use the energy of impact and explosion of explosives and their mixtures.
Conventional weapons are classified according to the method of delivery, caliber, type of warheads, and the principle of action on obstacles.
The most common conventional ammunition that can be used for attacks on cities and towns can be fragmentation bombs, high-explosive bombs, ball bombs, volumetric explosion ammunition, and incendiary weapons. Let's get acquainted with some types of conventional weapon ammunition and their damaging factors.
Fragmentation bombs used to kill people and animals. When a bomb explodes, a large number of fragments are formed, which fly in different directions at a distance of up to 300 m from the explosion site. Splinters do not penetrate brick and wooden walls.
High explosive bombs designed to destroy all kinds of structures. Compared to nuclear weapons, their destructive power is small. Great danger represent unexploded aerial bombs. Most often they have delayed fuses that go off automatically some time after the bomb is dropped.
Ball bombs are equipped a huge amount(from several hundred to several thousand) fragments (balls, needles, arrows, etc.) weighing up to several grams. Ball bombs, ranging in size from a tennis ball to a soccer ball, can contain 300 metal or plastic balls with a diameter of 5-6 mm.
Fragmentation and high-explosive fragmentation warheads
The radius of the bomb's destructive effect is up to 15 m.
Volumetric explosion ammunition dropped from an aircraft in the form of cassettes. The cartridge contains three rounds of ammunition each containing approximately 35 kg of liquid ethylene oxide. Ammunition is separated in the air. When they hit the ground, a fuse is triggered, which ensures the dispersion of liquid and the formation of a gas cloud with a diameter of 15 m and a height of 2.5 m. This cloud is undermined by a special delayed-action device.
The main damaging factor of volumetric explosion ammunition is a shock wave propagating at supersonic speed, the power of which is 4-6 times higher than the explosion energy of a conventional explosive.
Incendiary weapon Depending on the composition, it is divided into: incendiary mixtures based on petroleum products (napalm), metallized incendiary mixtures, thermite compositions, white phosphorus.
The means of using incendiary weapons can be aerial bombs, cassettes, artillery incendiary ammunition, flamethrowers, etc.
The thermal effect of incendiary weapons on the human body leads primarily to burns.
Incendiary agents used in the form of aerial bombs represent serious danger for people. Getting on open areas skin, clothes, they cause very severe burns and burnouts. During the combustion of these products, the air quickly heats up, which leads to burns of the respiratory tract. The use of incendiary agents causes massive fires.
Mines – one of the most insidious types of weapons. They cause untold suffering to the civilian population for a long time after they end fighting. The exact number of mines left after wars and armed conflicts on the territory of more than 70 countries is unknown, but even according to approximate data from the International Committee of the Red Cross and the UN Department of Mine Action, it is currently expressed at 100 million. Millions of them have not yet been cleared and are still waiting for their victims in different parts of the planet; Every year, mines claim more than 25,000 innocent lives. Every week on globe As a result of mine explosions, about 500 people are killed or disabled, in other words, every 20 minutes someone is killed or maimed by mines.
Nuclear weapon- a type of explosive weapon of mass destruction based on the use of intranuclear energy released during chain reactions of fission of heavy nuclei of some isotopes of uranium and plutonium or during fusion reactions of light nuclei such as deuterium, tritium (hydrogen isotopes) and lithium.
Nuclear weapons include: various nuclear weapons; means of their delivery to the target (carriers); controls. Nuclear weapons include nuclear warheads of missiles and torpedoes, nuclear bombs, artillery shells, depth charges, mines (land mines). Aircraft, surface ships and submarines, equipped with nuclear weapons and delivering them to the launch (firing) site. There are also carriers of nuclear charges (missiles, torpedoes, shells, aircraft and depth charges), which deliver them directly to targets. They can be launched (shot) from stationary installations or from moving objects. (A nuclear charge is component nuclear weapons).
Damaging factors of a nuclear explosion:
1. Shock wave- the main damaging factor of a nuclear explosion, since most of the destruction and damage to structures, buildings, as well as injuries to people are, as a rule, caused by the impact of a shock wave. It is an area of sharp compression of the medium, spreading in all directions from the explosion site at supersonic speed. The front boundary of the compressed air layer is called the shock wave front. The damaging effect of a shock wave is characterized by the magnitude of excess pressure, i.e., the magnitude of the difference between the maximum pressure in the shock wave front and normal atmospheric pressure.
2. Light radiation- a stream of radiant energy, including visible, ultraviolet and infrared rays. Its source is a luminous area formed by hot explosion products and hot air. Light radiation spreads almost instantly and lasts, depending on the power of the nuclear explosion, up to 20 s. However, its strength is such that, despite its short duration, it can cause burns to the skin (skin), damage (permanent or temporary) to people’s organs of vision and fire of flammable materials and objects.
3. Ionizing radiation (penetrating radiation) there is a stream of gamma rays and neutrons. It lasts 10-15 s. Passing through living tissue, gamma radiation and neutrons ionize the molecules that make up the cells. Under the influence of ionization, changes in biological processes occur in the body, leading to disruption of the vital functions of the body.
4. Radioactive contamination is the result of loss radioactive substances from the cloud of a nuclear explosion both in the area of the explosion and far beyond it, at a distance of several hundred and even thousands of kilometers. Radioactive substances are a source of radiation harmful to living organisms. Radioactive damage resulting from external irradiation and the entry of radioactive substances into the body causes radiation sickness.
5. Electromagnetic pulse occurs as a result of the interaction of radiation emanating from the zone of a nuclear explosion with atoms of the environment. As a result, short-term electric and magnetic fields arise in the air, which constitute an electromagnetic pulse.
As a result of its impact, wire and cable lines and radio equipment are damaged.
Chemical weapon- weapons of mass destruction, the action of which is based on the toxic properties of chemicals.
Chemical weapons include toxic substances (CAS) and means of their use. Missiles, aircraft bombs, and artillery shells are equipped with toxic substances.
Based on their effect on the human body, agents are divided into nerve agents, blister agents, asphyxiating agents, general toxic agents, irritants and psychochemical agents.
Bacteriological (biological) weapons- a type of weapon of mass destruction, the action of which is based on the use of the pathogenic properties of microorganisms and their metabolic products.
Bacteriological (biological) weapons (BW) are special ammunition and combat devices with delivery vehicles, equipped with biological agents and intended for mass destruction of enemy personnel, farm animals, and crops.
Along with nuclear and chemical weapons bacteriological weapon refers to weapons of mass destruction.
The damaging effect of BO is based primarily on the use of the pathogenic properties of microbes and toxic products of their vital activity. The basis of the damaging effect biological weapons make up biological agents, specially selected for combat use and capable of causing massive severe diseases in people, animals, and plants.
Precision Weapons (HTO) is a controlled weapon, the effectiveness of which is based on high precision hitting the target.
Precision-precision weapons (HPE) include: combat missiles for various purposes; guided missiles; guided aerial bombs, etc.
With the help of high-tech weapons with conventional, non-nuclear weapons, it is possible to inflict defeats comparable in their consequences to defeat from low-yield tactical nuclear weapons. Further development of the WTO goes in the direction of its “intellectualization, i.e.
the ability to recognize targets, including on the battlefield and in jammed conditions, and when targeting large targets, select the most vulnerable element to hit.
Destruction of buildings, fortifications and fortifications, making passages in minefields, etc.
When it hits the armor, it does not transmit kinetic force, but explodes, causing superficial damage (scattering fragments at great speed, additionally causing damage to armored vehicles, contusion, wounding or killing the crew and infantry accompanying the equipment), disabling tracks (caterpillars), damaging triplex - observation devices, produces armor damage, deflections and microcracks
It is used to shell the site of a proposed attack, to facilitate the breakthrough of enemy defenses by attacking tank and motorized infantry units. Among all ammunition, it is the most explosive.
As a tank ammunition, it is included in the main ammunition load of the T-64 / / /84U / T-90 tanks and usually accounts for up to 50% of the ammunition load. total number shells.
Fuse
For a long time, the only fuse used was the impact fuse, which was triggered when the projectile hit the target.
Impact fuses are the simplest and most reliable. Most fuses of this type can be set to contact or delayed mode. In the first case, the explosion occurs upon first contact with an obstacle and is intended to destroy objects around the obstacle. In the second case, the projectile is buried into the target and only there detonation occurs - this makes it possible to effectively destroy fortifications and buildings.
In case of a direct hit vulnerable areas(turret hatches, engine compartment radiator, aft ammunition rack knockout screens, etc.) OFS can disable a modern tank. Also, the shock wave and fragments, with a high degree of probability, disable surveillance and communications devices, weapons located outside the armor volume, and other systems installed in large quantities on modern armored vehicles.
Flaws
The main disadvantage of a high-explosive fragmentation projectile is its low armor penetration. Modern tanks, from the point of view of penetrating armor and damaging the crew, are practically invulnerable to high-explosive fragmentation shells of most used calibers. Nevertheless, large-caliber OFS still remain effective against lightly armored vehicles.
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An excerpt characterizing a high-explosive fragmentation projectile
“Mom, isn’t it a shame that he’s a widower?”- That's enough, Natasha. Pray to God. Les Marieiages se font dans les cieux. [Marriages are made in heaven.]
- Darling, mother, how I love you, how good it makes me feel! – Natasha shouted, crying tears of happiness and excitement and hugging her mother.
At the same time, Prince Andrei was sitting with Pierre and telling him about his love for Natasha and his firm intention to marry her.
On this day, Countess Elena Vasilyevna had a reception, there was a French envoy, there was a prince, who had recently become a frequent visitor to the countess’s house, and many brilliant ladies and men. Pierre was downstairs, walked through the halls, and amazed all the guests with his concentrated, absent-minded and gloomy appearance.
Since the time of the ball, Pierre had felt the approaching attacks of hypochondria and with desperate effort tried to fight against them. From the time the prince became close to his wife, Pierre was unexpectedly granted a chamberlain, and from that time on he began to feel heaviness and shame in large society, and more often the old gloomy thoughts about the futility of everything human began to come to him. At the same time, the feeling he noticed between Natasha, whom he protected, and Prince Andrei, the contrast between his position and the position of his friend, further intensified this gloomy mood. He equally tried to avoid thoughts about his wife and about Natasha and Prince Andrei. Again everything seemed insignificant to him in comparison with eternity, again the question presented itself: “why?” And he forced himself to work day and night on Masonic works, hoping to ward off the approach of the evil spirit. Pierre, at 12 o'clock, having left the countess's chambers, was sitting upstairs in a smoky, low room, in a worn dressing gown in front of the table, copying out authentic Scottish acts, when someone entered his room. It was Prince Andrei.
“Oh, it’s you,” said Pierre with an absent-minded and dissatisfied look. “And I’m working,” he said, pointing to a notebook with that look of salvation from the hardships of life with which unhappy people look at their work.
Prince Andrei, with a radiant, enthusiastic face and renewed life, stopped in front of Pierre and, not noticing his sad face, smiled at him with the egoism of happiness.
“Well, my soul,” he said, “yesterday I wanted to tell you and today I came to you for this.” I've never experienced anything like it. I'm in love, my friend.
Pierre suddenly sighed heavily and collapsed with his heavy body on the sofa, next to Prince Andrei.
- To Natasha Rostova, right? - he said.
- Yes, yes, who? I would never believe it, but this feeling is stronger than me. Yesterday I suffered, I suffered, but I wouldn’t give up this torment for anything in the world. I haven't lived before. Now only I live, but I cannot live without her. But can she love me?... I'm too old for her... What aren't you saying?...
- I? I? “What did I tell you,” Pierre suddenly said, getting up and starting to walk around the room. - I always thought this... This girl is such a treasure, such... This is a rare girl... Dear friend, I ask you, don’t get smart, don’t doubt, get married, get married and get married... And I’m sure that there will be no happier person than you.
- But she!
- She loves you.
“Don’t talk nonsense...” said Prince Andrei, smiling and looking into Pierre’s eyes.
“He loves me, I know,” Pierre shouted angrily.
“No, listen,” said Prince Andrei, stopping him by the hand. – Do you know what situation I’m in? I need to tell everything to someone.
“Well, well, say, I’m very glad,” said Pierre, and indeed his face changed, the wrinkles smoothed out, and he joyfully listened to Prince Andrei. Prince Andrei seemed and was a completely different, new person. Where was his melancholy, his contempt for life, his disappointment? Pierre was only person, to whom he dared to speak; but he expressed to him everything that was in his soul. Either he easily and boldly made plans for a long future, talked about how he could not sacrifice his happiness for the whim of his father, how he would force his father to agree to this marriage and love her or do without his consent, then he was surprised how something strange, alien, independent of him, influenced by the feeling that possessed him.
“I wouldn’t believe anyone who told me that I could love like that,” said Prince Andrei. “This is not at all the feeling that I had before.” The whole world is divided for me into two halves: one - she and there is all the happiness of hope, light; the other half is everything where she is not there, there is all despondency and darkness...
“Darkness and gloom,” Pierre repeated, “yes, yes, I understand that.”
– I can’t help but love the world, it’s not my fault. And I'm very happy. You understand me? I know you're happy for me.
“Yes, yes,” Pierre confirmed, looking at his friend with tender and sad eyes. The brighter the fate of Prince Andrei seemed to him, the darker his own seemed.
To get married, the consent of the father was needed, and for this, the next day, Prince Andrei went to his father.
The father, with outward calm but inner anger, accepted his son’s message. He could not understand that anyone would want to change life, to introduce something new into it, when life was already ending for him. “If only they would let me live the way I want, and then we would do what we wanted,” the old man said to himself. With his son, however, he used the diplomacy that he used on important occasions. Taking a calm tone, he discussed the whole matter.
Firstly, the marriage was not brilliant in terms of kinship, wealth and nobility. Secondly, Prince Andrei was not in his first youth and was in poor health (the old man was especially careful about this), and she was very young. Thirdly, there was a son whom it was a pity to give to the girl. Fourthly, finally,” said the father, looking mockingly at his son, “I ask you, postpone the matter for a year, go abroad, get treatment, find, as you want, a German for Prince Nikolai, and then, if it’s love, passion, stubbornness, whatever you want, so great, then get married.
“And this is my last word, you know, my last...” the prince finished in a tone that showed that nothing would force him to change his decision.
Prince Andrei clearly saw that the old man hoped that the feeling of him or his future bride would not withstand the test of the year, or that he himself, the old prince, would die by this time, and decided to fulfill his father’s will: to propose and postpone the wedding for a year.
Three weeks after his last evening with the Rostovs, Prince Andrei returned to St. Petersburg.
The next day after her explanation with her mother, Natasha waited the whole day for Bolkonsky, but he did not come. The next, third day the same thing happened. Pierre also did not come, and Natasha, not knowing that Prince Andrei had gone to his father, could not explain his absence.
Three weeks passed like this. Natasha did not want to go anywhere and, like a shadow, idle and sad, she walked from room to room, cried secretly from everyone in the evening and did not appear to her mother in the evenings. She was constantly blushing and irritated. It seemed to her that everyone knew about her disappointment, laughed and felt sorry for her. With all the strength of her inner grief, this vain grief intensified her misfortune.
A German monk who discovered the propellant properties of gunpowder, he never imagined that he would become the progenitor of a new god - the god of war.
The Birth of Artillery
The monk’s discovery was very quickly used in military affairs, and soon two directions for the development of weapons appeared, which used the propellant properties of gunpowder. The first of these was the creation of light hand-held small arms, the second was the production of cannons. The emergence of manual firearms did not lead to the creation of a new type of army. They simply armed existing ones, replacing bows and light throwing spears - darts - in the infantry and cavalry. But the appearance of cannons created new troops, which in Rus' were called “firearms,” and which the Italian weapons theorist Niccolo Tartaglia proposed to call artillery, which translated means “the art of shooting.” Some researchers believe that this appeared much earlier than the discovery of the German monk, with the invention of the first throwing machines - ballistas. Be that as it may, artillery became the god of war precisely with the creation of firearms.
Development of the God of War
Over time, military affairs did not stand still, and artillery pieces not only improved, but also new types appeared: howitzers, mortars, jet systems volley fire and others. In the twentieth century, artillery truly dominated the battlefields. And along with the development of guns, artillery ammunition for them also developed.
Types of projectiles
The first artillery shell fired at the enemy was nothing more than an ordinary stone loaded into a ballista. With the advent of cannons, special stone and then metal cannonballs began to be used. They caused damage to the enemy due to the kinetic energy received during the shot. But back in the twelfth century AD, China used a high-explosive projectile thrown at the enemy by means of a catapult. Therefore, the proposal to make hollow cores with an explosive inside did not take long to come. This is how the high-explosive artillery shell appeared. It caused significant damage to the enemy due to the energy of the explosion and the scattering of fragments. After the appearance of armored targets, special armor-piercing, sub-caliber and cumulative ammunition. Their task was to penetrate the armor and disable the mechanisms and manpower located in the armored space. There are also special-purpose shells: lighting, incendiary, chemical, propaganda and others. IN Lately are gaining popularity guided munitions, which themselves adjust their flight to more accurately hit targets.
High explosive shells
A landmine is one that causes damage to the enemy through a shock wave, high temperature and explosion products (some explosives, for example, produce toxic emissions when burned). A high-explosive projectile in its pure form is practically never used. The explosive charge is placed in a durable metal casing that can withstand high pressure in the bore. Therefore, when detonated, the shell forms a large number of fragments. This type of ammunition is called a high-explosive fragmentation projectile (HEF). The vast majority of artillery ammunition is OFS.
Shrapnel
Since it is difficult to guarantee uniform dispersion of fragments when detonating a conventional OFS, a high-explosive fragmentation projectile with ready-made submunitions was developed. This type of ammunition was called “shrapnel” (in honor of its inventor, British officer Henry Shrapnel). It is most effective when detonated at a height of several meters from the ground. In modern ammunition damaging elements They have the shape of feathered pyramids, which allows them to hit even lightly armored targets.
Land mine against armor
At the end of the 40s of the twentieth century, a high-explosive projectile was developed in Great Britain to destroy enemy armored vehicles. It had a thin-walled body that contained an explosive charge and a detonator with a moderator. Upon contact with the armor, the thin metal shell was destroyed, and the explosive was flattened across the armor, covering as large an area as possible. After this, the detonator was triggered and the explosive was detonated. As a result, the crew and mechanisms in the armored space were damaged by internal fragments and the top layer of armor was burned. This type is called an armor-piercing high-explosive projectile. However, with the advent of dynamic protection and spaced armor, it was considered ineffective. Currently, such shells are in service only in their homeland - Great Britain.
High explosive fuses
The first fuse for high-explosive fragmentation ammunition was an ordinary fuse, which was ignited when fired from a cannon and initiated the detonation of explosives after a certain time. However, after the advent of rifled guns and conical-shaped projectiles, which guaranteed that the front part of the hull would encounter an obstacle, impact fuses appeared. Their advantage was that the explosive exploded immediately after contact with the obstacle. For destruction, the impact fuses were equipped with a moderator. This allowed the ammunition to first penetrate the obstacle, thereby dramatically increasing its effectiveness. By equipping a landmine with such a fuse with a more massive body with thick walls (which made it possible, due to kinetic energy, to penetrate deep into the walls of long-term firing points), we obtained a concrete-piercing projectile.
By the way, at the initial stage of the Great Patriotic War, with the help of 152-mm concrete-piercing shells, they successfully fought against German armored vehicles. If hit medium or light german tank the shell, due to its weight, first destroyed the car, tore off the turret, and then exploded. The disadvantage of impact fuses was that when they hit viscous soil (for example, a swamp), they did not work. This problem was eliminated by a remote fuse, which allows the ammunition to be detonated at a certain distance from the muzzle of the gun barrel. Currently, this type of detonator is used in almost all OFS. It allows, for example, firing tank guns at air targets (helicopters).
Combat use of high-explosive shells
High-explosive fragmentation shells are the main type of ammunition used by modern artillery systems. They are used to destroy fortifications, damage and destroy various enemy military equipment, weapons, and manpower. With their help, passages are made in engineering defensive structures. For example, in the final period of the Great Patriotic War, Soviet ISU-152s, using a 152-mm high-explosive fragmentation projectile, successfully destroyed German bunkers, which ensured a breakthrough for the 1st and 2nd Guards Tank Armies of Katukov and Bogdanov northeast of Berlin. Even the most powerful non-nuclear weapons of our time (Smerch RZSO) rely on 9M55F high-explosive fragmentation rockets, which when fired in salvos are equated to weapons of mass destruction.
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