Ticket 2
SEK's problems. From the 9th to the 13th centuries historians have distinguished two periods.
1st from 9th to 2nd floor. 11th century - is characterized by the relative political unity of the state in the field of economics; in the sphere of social-no-eq-their relations DR.Rus.sobsh-in had the character of a transition from a tribal system to a class society; in spiritual life - paganism and adoption in the end of the 10th century. Christianity.
2- from the 2nd floor. 11th century until the 40s. 13th century - feudal fragmentation.
At the beginning of the 12th century. DR.Rus disintegrated into 15 principalities; development of feudal attitudes; Lord of Christ in the spirit of the life of the country.
1- assessment of the character of Dr. Rus. society; - it is feudal: in this concept - 3 points of view:
Grekov-DR. Rus. general-feudal society;
Cherepnin - early feudal society;
Contemporary Literature - Society of State Feudalism.
Features of feudalism. Agrarian (antique) society; monopoly of the ruling class on land ownership; an independent cross-th household, which is conducted on land belonging to the feudal lord, or the state, therefore, the cr-did not bear obligations in favor of the owner. Feud. hierarchy. The Grand Duke, his vassals (junior princes), the boyars, acted as lord. Social class-structure Dr.-R. Society.
3 main social Groups:
1- the ruling class of feudal lords was formed.
2- free population in cities and rural areas (these two groups had the right to bear arms).
According to some estimates, the number of DR. Rus is equal to 2 million people.
2 - DR.R. total - pre-feudal. (Leningrad school of historians, Dr. Froyanov). Sots-no-ek-uyu basis dr. Rus. the community consisted of communal land tenure and free kr-non-communal members + private feudal land tenure. Main Kinds. Household. Children. (vegetable gardens, agriculture, handicraft production, livelihood, trade, trades). Conclusion: the development of Feud-ma in DR.R. followed the same path as in the countries of the West. Heb. This process was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
The economy of Russia was of an agrarian nature. Forms of land tenure:
one). Princely domains - the beginning of the 11th century, the first private princely landholdings appear;
2). Boyar estates (hereditary estates) - in the 2nd half of the 11th century;
3). Church lands - from the end of the 11th century;
4). Estates - land of noblemen given for service.
Private land holdings are just beginning to appear in the Old Russian period, and most of the arable land belonged to free peasants - communes, the land is collectively owned by the peasant community - vervi. The community at first had a kinship character, then it becomes territorial; the community collectively performs all state. duties, equalizing distribution of all produced, responsible for each member of his community (mutual responsibility). The community is the most important feature of the social life of Russia. The main items of trade are servants and furs, which were acquired as a result of campaigns of conquest and tribute.
In the IX-XII centuries. the economy of the Old Russian state is characterized as a period of early feudalism. This period is associated with the beginning of the emergence of the very foundation of the relationship between the state, feudal lords and agriculture. The most basic issues affecting the entire population are being resolved, such as the production of goods, the procedure for collecting taxes, and military service. After all, the core of the "Russian land" is agriculture, which occupies the main place in the economy of Kievan Rus. It was based on arable farming. If we compare it with the primitive communal system, then at this time the farming technique was significantly improved. The cultivation of land in the southern part, where noble black earth plots prevailed, was carried out with a plow (or ral); in the north, a plow was used. Agriculture played a primary role in the life of Ancient Rus, therefore, the sown fields were called life, and the main grain for each locality was called rye (from the verb "to live").
By the IX-X centuries. a transfer system appeared and began to be used, in which arable land was abandoned for some time. The two-field and three-field with spring and winter crops became famous.
Old traditions of land cultivation have also been preserved in forest areas (slash or fire). The peasant farms had horses, cows, pigs, sheep, goats and poultry.
A characteristic feature was the extent to which the commodity economy was developed, because practically everything necessary for life was produced. Crafts developed, the centers of which, of course, were cities, but individual industries also developed in villages. The dominant role was played by ferrous metallurgy for the simple reason that Ancient Russia was rich in swamp ores, from which iron was extracted. All kinds of processing of iron were carried out, the manufacture of numerous things from it for the economy, military affairs and everyday life, while various technological methods were used: forging, welding, cementation, turning, inlaid with non-ferrous metals. However, along with metallurgy, a great impetus in the development of woodworking, pottery, and leather crafts took place.
Thus, metallurgy and agriculture are becoming a solid support and the main article of the economy of Kievan Rus.
Ticket 4.
The most important event carried out by Prince Vladimir (980-1015) was the religious reform.
Carrying out a religious reform, Prince Vladimir strove to strengthen the state, to rally the collapsing inter-tribal union and to preserve the dominant position of the Kiev nobility in it.
There have been 2 attempts at religious reform:
1) the pagan reform of 980, which did not solve the tasks assigned to it. Its essence was to collect all the gods who were worshiped by various tribes, and to compose in Kiev a pantheon, obligatory for the entire state;
2) the introduction of Christianity (988).
Historians name various reasons for Vladimir's conversion to Christianity. According to a number of scholars, during the baptism of Rus, Vladimir was guided not only by considerations of state benefits. He turned to Christianity sincerely. Perhaps as a result of repentance for the atrocities committed (the murder of Yaropolk's brother, who reigned in Kiev, and the seizure of the Kiev throne), fatigue from a riotous life (Vladimir spent a lot of time in noisy drinking at the banquet table and in the chambers of his many wives and slave-concubines), feelings of spiritual emptiness. Having become a Christian, Vladimir baptized Russia as well. This decision was also influenced by the desire of the Kiev prince to strengthen the foreign policy position of Russia. In any relations with Christian states, the pagan state inevitably turned out to be an unequal partner, with which Vladimir did not want to put up.
The people of Kiev, among whom there were many Christians, accepted the transition to the "Greek faith" without obvious resistance. Residents of the southern and western cities of Russia, who often communicated with other religions and lived in a multilingual, multi-tribal environment, reacted calmly to baptism.
Religious innovations met with much greater resistance in the north and east. Thus, the Novgorodians rebelled against the bishop Joachim (991) sent to the city, who ridiculed pagan beliefs. To conquer them, Vladimir sent detachments led by Dobrynya and Putyata: "Putyata baptized with a sword, and Dobrynya with fire." The inhabitants of Murom refused to let the son of Vladimir, Prince Gleb, into the city, and declared their desire to preserve the religion of their ancestors. Similar conflicts arose in other cities of the Novgorod and Rostov lands.
Reasons for the resistance of the northern cities to Christianization:
A pagan religious organization was formed there (regular and stable rituals, separate groups of priests - magi, magicians);
The wary attitude of Novgorodians and Rostovites to all orders emanating from Kiev.
However, Christianity was far from immediately established in the minds of people, especially in the villages. Throughout the centuries, the dual faith of Russia persisted: the Christian faith was combined with faith in the former pagan gods. In an effort to facilitate the adoption of Christianity by the Slavs, the church consecrated some pagan holidays. So, the Shrovetide holiday is pagan in origin. The holiday of Ivan Kupala, which marked the arrival of summer, merged with the day of St. John the Baptist. The worship of the Thunderer Perun was replaced by the veneration of Elijah the Prophet, St. Blasius became the patron of cattle instead of Veles. These beliefs have become firmly established in Russian Christianity.
The meaning of the adoption of Christianity in Russia:
2) The way of life of people has changed.
3) The Church forbade sacrifices, polygamy, blood feud and other pagan traditions.
4) Mastering the Byzantine cultural heritage. Development of culture, creation of monuments of writing.
5) The international position of the Old Russian state has changed. It joined the general row of Christian states in Europe. The prince needed a religion capable of strengthening the princely power. (example Byzantium).
6) It is impossible to retain all the Slavic lands relying only on military force.
Ticket 5.
International relations of Kievan Rus IX-XI centuries. (article)
International relations in Russia as an integral part and instrument of foreign policy appeared and developed simultaneously with the birth and formation of the Russian state, the history of which dates back to the formation of Kievan Rus in the 9th century. By about half of the 9th century. external and internal relations in the commercial and industrial world of Russian cities developed in such a combination, in which the protection of the country's borders and foreign trade became their common interest, subjugating them to the prince of Kiev and making the Kiev Varangian principality the grain of the Russian state. In the vastness of Eastern Europe, a new leading political force began to take shape - the Old Russian state, or Russia, as it was called at that time.
Kievan Rus - this is how historians call the state of the ancient Slavs from the 9th to the 11th centuries. with the center in the city of Kiev. But the concept of Kievan Rus includes not only the city of Kiev with the surrounding lands, but also all the cities and settlements of the Eastern Slavs - the ancestors of the Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Russians.
Until the XII century. the borders of Kievan Rus were not clearly marked. And if in the north and south they were determined by the geographical boundaries of the White and Black Seas, then in the west and especially in the east they were very conditional. At the same time, part of the borders in the west could still be considered more or less definite, since they separated Kievan Rus from the previously formed states - Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic. There were no delimitations along the rest of the perimeter, tk. Russia was surrounded by the lands of peoples and tribes that were at a lower stage of development, who did not have their own statehood, or knew only its initial forms.
According to historians (S.F. Platonov, I.Ya. Froyanov, V.O. of which about a third were Western European monarchies and empires, almost fifteen hundred were Russian principalities, and the rest were small nationalities and tribes. The overwhelming majority of neighboring non-Slavic peoples were in one way or another vassal dependence on Russia and paid tribute to it. To others, such as the Varangians and Ugrians, Kievan Rus paid tribute itself. In accordance with this, the various functions of ancient Russian international relations were also determined: one in relation to neighboring small peoples that did not have their own statehood, the other in relation to already formed states.
So, for example, relations with the powerful Byzantium developed in a special way. A notable milestone in the development of international relations was the sending in 838 of the Russian embassy to Constantinople. For the first time, Russia was represented at the court of the Byzantine emperor Theophilos as a state. The main goal of the Russian embassy was to establish direct contacts with the central government of Byzantium. The well-known historian A.A. Shakhmatov, who devoted almost half his life to studying the history and chronicle of Kievan Rus, testifies that recent opponents were welcomed in Byzantium. The embassy was given a worthy welcome, as evidenced by the attention shown to it by the supreme power, who took care of its safety and food supply, as well as the length of its stay in the Greek capital, which fully corresponded to the plans of the Empire (it hoped to turn Russia into allies in the fight against their longtime enemy - the Arab Caliphate).
However, the embassy did not lead to the solution of fundamental issues of relations between the two states. The powerful Byzantine Empire did not recognize the emerging Old Russian state. An important role in the formation of Russian statehood, the development of the diplomatic system of Rus, the expansion of its external relations and the enhancement of prestige were played by the negotiations that took place after the successful attack of the Russians on Constantinople in 860, and the first peace treaty in the history of Ancient Rus on "peace and love" concluded with Byzantine Empire. For the first time the Russian army laid siege to Constantinople, this richest city, where there were huge values. Russia, previously content with local attacks on Byzantine possessions and the conclusion of private agreements with imperial officials, achieved negotiations with the Greeks at the walls of Constantinople.
According to historian B.D. Grekov, it was this fact that changed the nature of relations between Byzantium and Kievan Rus. In the course of negotiations with Constantinople, the Russians gradually mastered the complex diplomatic arsenal of the Empire, while creating their own foreign policy stereotypes. They managed to ensure that Byzantium treated its partner as a sovereign entity and recognized Russia as a new East Slavic state. According to the terms of the treaty, peaceful relations were established between the two states, payment by the Empire of tribute to Kievan Rus, as well as an agreement on the baptism of Rus. The Christian Greek mission was admitted to Russia. The treaty included, in addition, the allied obligation of Kievan Rus in relation to Byzantium. Thus, the beginning of the withdrawal of Russia from the zone of isolation, in which the East Slavic tribes found themselves after the attack of the Avars, and later in connection with the dependence on the Khazars, was laid.
As noted by most famous historians, such as A.A. Shakhmatov, V.T. Pashuto, V.O. Klyuchevsky, B.D. Grekov and others, the external activities of the first Kiev princes were directed primarily by economic interest. And this activity was aimed at two main goals: 1) to acquire overseas markets, 2) to clear and protect the trade routes that led to these markets.
The main thing that ancient Russian diplomacy sought in the sub-vassal territories was the preservation of the internal structure of power and the development of trade there, and later the spread of Christianity.
The situation was different with the neighboring states, with which the "Rurik power" sought to establish beneficial ties. Oleg (882 - 912) ruled, “having peace to all countries” (from The Tale of Bygone Years). Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980 - 1015) had good relations with the rulers of Hungary and Bohemia. Kievan Rus maintained especially close ties with Poland. Both states, despite their disagreements over Prussia, refused to participate in coalitions hostile to each other and managed to come to a close alliance, sealed and confirmed by a series of treaties. Stable international relations have developed in Kievan Rus with the states of the Volga region - Bulgaria and Khazaria, in the Caucasus - with Dagestan; in the north - with the Scandinavian countries - Sweden and Denmark. Occasionally interrupted by conflicts, these relations were invariably renewed and strengthened by dynastic alliances with the subsequent growth of mutual political and trade benefits. International contacts with distant countries - Germany, France, England and Italy - were less regular and stable.
The trade relations of Kievan Rus were also lively. They stretched from Flanders to the Ugra land and from Scandinavia to Constantinople. Rooks with wax, honey, furs and other items of export were usually equipped for overseas voyages in Kiev or the cities closest to it on the Dnieper. Russian merchants were well known in the East, in Central and Northern Europe. Their overland caravans carried their goods to Baghdad and India. On the Black Sea, Russian military-trade expeditions went to Bulgaria and Byzantium.
In an effort to consolidate the diplomatic success of the Russians, the Kiev prince Oleg again sent in 911 to Constantinople "his husbands", who upon arrival in the capital were received by the ruling emperors Leo VI and his brother Alexander. At the 911 embassy conference, the negotiations ended with the signing of an extensive general political treaty, in which, for the first time, specific articles of relations between the two states in the legal, economic, political and military fields were fixed in writing. Under the treaty, the Empire received, in particular, the right to take on the service of Russian vigilantes.
Russia, connected with Byzantium by allied obligations, undertook a campaign in the regions of the Southern and South-Western Caspian regions in 912. Sakharov A.N. in his work "Diplomacy of Ancient Rus" notes that a successful offensive became possible largely thanks to the diplomatic efforts of the Russians, who managed to ensure the "transit" of the squad across the territory of Khazaria. Later, Russian diplomacy more than once used the Pechenegs, Alans and other peoples of the North Caucasus in various political combinations in the east.
In 944, Kievan Rus, wishing to achieve complete equality with Byzantium, undertook a new military campaign against Constantinople and again achieved success. The Byzantine government, through its diplomats, promised Grand Duke Igor to pay tribute under the previous agreement. Moreover, it sent an official embassy to Kiev with the aim of working out the terms of a new treaty, where, according to the chronicle, Igor "spoke with them about peace." Then the Russian embassy went to Constantinople, where negotiations with the Greek "bolyars and dignitaries" were continued. So, for the first time in the Russian practice of international relations, the form of sending a response embassy was used.
Having organized a farewell audience for the Greeks, the Russians adopted the diplomatic experience of not only Byzantium, but also international practice. The treaty on peace, friendship and military alliance was not mutually beneficial, although some of its articles are permeated with a spirit of compromise. Rus reaffirmed its political and commercial status in Byzantium, but lost an important duty-free trade right. At the same time, she achieved official recognition of her influence on the northern shores of the Black Sea, and in particular at the mouth of the Dnieper. A great success of the Russians was the fact that the title of "lordship" disappeared from the treaty, which placed the Kiev prince on a par with insignificant rulers. Igor was titled as the “Grand Duke of Russia”, which indicated the rise of his political prestige in the eyes of the Empire and among the Eastern European states.
The high art of strengthening international relations was shown after the death of her husband, Grand Duke Igor, by Princess Olga, who combined all the qualities of an intelligent and rare empress (890 - 969). In an effort to further increase the authority of the grand-ducal power and raise the prestige of Russia, she decided to receive the rite of baptism in Byzantium. To this end, Olga went to Constantinople at the head of a large and magnificent embassy.
On September 9, 957, she was assigned an audience with the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Having studied the chronicles of those times, A.A. Shakhmatov concluded that the princess's reception was fully consistent with the ceremonies of other foreign rulers. The furnishings in the palace were extremely solemn and pompous; the entire courtyard was present during the reception. After that, some deviations from the rules were made for the princess. Olga, unaccompanied, approached the throne and talked with the emperor while standing, and did not prostrate before him, as it was supposed to and as her retinue did. Soon the Grand Duchess was invited to a meeting with the imperial family, during which a conversation took place with the emperor, for the sake of which she arrived in Constantinople. In the family circle, Olga was honored to sit in the presence of the emperor, which was considered a high privilege, which was granted only to the crowned heads.
In a conversation with Konstantin Porphyrogenitus, Olga discussed the procedure for the upcoming rite of baptism. Soon she was baptized in the presence of the emperors Constantine Porphyrogenitus and Roman in the main temple of Constantinople and received the blessing of Patriarch Polyeuctus.
Thus, the years of Olga's reign were characterized by the expansion of international relations of Kievan Rus: relations with Byzantium were strengthened, embassies were exchanged with the German emperor, and trade relations of Kievan Rus were significantly expanded.
The issues of the state prestige of Russia, the expansion of its international relations continued to remain in the center of attention of the Kiev rulers. Strengthening and expanding international relations was achieved in different ways: at the cost of political deals and concessions, or with the help of military force. Sometimes the enemy was openly notified of the war, but more often the war was prepared in secret, and the military correspondence was conducted in secret. The diplomacy of that time was by no means primitive; it bore the stamp of its time. The means, methods and forms used by it were improved as the state was becoming (V.T. Pashuto).
Already in those distant times, participating in campaigns against the Arabs and Normans who threatened the allied Byzantium, Russia did not forget about its own interests, strengthened its influence not only in the Caucasus, but also in the Mediterranean Sea, influencing the German-imperial struggle for Italy. The attempt of the Greeks to push the nomads against Russia also ended in failure. Pushing back Byzantium, the Russians managed to keep the forest-steppe border and take control of the policy towards nomads, turning the Khazars, Pechenegs, Torks and a significant part of the Polovtsians into their allies. Oaths, bribery and distribution of border lands, organization of magnificent receptions for ambassadors, gifts, etc. were used. Quite a few Polovtsian girls - "Khatuns", having adopted Orthodoxy, became Russian princesses. Making extensive use of diplomacy in international relations with other countries, the Russians also retained their positions on the main trade routes along the Volga, Don, Dnieper, Dniester, Sereti and Lower Danube.
And in conclusion, it must be said that in the complex system of international relations of Kievan Rus, marriage unions occupied an important place. So, Yaroslav the Wise (1019 - 1054) was married to the daughter of the Swedish king Olaf Ingigerde, his eldest daughter Elizabeth was married to the Norwegian king Harald, the middle - Anna - to the French king Henry I, after whose death she became regent of France; the younger Anastasia - for the Hungarian king Andrew. The Russian princesses left a noticeable mark on the political life of Poland, Lithuania and other countries. In turn, Russian princes, striving to strengthen relations between Russia and foreign states, often married girls from the royal and royal families.
Thus, summing up my report on the topic "International relations of Kievan Rus IX-XI centuries." I would like to note that the princes of the ancient Russian state in every possible way sought to expand the borders of their state, to strengthen political and economic ties, and most importantly, to develop trade relations with overseas markets.
Ticket 6.
Similar information.
Lesson objectives:
- Educational:
- study the structural features of the respiratory system in connection with their functions;
- to reveal the essence of the breathing process, its importance in metabolism;
- find out the mechanisms of voice formation;
- Developing:
- continue the formation of the basics of hygiene (breathing hygiene rules);
- develop research skills through the setting of educational experiments;
- Educational:
- to educate a respectful attitude towards your body, towards your health, towards the health of others;
- draw an analogy: breath is life; human lungs are the lungs of our planet (flora).
A healthy planet is a healthy person!
DURING THE CLASSES
I. Organizational moment
II. Updating basic knowledge
It is possible to show a fragment of a video film on the topic.
- What is breathing?
- Does the structure of the organ affect the function it performs?
We will try to find answers to all these and many other questions in today's lesson.
III. Learning new material
Appendix. Slide number 7.
Respiratory system
consists of airways(cavities and tubes connected in series) and respiratory part.
TO airways includes the nasal cavity and nasopharynx (upper respiratory tract), larynx, trachea and bronchi.
Respiratory part- this is the lungs and the connective tissue sheath - the pleura.
Appendix. Slide number 8.
Respiratory system
- Here is a table that we will try to fill in while studying new material. Redraw it, please. (It is better to print and distribute the table in advance, so as not to waste precious lesson time on this)
Appendix. Slide number 9.
Upper respiratory tract
During normal breathing, air must pass through the external nostrils into the nasal cavity, which is divided into two halves by the bone-cartilaginous septum. In each half there are sinuous nasal passages that increase the surface of the nasal cavity. Their walls are lined with a mucous membrane containing numerous cells of the ciliated (ciliated) epithelium.
In an adult, the mucous membrane secretes 0.5 liters of mucus per day.
Its function is to humidify the inhaled air, trap dust particles and microorganisms that settle on the walls of the cavity. The mucus contains substances that kill microbes or prevent them from reproducing (the enzyme lysozyme and leukocytes). Numerous blood vessels branch out under the mucous membrane, so even minor injuries to the nose are accompanied by profuse bleeding. These choroid plexuses warm the inhaled air to body temperature. The nasal cavity is connected to the cavities in the bones of the skull: maxillary, frontal and wedge-shaped. They serve not only to warm the incoming air, but also serve as resonators for voice formation. The nasal cavities are lined with sensitive cells that provide a protective function: the sneezing reflex. The nasal cavity opens into the nasopharynx with the internal nostrils - the choans, and from there - into the larynx.
Appendix. Slide number 10. Hygiene of nasal breathing
- It is recommended to breathe through the nose, because when breathing through the mouth, cold air enters the lungs, which is the cause of colds.
- A sick person who does not follow the rules of hygiene becomes a source of infection.
(After explaining the structure and functions of a separate organ, you can check the correctness of filling in the table, or you can single out this as an independent work as a consolidation of the material or as homework)
Appendix. Slide number 11.
Observations
"Check the air passage through the nasal passages"
We close one nasal passage, and bring a light piece of cotton wool to the other. The jet of air will throw it away when you exhale, and press it against the nasal opening when you inhale. This technique can be shown on the subject.
Conclusion: During normal breathing, air must pass through the external nostrils into the nasal cavity.
Appendix. Slide number 12.
Larynx
The larynx is like a funnel, the walls of which are formed by cartilage.
The larynx cavity is lined with a mucous membrane and equipped with receptors - a reflex cough.
The entrance to the larynx during swallowing is closed by the supraglottic cartilage.
The largest cartilage is thyroid, which protects the larynx in front.
The vocal cords are stretched between the cartilages, and the glottis is located between the ligaments.
Thus, the function of the larynx is to conduct air into the trachea, participate in voice formation and prevent the penetration of harmful substances into the respiratory tract.
Appendix. Slide number 13.
Observation
1. To prove that when swallowing, the thyroid cartilage rises up.
Feel for the thyroid cartilage, swallow. Make sure that the cartilage goes up and then returns to its original place.
Conclusion: with this movement, the epiglottis closes the entrance to the trachea and along it, like a bridge, the saliva or food lump moves into the esophagus.
2. Find out why breathing stops during swallowing.
Make another swallowing motion and make sure that this fact is true.
Conclusion: the tongue closes the entrance to the nasal cavity, the epiglottis blocks the entrance to the trachea. As a result, air cannot enter the lungs at the time of swallowing.
Appendix. Slide number 14.
Sound production
The person is silent - the glottis is triangular and large enough.
The sound appears when the glottis is incompletely closed, air passes through it, which vibrates the vocal cords.
The shorter the vocal cords, the higher the sound. The final formation of sound occurs in the cavities of the pharynx, nasopharynx, mouth and nose (remember the sinuses?) And depends on the position of the lips, lower jaw and tongue.
Appendix. Slide number 15.
Phonogram of the word MAMA, which clearly shows that consonants cause a stronger vibration of the vocal cords than vowels.
Appendix. Slide number 16. Hygiene of the vocal apparatus
Screaming damages the vocal cords, which can cause inflammation, hoarseness, or loss of voice. When whispering, the ligaments relax and do not close completely. Frequent inflammation of the respiratory tract, smoking and alcohol have a negative effect on the voice-forming apparatus.
Appendix. Slide number 17
Trachea and bronchi
The larynx, a 10–12 cm tube, passes directly into the trachea, which is in front of the esophagus. Its anterior wall is formed by cartilaginous half rings, so the lumen of the trachea is always open.
The back wall is soft and adjacent to the esophagus.
At the bottom, the trachea is divided into 2 bronchi. Both the trachea and the bronchi are lined by the mucous membrane, which contains ciliated epithelium with glandular cells. Here the air is saturated with water vapor and purified.
Appendix. Slide number 18. Breathing hygiene
- Swallowing large pieces of food can choke and block the trachea.
- In inflammatory conditions, a cough occurs, which helps to remove mucus from the airways.
Appendix. Slide number 19
Lungs
The lungs are a large paired cone-shaped organ. Outside covered with pulmonary pleura; the chest cavity is covered with parietal pleura, between them there is a pleural cavity that does not contain air. It is filled with liquid, which reduces breathing friction. 100 liters of air pass through the lungs in 1 minute. What is the structure of the lung?
Appendix. Slide number 20.
Internal structure of the lung
The bronchi, entering the lungs, continue to branch, forming bronchioles, at the ends of which there are clusters of thin-walled pulmonary vesicles - alveoli. The walls of the alveoli and capillaries are single-layered, which facilitates gas exchange. The cells of the epithelium of the alveoli secrete biologically active substances that form a surfactant, which prevents the adhesion of the alveoli and neutralizes microorganisms that have entered the lungs.
The spent surfactant is digested by phagocytes or excreted as sputum.
Appendix. Slide number 21.Breathing hygiene
With pulmonary diseases, surfactant may not be released, then the alveoli are closed and do not participate in gas exchange. Smoking interferes with the physiological properties of the surfactant.
Appendix. Slide number 22It is interesting
- 300-350 million alveoli with a total area of 100 square meters
- Pulmonary capillary length - 7-8 microns
- Blood passes through the capillaries of the alveoli in 0.8 s, but the hemoglobin has time to be saturated with oxygen
Appendix. Slide number 23
Observation
Find out how full breathing differs from shallow breathing.
Do you know how to breathe correctly? It turns out that this is very important, especially in winter and during the transitional winter-spring period, during a flu epidemic. According to experts, improper breathing significantly increases the likelihood of respiratory pathogens entering the body, which increases the risk of getting the flu or colds.
Many people breathe too often (and the norm is 16 breaths per minute in a calm state) and shallow, from time to time holding their breath in and out. This type of breathing is called shallow breathing. As a result, the lungs do not have time to properly ventilate - fresh air enters only the outer sections, while most of the lung volume remains, as it were, unclaimed, that is, the air in it is not renewed. And viruses and bacteria just need it.
Full breath is a combination of lower, middle and upper breathing. A person who practices full breathing all the time will have a wide chest - and any narrow-chested person can develop their chest to a normal size.
Let's check if you are breathing correctly. To do this, put a watch with a second hand in front of you, sit comfortably, relax, straighten your shoulders. Count how many breaths you take in a minute. Follow the rhythm of breathing: the ratio of inhalation and exhalation, the arrangement of pauses in this cycle. Determine exactly how you breathe: actively relaxing the abdomen - abdominal breathing, raising and lowering the chest - chest type, combining both - mixed breathing.
If you are taking less than 14 breaths per minute, great. Well trained and hardy people usually breathe this way. You can be rightfully proud of yourself. Taking in the air deeply, you allow your lungs to expand, ventilate them perfectly, that is, you make your respiratory system almost invulnerable to infectious agents.
A good result is considered to be from 14 to 18 breaths per minute. This is how most practically healthy people breathe, who can get flu or ARVI no more than 2 times a season.
More than 18 breaths per minute is already a serious cause for concern. With shallow and frequent breathing, only half of the inhaled air enters the lungs. This is clearly not enough for the constant renewal of the pulmonary atmosphere.
Appendix. Slide number 24 and 25. test yourself(material fixing)
It is necessary to connect the organ and its function with arrows. This table can be printed to check that each student has completed it correctly.
Appendix. Slide number 26. test yourself(material fixing)
- Let's return to the questions that were posed at the beginning of the lesson and try to answer them.
- What is breathing?
- Why do they say: breathing is life?
- Does the structure of the organ affect the function it performs? Etc.
(According to the proposed drawings, each teacher will be able to formulate their own questions depending on the preparation of the class and on the amount of time remaining, etc.)
Appendix. Slide number 27.Homework
Creative laboratory:
1. In what cases is nasal breathing difficult? What are the consequences of this violation? Offer a code of practice for breathing hygiene.
2. Develop recommendations and a set of exercises to correct breathing.
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