compact array of trees and shrubs. More than a third of the land surface is covered by forests or suitable for their development. However, the areas occupied by forests are unevenly distributed between continents and even within each of them. For example, forest cover covers almost half of South America, about a third of Europe and the USA and a significant part of Africa and Asia; in Australia, on the contrary, there are few of them, and some large countries, for example Egypt, are generally treeless. There are completely no forests in Antarctica and Greenland, but in the extreme south of the latter there are low trees.
Although most characteristic feature forests the presence of trees and shrubs; this is not just woody vegetation, but a complex community (or ecosystem) consisting of closely interconnected elements. Like all ecosystems, a forest is formed by a combination of living organisms (biota) and their inanimate (abiotic) habitat. Forest biota, in addition to trees and shrubs, includes other plants (grasses, mosses, fungi, algae and lichens), as well as vertebrate and invertebrate animals and bacteria. The abiotic component is represented by air, soil and water. All these components are alive and inanimate nature are closely interconnected due to the flow of energy through the ecosystem and the circulation of oxygen and other substances in it. For example, energy sunlight used by plants for photosynthesis the process of creating organic nutrients from water and carbon dioxide. Since this is characteristic only of green plants, all animals must eat either these plants or other animals, which in turn eat the plants. Thus, plants directly or indirectly provide food to all other organisms. As a by-product of photosynthesis, oxygen is released into the air, replenishing its reserves in the atmosphere. Bacteria and other organisms involved in the process of decomposition of organic matter play a vital role important role in forest ecosystems. They turn complex chemical compounds, from which metabolic waste and the remains of plants and animals consist, into simple ones that can be reused by organisms ( see also ECOLOGY).
Most forests have several layers formed by plant foliage. different heights. The topmost one, consisting of the crowns of the most tall trees, is called the first tier or forest canopy. In some areas, especially in the tropics, individual giant trees rise significantly above the canopy. If there are other relatively closed tree layers underneath it, they are called the second, third, etc. Shrubs, tall grasses (in some forest types) and low-growing trees form the understory. The herbaceous layer consists of subshrubs and grasses. Mosses, lichens and creeping plant species form the ground, or ground, layer.
Organic matter, consisting of fallen leaves, branches, flowers, fruits, bark and other plant remains, as well as feces and animal corpses, shells of pupae and larvae, etc., forms forest floor on the soil surface. In most forests, the forest floor is the most densely populated layer. Often in it alone square meter There are several million living organisms, from protozoa and bacteria to mice and other small mammals.
The edge of the forest is a transitional strip between it and the adjacent type of vegetation. It is characteristic that within the boundaries of the edge the trees are covered with foliage almost to the ground, and many of the usual shrubs and grasses here are rare or not found at all in the forest and in neighboring open areas. plant communities. Some species of birds, often considered forest birds, actually live mainly on the edges, which are also important type habitats for mammals.
Geography forest resources globe
. M., 1960
Forests of the USSR, vol. 15. M., 19661970
Walter G. Vegetation of the globe, vol. 13. M., 19691975
Bukshtynov A.D., Groshev B.I., Krylov G.V. Forests. M., 1981
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Forests temperate latitudes Northern Hemisphere.
Temperate forests of the Northern Hemisphere. Forests and meadows form a forest-meadow zone, which in the north, through the forest-tundra, merges with the tundra, and in the south, through the forest-steppe, with the steppe.
The northern zone is mostly occupied coniferous forests, A southern zone- deciduous forests. Forests consisting of plants of the same tree species can differ markedly in density, tree thickness, etc. This is determined geographical location and climate, terrain, water regime, soil Therefore, more often the formation of forests with a specific tree species consists of a number of plant groupings and different associations.
Summer green forests occupy large areas of Eurasia (Eastern and Northern Europe, the Far East) and are also characteristic of the south of South America. Their spread is facilitated by favorable climatic conditions: sufficient moisture with maximum precipitation during the active growing season in summer, with monthly precipitation from 60-70 to 100-130 mm. The heat regime can be defined as moderate: the period with air temperatures above +10 "C lasts for at least four months at average temperatures of the warm month+13...+23 °С. Most cold month per year is usually characterized in areas where such forests are located by temperatures from -6 to -12 °C. These are indicators of a weak continental climate, favorable for the growth of summer-green forests. There are territories with them in Western and Eastern Europe, Primorsky Krai of Russia, Japan, Northern China. They are common on the Norwegian coast of Scandinavia and in Kamchatka, which is explained by the mild climate caused by warm sea currents in these places.
Deciduous species are divided into broad-leaved and small-leaved. Let's consider them separately.
Broad-leaved forests grow in mild conditions maritime climate or a climate with continental features, but without its sharp expression: in coastal parts Europe and East Asia. These forests have more shade near the soil surface than small-leaved forests.
The main broad-leaved species of European forests: different kinds chestnut, beech and oak, as well as elm, or elm, maple, ash, linden. The genera chestnut and beech have a small number of species, and oak has about 600 species. The common chestnut grows in Europe, the crenate chestnut grows in Japan, and the softest chestnut grows in East Asia. IN European forests Forest beech and oriental beech are common. There are numerous types of oak in Eurasia: cutting oak, sessile oak, Mongolian oak, denticulate oak, cork oak, etc.
Forests formed by different types of trees with one or another environmental characteristics, occupy specific locations on continents. Thus, chestnut is adapted to the mild coastal climate, and therefore chestnut forests occupy the most southern territories zones adjacent even to subtropical formations, which is manifested, for example, in the Caucasus.
Beech does not tolerate too humid maritime climates, but also continental ones: beech forests are common in Western Europe, creating a belt in the mountains where trees find the conditions they require. There are such forests in Moldova, in Western Ukraine, in Crimea and the Caucasus. Look nice beech trees, growing alone in parks, with a spreading, wide and tall crown that turns crimson in autumn - beech leaves seem to be made of forged copper: I had the opportunity to admire them when visiting Germany.
In conditions less favorable for beech, forests with an admixture of dark coniferous species are formed: in Western Europe- white fir, mueca berry, and in the Caucasus - Caucasian fir, etc.
Small-leaved tree species: various types of birch, poplar, including trembling poplar, or aspen, etc. These trees occupy large areas forests in Russia, more about them is yet to come. In the Caucasus they grow in birch forests special types birch:, Radde birch, on Far East, in neighboring China and Mongolia - birch, etc.
Broadleaf forests North America located mainly in the southeastern part of the continent, near Atlantic coast, reaching in the south to the Florida peninsula. The forests of America are very different from those of Europe. great variety breeds, among which ancient species are often found. In the areas of the Appalachian Mountains there are various types of oak, beech, chestnut, maple, ash, linden, walnut, elm, etc. There are many familiar trees. But it is in North America tree species, characteristic only of this continent: liquidambar, magnolia, lyriodeidron, or tulip tree, etc.
Note that the composition is widely deciduous forests North America includes many species of oak, each with a different leaf shape and size: chestnut oak, northern oak, lyre oak, Maryland oak, black oak, and crescent oak.
Distributed in North American forests and different types nuts: black walnut, gray walnut, as well as types of hazel, or hickory, belonging to the same nut family: pecan hazel, heart-shaped hazel, white hazel, etc. All these species are valuable nut-bearing plants. They are also part of cultivated plantings.
Liquidambar resiniferous - large tree, up to 45 m high, sometimes up to 60 m, growing in areas annually flooded with water. Tulip tree up to a height of 50 m, the diameter of its trunk can reach 3-3.5 m. Distributed from Indiana to Arizona and Florida. These two trees are very decorative and are cultivated in parks in Europe and here in Crimea, the Caucasus, Belarus and even Lithuania.
There are many types of maple in American forests, sugar maple is especially widespread and well known - a lot of the sap of this tree is collected in the USA and Canada, used as a healthy soft drink (in Russia they use birch sap); Maple is also well known, in particular, in our country it is so widely used in landscaping city streets that some foresters and park professionals even consider the American maple to be a weed (but this plant is quite decorative, with a beautiful crown and a special shape of leaves).
The first tier of broad-leaved forests in America also includes species of plane tree, linden, red mulberry, black locust (often called white acacia), and common honey locust. These plants are also widely cultivated as ornamental plants in the southern regions of Russia.
Apple, pear and other species are often found in the second tier of forests. In the undergrowth there are many plants familiar to us, “old-world” nature lovers: various types of barberry, mock orange, alder, viburnum, spirea, currant, raspberry, bird cherry, rose hip, etc.
From a variety of herbaceous plants lower tier forests, we note the maia apple, which blooms in early summer, known in last years and to our gardeners with the name in the Latin version - podophyllum; Yes it interesting plant, producing beautiful red berries by the end of summer, - from American forests. Domestic botanists called this plant “nogoleaf”, but, probably due to its cacophony, it is rarely used. Nogoleaf rhizome is an effective laxative. In summer, numerous plants bloom from the families of legumes, labiatae, noricaceae, roseaceae, etc. Characteristic of summer, for example, is the American bellflower. At the end of summer, like ours, golden rod, asters, etc. bloom.
Lush crowns in summer deciduous trees create dense shadow. Therefore, light-loving forest plants bloom in the spring, when the leaves on the trees have not yet blossomed. Other forest plants have adapted to the lack of light. In clearings where there is a lot of sun, grass and flowers grow vigorously all summer. Large herbivores - deer - graze here. They eat young shoots of trees and shrubs, preventing clearings from becoming overgrown.
IN deciduous forests Eurasia is home to fallow deer, roe deer, sika deer and red deer, which are also called deer or red deer. Red deer live in small groups. Males most for years they stay separate from females. Only males have horns. In early spring they shed their old antlers and begin to grow new ones, which are finally formed by the beginning of autumn. Early autumn deer start mating season- rut, accompanied by roaring and fighting of males. Deer interlock with their branched antlers, trying to knock down their opponent. The winner gathers several females around himself, protecting them from other males. And females give birth to one calf each in the spring. The mother spends the whole year with the baby, protecting him from danger. The spotted skin of fawns camouflages them well among the light and shadow of the forest.
Temperate forests are the ecosystem most severely affected by human activity. These forests, which once occupied vast areas of Europe and Asia, were cut down for agricultural land, the construction of villages and cities, and as a result, many species of animals and plants disappeared. Nowadays, only small areas of untouched forests remain in Europe, most of which have become nature reserves. Reserves are protected areas of wild nature, but which are located rare species animals and plants. All economic activities are prohibited in the reserves.
Belovezhskaya Pushcha is a nature reserve; located on the border of Belarus and Poland, is one of the last untouched forests in Europe. Here and natural conditions rare wild bull- bison For a long time The bison was the object of hunting and at the beginning of our century completely disappeared in the wild, surviving only in zoos. In many countries, measures were taken to restore the number of bison - they were bred in nurseries and released into the wild. Now there are herds of wild bison in many reserves, and this animal is no longer in danger of extinction.
Wild boars, omnivorous wild pigs, live in the forests of Europe and Asia. They prefer damp, swampy places where they like to wallow in the mud. An adult male - a cleaver - has sharp long fangs that resemble daggers. Choppers dig up with their fangs
succulent roots from the ground, protect themselves from enemies and fight for the female. A female boar is sometimes called a pig. It is she who builds from twigs and spruce branches for her offspring big nest- shit. The bottom of the pig is covered with moss, grass and leaves to make the piglets warm and cozy
Beavers are skilled dam builders. These large rodents block forest rivers: sharp teeth They gnaw the trunks of young trees, cut them down and drag them to the river, where they lay them in heaps on the bottom, securing them with clay and stones. In the resulting dam is being built beaver lodge- a nest for a female with cubs. When the water level rises, beavers build new floors so that the top of the nest is above the water. And the entrance to the nest, for safety reasons, is located under water. In summer, beavers feed on tree bark, leaves and grass. For the winter they store wood, which is stored at the bottom of the river. As a result of beaver activity, water from blocked rivers sometimes floods large areas of forest.
Badgers, members of the mustelid family, are excellent underground builders. They live in families, digging complex burrows underground with a cozy nesting chamber, several entrances and many holes - dead ends and storage rooms. There are even special compartments in these burrows - toilets. Badgers are very clean, they constantly clean and expand their housing. Badger settlements gradually expand, turning into underground settlements that can last up to a hundred years.
Badger dens are often inhabited by other forest creatures, such as foxes. Foxes are slobs, and if they settle nearby, clean badgers sometimes leave their holes on their own.
The forest is full of life - damp lowlands and streams are inhabited by frogs and newts, many insects live under the tree bark and on the forest floor, butterflies fly over the flowers, and nimble lizards hide in the crevices of the stones
In spring and summer, songbirds such as tits, robins, warblers, song thrushes and nightingales fill the forest with their trills. Some of them feed on fruits and seeds, others catch insects.
Jay - large forest bird- in the summer it steals the eggs and chicks of other birds, and in the fall, like a squirrel, it stores up acorns for the winter, burying them in the ground. The sparrowhawk is the main gatekeeper of forest birds. This true wasp's rounded wings allow it to easily maneuver among trees in pursuit of prey.
NOU VPO "Tver Institute of Ecology, Ecology and Law"
Faculty of Ecology
Department of General Ecology and Environmental Management
Part-time form of study
Course work
In the discipline "General Ecology"
Flora and fauna of deciduous forests
Completed by: 1st year student
Faculty of Ecology
Simonenkova L.I.
Scientific adviser:
Ph.D., Medvedev A.G.
Introduction 3
1. Deciduous forest 3
1.1 General characteristics 4
1.2 Climatic characteristics 4
1.3 Flora 4
1.4 Fauna 14
List of used literature 29
Introduction
The deciduous forest ecosystem is represented by several thousand species of animals and more than a hundred species of plants. Where there is dependence of living organisms that make up the food chain and enjoy the right to survive in various ways that nature has endowed them with.
My task was to show this dependence, to describe the inhabitants of this type of biome and how they depend on each other.
General characteristics of deciduous forest
Deciduous forest is a summer-green forest with a predominance of broad-leaved (beech, oak, hornbeam, elm, maple), small-leaved (birch, aspen) or hard-leaved species. Deciduous forest is distributed mainly in the temperate climate zone, in the Nearctic and Palearctic regions.
In the Nearctic region, broad-leaved forests with a dense crown predominate: oak, beech, maple; many colors. Main animals: mole, gopher, black squirrel, raccoon, opossum, chipmunk, red fox, black bear, songbirds. And hard-leaved forests. Thickets of juniper and bushes with leathery leaves. Representatives of the fauna come from neighboring biomes. In the Palearctic - mainly beech, maple, oak, hornbeam, linden, but of different species than in the Nearctic. The fauna of deciduous forests is also very similar to that of the Nearctic.
The Mediterranean region is very similar to the corresponding non-Arctic biome, containing animals from various neighboring communities. Also in the neotropical region you can find deciduous forests, in arid zones, which shed their leaves during drought.
Mixed - broad-leaved, deciduous forests occupy almost the entire forested part of Western Europe, and in Eastern Europe their border with the taiga runs along the St. Petersburg - Nizhny Novgorod line, further to the east a narrow strip of deciduous forests between the taiga and the steppe stretches to the Urals. In North America, deciduous forests are located primarily around the Great Lakes. A characteristic feature of the vegetation is the presence of broad-leaved trees (oak, linden, maple, etc.), the number of which gradually increases to the south.
Climatic characteristics
The climate is temperate continental, moderate humidity. In the deciduous forest zone the climate is seasonal: warm winter, warm summer, winter t<0, хотя не ниже -16 С, летом средняя температура июля 16 С-24 С.
Precipitation - 750 -2000 mm/year. Such a large amount of precipitation, neither hot nor cold climate, and correspondingly moist soil affect the prosperity of deciduous plants, which shed their leaves depending on the time of year. But although at the moment deciduous forests account for about 18-20% of the total forest area, American scientists predict a climate change around the 2030s, as a result of which the area of deciduous forests will increase 3 times and cover all the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and coniferous forests will die out as mammoths.
Vegetable world
Daily temperature fluctuations in the forest are smoothed out by the presence of vegetation and high humidity. There is more precipitation over a forest than over a field, but a significant part of it during light rains does not reach the soil surface and evaporates from the leaves of trees and plants. The ecosystem of the deciduous forest is represented by several thousand species of animals and more than a hundred species of plants.
The roots of trees of the same species often grow together. As a result, nutrients are redistributed in complex ways. In dense spruce forests, up to 30% of trees grow together with roots, in oak forests - up to 100%. The fusion of roots of different species and genera is observed extremely rarely. Depending on the action of various environmental factors, trees of the same age may look like powerful fruit-bearing individuals or thin shoots, and may even grow old without reaching a mature state.
Forest vegetation intensively competes for light. Only a small part of the sun's rays reaches the soil, so plants in the forest live in several tiers. The lower the layer, the more shade-tolerant species occupy it. In the upper tier there are crowns of light-loving trees: oak, birch, ash, linden, aspen. Below are less light-loving forms: maple, apple, pear. Even lower, undergrowth shrubs grow: viburnum, lingonberry, hazel. Mosses and herbaceous plants form the lowest tier - the ground cover.
Upper tier:
ASH (Fraxinus excelsior). Some of its flowers are female (2 anthers fall off early), some are male, some are bisexual, and a very different combination of these flowers is observed on the same tree and even in the same inflorescence: male and bisexual, female and bisexual on the same plant; female on one, bisexual on the other; female, bisexual and male all on different trees and so on. In central Europe, up to 10 forms were counted in ash with respect to sex distribution, and it was noted that it can change in different years, apparently determined in part by external conditions. Ash trees with a developed corolla, such as manna ash (Fraxinus ornus), are purely entomophilous plants; they have sticky pollen with pronounced sculpture and are readily visited by beetles.
MANN ASH (Fraxinus ornus) Growing in Europe from the Mediterranean regions to the south of Czechoslovakia and the northeastern Carpathians, it is valuable as a source of manna, a sweetish, air-hardening juice that flows when branches are tapped. Manna is used as a mild laxative and for coughs.
WHITE POPLAR (Populus alba), distributed in the middle and southern zone of all of Europe, in the Caucasus and Asia Minor, in Southern Siberia (up to Altai and Tomsk region). In addition, it is very widely cultivated in parks and on streets almost all over the world. In particular, white poplar is very common in cultivation throughout Central Asia, where its wild groves and groves regenerating with root shoots are sometimes mistaken for native wild ones.
ASPEN (Populus tremula), or Euro-Siberian aspen, has the largest distribution area among all poplars (and one of the largest among all tree species in general). Aspen grows almost throughout Europe (except for the tundra and desert zones and a strip of Mediterranean vegetation), as well as in the Caucasus, Asia Minor, the Tien Shan, throughout non-Arctic Siberia, in our Far East, in Japan and in the mountains of China up to the southernmost province is Yunnan.
BIRCH (Betula), a genus of trees and shrubs in the birch family (Betulaceae), which also includes alder, hornbeam and hazel. About 40 species are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic to Texas, Southern Europe, the Himalayas and Japan. Birch trees are found on the northern border of the distribution of woody plants. Because of their beautiful light green foliage, colorful bark and graceful crown shape, they are often bred for ornamental purposes. Gardeners have developed many of their cut-leaved and weeping varieties, planted in parks and squares. The wood of some birches is a valuable material for the production of furniture, plywood veneer and other products.
Dwarf forms of birch trees are known, and a number of alpine and arctic species are not immediately distinguishable among the surrounding grass. However, in most cases, birches are slender trees up to 12–27 m high and even higher. The color of the bark, depending on the species, is white, yellow, orange, reddish brown or black. The bark often peels off in thin, papery layers. The branches are usually short, thin and drooping with simple alternate leaves. Male and female flowers are produced in different catkins on the same tree. Birch trees usually bloom in early spring before the leaves open. The fruit is a small conical nut with wings, easily spread by the wind.
In the Old World, common birch, or silver birch (B. pendula), grows from Europe to Japan. Its height is up to 18 m. In its homeland and in North America, this species is often used as a decorative one. The range of downy birch (B. pubescens) extends from Northern and Central Europe to Eastern Siberia. Usually it is a little smaller. The bark (birch bark) of both these species is white and peels off easily. Erman's birch (B.ermanii), growing in Eastern Siberia and the Far East, is also called stone because of its durable wood. It reaches a height of 25 m.
In North America approx. 15 native birch species, 10 of which are tall trees. Together with beeches, oaks and maples, these are the main species of deciduous forests in the northeastern United States and neighboring areas of Canada.
PAPER BIRCH (B. papyrifera) is very similar to downy birch. This is one of the most beautiful trees in North America and the most widespread representative of this genus here.
It grows from New Jersey to Iowa, in the north reaches almost the coast of Hudson Bay, in the east to Labrador and Newfoundland, and is found in places in South Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado and northern Nebraska. It reaches a height of 21 m with a diameter of 0.9 m, but usually the trees are smaller.
The bark of this species is snow-white to creamy white and peels off in papery layers. The Indians made canoes and household utensils from it, and covered wigwams with it. The wood, like that of other birches, is thin-layered, uniform in texture, but lighter and softer than that of yellow and cherry birches. White sapwood produces a very smooth surface when turned on a lathe. It is widely used in the production of bobbins, toys, clothespins, and jewelry.
OAK (Quercus), a genus of deciduous trees in the beech family (Fagaceae).
The genus includes about 600 species growing in the temperate and tropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere. There are about 20 species of oak in our country.
Large beautiful deciduous or evergreen trees with a powerful tent-shaped crown, leathery leaves, a deep root system with a powerful tap root, and less commonly shrubs. Most species are forest-forming species that provide valuable wood. Light-loving, demanding on soil richness, wind-resistant, drought-resistant, and distinguished by exceptional longevity.
LEAN OAK (common) - Quercus robur. It is found naturally in the European part of Russia, Central and Western Europe. A very powerful tree up to 50 m tall, in closed plantings with a slender trunk, highly cleared of branches, in single plantings in open areas - with a short trunk and a wide, spreading, low-set crown. Lives 500-900 years.
The bark on trunks up to 40 years is smooth, olive-brown, later grayish-brown, almost black. The leaves are alternate, close together in bunches at the top of the shoots, leathery, oblong, obovate, up to 15 cm long, with an elongated apex and 3-7 pairs of blunt, lateral lobes of unequal length. The blades are entire, or with 1-3 teeth, often with ears at the base of the leaf blade. The leaves are shiny, bare, dark green above, lighter below, sometimes with sparse hairs. In spring, the oak blooms late, one of the last among our trees. The oak tree blooms in April-May, when it still has very small leaves. The flowers are unisexual, monoecious, very small and inconspicuous. Male or staminate flowers are collected in peculiar inflorescences - long and thin yellowish-greenish hanging earrings, reminiscent of hazel earrings. Acorns up to 3.5 cm, 1/5 covered with plus, ripen in early autumn.
Grows slowly, maximum growth energy in 5-20 years. Moderately light-loving, thanks to its powerful root system it is wind-resistant. It does not tolerate excessive soil moisture, but can withstand temporary flooding for up to 20 days. It prefers deep, fertile, fresh soils, but is able to grow in any soil, including dry and saline soils, which makes it indispensable in green construction in many regions of Russia. It has high drought and heat resistance. One of the most durable breeds, lives up to 500-1500 years.
Has powerful energy. The oak in Rus' became a sacred tree. In springs located in oak forests, the water has an excellent taste and is particularly clean.
Propagated by sowing acorns, decorative forms by grafting and green cuttings. Renews well with growth from the stump. Acorns do not tolerate drying out; as soon as they lose even a small part of the water, they die. They rot easily in warm weather and are very sensitive to cold and frost. This circumstance presents a certain difficulty in preserving acorns for seeds. In nature, there is no such problem: acorns that fall in the forest in late autumn overwinter in a damp litter of leaves under a thick layer of snow, which protects them from both drying out and frost. The germination of an acorn resembles the germination of a pea: its cotyledons do not rise above the soil surface, like many plants, but remain in the ground. A thin green stalk rises up. At first it is leafless, and only after some time small leaves appear on its top.
RED OAK - Quercus rubra. In nature, it is found along the banks of rivers, where there is no stagnation of water in the soil, north of the 35th parallel of the North American continent, up to Canada. Tree up to 25 m in height. A slender tree with a dense tent-shaped crown.
The trunk is covered with thin, smooth, gray bark, cracking in old trees. Young shoots are reddish-felt, annual shoots are reddish-brown, smooth. The leaves are deeply notched, thin, shiny, up to 15-25 cm, with 4-5 pointed lobes on each side of the leaf, reddish when blooming, dark green in summer, lighter below, scarlet-red in autumn, before falling, in young trees, in older ones they are brownish-brown. It blooms simultaneously with the leaves blooming. Acorns are spherical in shape, up to 2 cm, red-brown, as if chopped off at the bottom, unlike pedunculate oak, they ripen in the fall of the second year. Fruits steadily and abundantly from 15-20 years. When young it grows faster than European oaks.
Frost-resistant. Moderately light-loving, easily tolerates lateral shading, but prefers full illumination of the crown top. Not drought resistant. Wind-resistant, not very demanding on soil fertility, even withstands acidic reactions, but does not tolerate calcareous and wet soils. Resistant to pests and diseases, including powdery mildew - the scourge of our oaks. Has high phytoncidal properties. Due to its high decorative value, resistance to adverse environmental factors, and magnificent autumn decoration, it deserves the widest use in green construction, for creating single and group plantings, alleys, arrays, lining roads and streets.
FLUFFY OAK - Quercus pubescens. In nature, it is found in the southern Crimea, the northern part of Transcaucasia, southern Europe and Asia Minor. Tree up to 10 m tall. Durable.
Significantly inferior in size to previous species, with a low, winding trunk and a wide crown, sometimes even a shrub. Young shoots are heavily pubescent. Leaves are 5-10 cm long, very variable in shape and size, with 4-8 pairs of blunt or pointed lobes, dark green above, glabrous, gray-green below, pubescent. The scales of the plush surrounding the acorn are also fluffy.
It grows slowly, is light- and heat-loving, lives on dry rocky slopes and soils containing lime. Tolerates haircuts well. A valuable species for green building in arid areas, it grows on rocky soils where other species do not develop. An excellent material for tall hedges and curly, trimmed forms.
Middle tier:
RED MAPLE (Acer rubrum), it turns out, lives up to its name not only in autumn, when it is decorated with red leaves (they can also be purple and yellow), but also in spring. At this time, dark red bunches - inflorescences - appear on the still leafless trees. In some specimens of red maple, many parts of the flowers are colored, and the scales of their flower buds are reddish. A particularly spectacular sight reveals itself under a magnifying glass: not only the long pedicels and perianth are red, but also the forked stigmas and anthers. And the filaments and connective tissue are bright green.
SUGAR MAPLE (Acer saccharum) can dominate the upper layer of the forest. Sugar maple, native to eastern North America, is one of the tallest maples (reaching a height of more than 40 m). The sugar maple leaf is the national symbol of Canadians. His stylized image appears on the jackets of Canadian hockey players and on the Canadian flag. The sugar maple owes its popularity, however, not to its decorative qualities. Once upon a time, before the expansion of sugar cane into America (shortly after the voyages of Columbus), sugar maple was the most important source of sugar for the aborigines, and then for the first white settlers. The production of maple sugar, syrup, molasses, and maple beer developed in the 19th century. into a specific industry, especially in Canada. Nowadays, the extraction of sugar from maple sap has become a typical tourist industry. Maple sap is released in the spring, before flowering and leaves bloom. This is the so-called crying of plants. It is quite similar to a similar phenomenon in birch and is also characteristic of other types of maples, for example, sycamore and Norway maple.
WHITE WILLOW (Salix alba) or willow, is a medium-sized or even large tree with whitish-silver leaves, usually along the river valleys of the central and southern zone of the European part of Russia, Central Asia, Kazakhstan and the south of Western Siberia; very often bred, especially in rural areas (and in Central Asia along irrigation ditches). There are also decorative weeping forms
ORDINARY CHERRY (in Nenets - pya) is a large shrub or tree up to 15 m high, with matte dark gray bark, on which there are large rusty-brown or whitish-yellow lenticels. The leaves are bare, dark green, sometimes wrinkled, lighter underneath. The leaf blades are thin, oblong-elliptical, narrowed at both ends, pointed at the apex, finely serrated at the edges. The flowers are white, with a strong scent. Collected in drooping multi-flowered racemes. The fruit is a black, shiny, round, juicy drupe with a diameter of 7-8 mm. It blooms in May - June, bears fruit in July - September.
Distributed throughout almost all of Europe and Western Siberia, it reaches the north to the south of Scandinavia, and the east to the Yenisei. It grows along river banks, in riverine forests, bush thickets, and forest edges.
Similar species: Asian bird cherry, Ainu bird cherry and others are found in the south of Siberia, the Far East, Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.
Bird cherry fruits contain tannins, malic and citric acids, and the glycoside amygdalin. The leaves contain up to 200 mg% ascorbic acid. Fruits, flowers and leaves contain benzoaldehyde and have phytoncidal properties.
Medicinal raw materials are fruits, leaves, bark and flowers. A decoction of the fruit is used as an astringent for diseases of the stomach and intestines, as well as for eye lotions. Bird cherry fruits for medicinal purposes can be stored for future use in dried form. Bird cherry is used to treat headaches, purulent infected wounds, gangrene of the extremities, and pulmonary tuberculosis. This plant is also used to treat sexually transmitted diseases, relieve toothache, joint and muscle rheumatism.
Jelly and compotes are prepared from dried and fresh fruits.
The filling for pies, cakes and cheesecakes is prepared from crushed dried berries. They are used to make jelly and soft drinks. Bird cherry is food for reindeer, moose, and muskrats. Dry bird cherry leaves have a detrimental effect on the Colorado potato beetle, its larva and eggs.
A genus of trees in the Rosaceae family. Distributed throughout almost the entire territory of Russia, both in cultivated and wild forms. Exceptionally polymorphic. Currently, over ten thousand varieties are known.
The wild (forest) apple tree is the ancestor of most cultivated varieties, a tree (large shrub) up to 10 m high with a spreading crown. Light-loving - grows on the edges and in well-lit undergrowth. Frost-resistant - used as a frost-resistant rootstock for cultivated varieties. Has a powerful root system.
In the Kursk and Voronezh regions there are monocultural forests that arose
presumably, partly artificially: woodcutters spared apple trees (perhaps due to an echo of pre-Christian beliefs) and, by harvesting surrounding trees for firewood, thus created favorable conditions for apple trees to develop.
The leaves are elliptical or round. The upper surface of the leaf is dark and shiny; the lower one is light, matte. The leaves are used in tea mixtures.
Blooms in May-June. The flowers are white, pale pink. Collected in small shields.
A good honey plant. It usually begins to bear fruit in the fifth year. Fruits (apples) ripening in August-September are small and sour; yellow-green, yellow-pink. The harvest is not annual, but every other year.
Lower tier:
JUNIPER STONE (Juniperus drupacea). This species was isolated back in 1857 by the Austrian botanist F. Antoine as a separate genus Arceuthos. There is still no consensus among botanists about whether this plant is an independent genus or not. This dioecious tree, up to 10-12, sometimes up to 18 m high, with an irregular pyramidal crown formed by outstretched branches, grows in southern Greece, in the mountains of Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine. Female specimens of stone fruit juniper with large dark blue cones developing on them against the background of thick green needles are especially beautiful. The juicy fleshy pulp of the cones is very sweet and suitable for making marmalade.
Class BASIDIAL LICHENS (Basidiolichenes). The group of basidial lichens is small, containing only about 20 species. The thallus in these lichens is formed from basidiomycetes belonging to two orders - Aphyllophorales and Agaricales - and from some green and blue-green algae. For a long time, basidial lichens were known only in the tropics, but more recently they have been found in the temperate zone and even in the Subarctic. Basidial lichens differ from marsupials in a number of features. Firstly, their fruiting bodies are short-lived, often one-year old, while in marsupials they exist for a long time - tens and hundreds of years. Secondly, symbiosis between basidiomycetes and algae did not lead to the formation of special life forms or morphogenetic isolation. Therefore, representatives of this class are
Animal world
Burrowing rodents (mice, voles), shrews and other small creatures live in the soil. The lower tier of the forest is also home to predatory animals - foxes, bears, badgers. Some mammals occupy the upper tier. Squirrels, chipmunks and lynxes spend most of their time in trees. Birds nest in different layers of the forest: on branches and in tree hollows, in bushes and grass.
RACCOON (Procyon lotor) is one of the typical representatives of the family. He is as tall as a medium-sized dog. The body of the striped raccoon is stocky, on short legs with long movable toes. The head is wide, with a short thin muzzle and large ears. The coat is thick, long, and its color is brownish-gray. The muzzle is characterized by a black mask with a white trim. The tail has 5-7 wide black or brown rings. In appearance, especially in the color of the head, the striper is similar to a raccoon dog. The striped raccoon is widespread in Central and North America, where it reaches the St. Lawrence River. Its acclimatization was carried out on the islands of the West Indies, Germany, and Russia. From release points, the raccoon enters France and the Netherlands and other European countries. The most favorable conditions for the raccoon are mixed forests with old hollow trees located near ponds and swamps. It is not hampered by the proximity of populated areas. It makes its homes in hollows, rock crevices, sometimes in its own or other people's burrows, and even in piles of brushwood. Within a radius of about 1.5 km from its shelter, a raccoon wanders at dusk and at night in search of food. It climbs trees well, but usually feeds on the ground, in swamps and shallow waters. Its food includes frogs, crayfish, fish, rodents (even young muskrats), as well as all kinds of berries, acorns, nuts, and fruits. Before eating prey, the raccoon rinses it in water, which gives rise to the name it is called a gargle. The striped raccoon is the only member of the family that goes into a long sleep during the winter. In Canada it lasts 4 months, but in more southern areas it is observed only while there is snow and frosty weather. Depending on the area where they live, mating in raccoons occurs in winter or early spring, and in some cases in summer. Pregnancy lasts 63 days. In Transcaucasia, young (from 3 to 8, usually 4) appear in April - early May. They receive their sight on the 20th day; at the age of 4-5 months they independently obtain food; They reach sexual maturity after a year. The striped raccoon belongs to valuable fur-bearing animals. In some countries it is even bred on farms.
Mixed forests are characteristic of natural zones with a temperate, more or less pronounced continental climate. Compared to broad-leaved forests, it is more adapted to cold arctic influences and withstands frosts and strong winds, withstanding low temperatures (from -16 to -30 degrees). Closer to the north, the number of coniferous species increases significantly.
The composition of a mixed forest includes coniferous trees - spruce, pine, fir and broad-leaved species such as birch, poplar, oak, maple and many other trees. In such forests, the soils are not fertile, but are quite suitable for cultivation as meadows and arable lands.
Mixed forests are inhabited by wolves, bears, moose, beavers, and small mammals - squirrels, ferrets, stoats, etc.
Even today, vast areas of such forests are not completely developed by humans.
Russian Plain
The zone of mixed (coniferous-deciduous) forests of the Russian Plain is characterized by a mild, humid temperate continental climate due to its close proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, the warm, humid air of which significantly influences the formation of the natural zone. To the north, the plain borders on taiga, where weather conditions are more severe, in the south with forest-steppe, and in the west, mixed forests smoothly turn into broad-leaved forests of Europe. In the southern and western parts of the plain there is a lot of precipitation - up to 800 mm per year. This balance of heat and humidity allows a wide variety of crops to be grown here: wheat, flax, sugar beets, potatoes, etc.
West Siberian Plain
The West Siberian Plain is a vast lowland up to 1900 km wide and an area of about 3 million km 2. The climate in different parts of the plain ranges from sharply continental to moderate continental. Unlike the Russian Plain, there are no broad-leaved forests here. And the zone of mixed forests in Western Siberia runs along the Yekaterinburg-Novosibirsk line and is characterized by the highest humidity in Russia. Basically, mixed forests are located in the watersheds of the Yenisei, Ob and Irtysh rivers. Due to the high humidity brought by warm air masses from the Atlantic Ocean, there are many areas of wetlands. In winter, average temperatures range from -15 to -30 degrees in the northeast. In July here from +5 to +20 in the south.
Amur region
The mixed forest of the Amur region and the Ussuri region covers the mountains of the region, smoothly turning into broad-leaved forests in the lowlands. The monsoon climate prevails here, and cedars, Japanese birches, maples, Manchurian ash trees, lindens, hornbeams and bird cherry trees grow here. The dense vegetation is very diverse, there are many creeping plants, such as lemongrass, Amur grape, and actinidia. In the shade of these thickets, mosses and ferns grow luxuriantly. The climate here is characterized by humid and hot summers and harsh winters with dry, cold northwest and north winds. Therefore, it is in summer that up to 95% of annual precipitation falls here.
Primorye Sikhote-Alin
Primorsky Krai occupies the southeastern part of the Far East and is washed by the Sea of Japan.
Mixed and broad-leaved forests occupy almost two-thirds of the entire area of Primorye. The Sikhote-Alin Mountains occupy most of the territory of the Primorsky Territory. The southern coast is located at the latitude of the Black Sea.
The mixed forest consists of Mongolian oak, birch, spruce, and Korean pine. In the Ussuri taiga, larch neighbors next to the liana. The climate here is temperate, monsoon. In winter, cold air masses predominate, there is very little snow, but the weather is usually sunny. Summer, on the contrary, although warm, is foggy and rainy due to large amounts of precipitation.
Bryansk region
The Bryansk region is located in the west of the Russian Plain and occupies the watershed between the Desna and Oka. The Bryansk region covers two natural zones and is distinguished by a wide variety of vegetation. Coniferous forests here alternate with mixed, broad-leaved and even forest-steppe.
The region's climate is influenced by moist air currents coming from the Atlantic coast. This region is characterized by cool summers and warm winters with thaws. Pine, spruce and birch trees grow in the region. Oak groves are often found in river floodplains. Aspen and alder grow in the eastern part of the region.
Nizhny Novgorod Region
The climate in the Nizhny Novgorod region is temperate continental, which explains the warm summers and snowy winters. Very beautiful oak groves and pine-birch undergrowth are often found here. The soil in the Nizhny Novgorod region is quite fertile, since this natural zone has an almost ideal ratio between humidity and heat, which is generally characteristic of the East European Plain.
In the Left Bank part of the region, taiga and mixed forests grow, in the Right Bank, mostly broad-leaved trees. The region contains such tree species as pine, fir, and spruce. Deciduous trees include oak, elm, ash, willow, rowan, and wild apple tree. Shrubs include buckthorn, hazel, etc. The southern zones of forest-steppes are subject to extreme heat and drought.
The exception is the Priokskaya part, located in the southwest. Here the climate is milder and humid due to the influence of Atlantic air.
Broadleaf forests
Broad-leaved forests are located in the temperate zone and feel familiar with fairly warm winters (-10 degrees) and cool summers (up to +24 degrees). Therefore, they grow in regions with a temperate maritime or temperate continental climate.
The soils of broadleaf forests are enriched with humus and, in some areas, chernozem, so the vegetation is highly diverse. Tree species are represented by oak, chestnut, beech; Bird cherry and hazel are typical for undergrowth. Herbaceous plants include lungwort, sedge, hoofweed, etc.
In broadleaf forests, in addition to predators and rodents, there are many birds and ungulates: deer, wild boar, roe deer, and moose.
Kursk region
The Kursk region is located on the Central Russian Upland and its slopes. The nature of the terrain is rugged with many ravines and gullies. The natural zone of the region is forest-steppe. Broad-leaved forests grow in the area between the valleys of the Tuskari and Seima rivers. Large forests are also found on the right bank of the Psel River. The forests mainly consist of oak, linden, pine and ash.
The climate here is temperate continental, there is often heavy rain in the summer, and a lot of snow in the winter. The largest amount of precipitation, which is approximately 600 mm per year, occurs in the southern and eastern regions of the region.
Moldavian forests
Moldova is located in the southwestern part of the East European Plain between the Dniester and Prut rivers, and also occupies the left bank of the Dniester. The nature of this region is characterized by alternation of forest, forest-steppe and plain areas. About a hundred species of shrubs grow on the territory, including dogwood, hawthorn, hazel, and barberry. Trees include oak, as well as oak forests interspersed with elm, maple, hornbeam, and poplar.
The climate of Moldova is temperate, continental, characterized by short mild winters and long hot summers.
Tula region
The region is located in the northeastern part of the Central Russian Upland and is a very rugged area with river valleys, many hills and ravines. The territory is characterized by forest and forest-steppe natural zones.
The region is dominated by a temperate, continental climate with high rainfall at the beginning of warm summers, winters are not too cold and dry. Broad-leaved forests are picturesquely located in the valleys of the rivers Oka, Zushi, Upa and in the upper reaches of the Don. The trees most common in this area are oak, linden, poplar, maple, and birch. In the northern and western parts there are coniferous forests. In the Tula region there are about 25 species of trees and 50 species of shrubs.
Kazansky district
The Kazan region occupies the Ishim Plain and the banks of the Ishim and Alabuga rivers, and belongs to the forest-steppe natural zone. There are many lakes on the territory, in the floodplains of which birch and aspen forests grow.
The climate in this area is continental with short summers and long, rather cold winters. The region is often subject to the invasion of cold arctic masses, which can bring significant cold snaps even in summer. But the main influence is still exerted by the Atlantic direction, which softens too severe frosts. As a rule, it becomes cold here at the end of September, and snowfall is possible in November.
The natural zone of broad-leaved forests has been significantly cultivated, but many human activities have disrupted the natural balance of the environment, causing great damage to the land and many species of plants and animals.
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