The task of explanatory dictionaries, first of all, is to reflect the active vocabulary of the language of a certain period. Explanatory dictionaries explain the meaning of words and their shades, give a grammatical description of words, give stylistic marks, give instructions on the pronunciation of words and spelling, and also illustrate the use of words both in free and in phraseological phrases.
The first explanatory dictionary of the Russian language was the "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" (1789-1794).
A significant event in the history of Russian lexicography was the creation of a four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" V.I.Dalya (1863-1866). V.I.Dal worked on the dictionary for 53 years, the dictionary was based on folk speech, and common and dialect vocabulary was also included. In total, the dictionary contains about 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs. Dahl explained many words related to folk rituals, customs, and beliefs:
look - "the first acquaintance of the groom with the bride";
autumns - "seeing off summer and meeting autumn";
handshaking - "the rite of the end of matchmaking."
In the Dictionary you can find the words of the secret language of wandering pedlars:
voksari - "firewood", molding - "shawl", nahirech - "mittens"
Dahl believed that the literary language of his day was too saturated with the West, so you need to turn to the living folk language and develop a literary one on its basis.
The words in the dictionary are located in alpha-nested okay. With such a distribution of material, finding some words is difficult, since individual articles contain more than 100 words. The use of words is illustrated by stable phrases, proverbs, sayings, riddles (only about 30 thousand proverbs and sayings).
There are very few grammatical marks in the Dictionary, stylistic marks are completely absent, since Dahl believed that one should speak and write in a folk language in which there are no “bad” words.
Among the explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language of the Soviet era, the first place on merit belongs to the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (1935-1940, vols. 1-4) under edited by Professor Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov. This dictionary is the normative dictionary of the modern literary language.
Its normativity is clearly reflected in the indications about the meaning of the word, its grammatical properties, expressive and stylistic qualities, spelling and literary pronunciation. There are 85289 words in the dictionary. At present, the dictionary edited by D.N. Ushakov is largely outdated.
Based on the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by D.N. Ushakov created by Sergey Ivanovich Ozhegov one-volume "Dictionary of the Russian language"(1st edition in 1949, 9th edition under the editorship of N.Yu. Shvedova - in 1972)
The dictionary includes about 57 thousand of the most common words of the modern Russian literary language.
Published between 1950 and 1965 17 volumes of the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences. This dictionary is normative and explanatory-historical at the same time. It contains "all the lexical richness of the Russian literary language with its grammatical characteristics, from the era of Pushkin to the present day."
The first proper explanatory dictionary was published in 1789-1794. the six-volume "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", containing 43257 words, taken by the compilers from contemporary secular and spiritual books, as well as from the monuments of ancient Russian literature. In 1806-1822. The Dictionary of the Russian Academy, arranged in alphabetical order, was published, which is the second edition of the previous dictionary, from which it differed in the location of the material and its significant enrichment (it already contains 51,338 words). The third edition of the dictionary was the four-volume Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language, published in 1847, which already contained 114,749 words (republished in 1867).
A significant event in the history of Russian lexicography was the creation in 1863-1866. the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl, periodically reprinted up to the present.
Having put folk speech as the basis of the dictionary, including in it the vocabulary of common, dialectal, bookish, Dahl sought to reflect in it all the lexical richness of the Russian language. His dictionary with 200,000 words and 30,000 proverbs and sayings is a treasure trove of well-aimed folk words. The weak side of Dahl's activity is the desire to prove the uselessness of most of the words that are foreign in origin, an attempt to introduce non-existent words that he himself composed as their equivalents, a tendentious explanation of the meanings of many words, especially socio-political terms, a mixture of linguistic and encyclopedic principles of interpretation of words. It should also be noted that there are no clear definitions of words in the dictionary (instead, synonyms are given, which are not always accurate), the absence of stylistic marks and examples-illustrations from fiction, the nested principle of presenting words, which makes it difficult to use the dictionary, and the excessive abundance of dialect vocabulary.
In 1895, the first volume of a new academic dictionary was published, edited by Ya.K. Grotto, containing 21648 words. This volume contains a rich illustrative material from the works of writers, a well-thought-out system of grammatical and stylistic marks is given. After the death of Grot (in 1893), A.A. Shakhmatov (until 1920), who abandoned the principle of dictionary normativity, stylistic marks and evaluative indications. Under his editorship, the second volume of the dictionary was published, and further editions (the dictionary was published until 1929) were carried out according to his plan.
In 1935-1940. a four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" was published, edited by D.N. Ushakov. In this dictionary, numbering 85289 words, many issues of language normalization, word usage ordering, shaping and pronunciation were correctly resolved. The dictionary is built on the vocabulary of works of art, journalism, scientific papers, and the words of the Soviet era are widely represented in it. The meanings of words are given with the possible completeness and accuracy, dialectisms and highly specialized terms are included in the dictionary in a limited number. Despite some shortcomings (in some cases, the definition of meaning is not entirely accurate, the vocabulary and phraseology are incomplete, the lack of motivation for individual stylistic marks, sometimes the fuzzy distinction between polysemy and homonymy, the inclusion of some obsolete words), D.N. Ushakov is a very useful reference book. In 1947-1949. the dictionary has been revised.
In 1949, the one-volume "Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S.I. Ozhegov, which later went through more than 20 editions. Since 1992, the dictionary, significantly expanded, has been published under two surnames - S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova; 4th edition 1998 contains 80,000 words and phrases. The dictionary is well represented socio-political vocabulary, the exact meanings of words and expressions are given, the principle of normativity is observed in the selection of vocabulary, in word usage, shaping, pronunciation, and the presentation of stylistic marks.
In 1957-1961. A four-volume academic Dictionary of the Russian Language was published, containing 82,159 words, covering the common vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian literary language from Pushkin to the present day. The dictionary is normative, contains a diverse system of stylistic marks, rich illustrative material (3rd ed. M., 1985).
Much richer in vocabulary (about 120,000 words), in terms of coverage of various layers of vocabulary, the academic Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes (1950-1965). The meanings of words and the features of their use are illustrated in it with examples from the artistic, scientific and socio-political literature of the 19th-20th centuries. The grammatical characteristics of words are given, the features of their word formation, pronunciation and spelling are noted, normative stylistic marks are given, etymological references are given, etc. The combination of the principles of explanatory and historical dictionaries makes it a very valuable reference tool. Re-edition in progress.
In 1981, the School Dictionary of the Russian Language was published by M.S. Lapatukhina, E.V. Skorlupovskaya, G.P. Snetova. The dictionary contains information about the meaning of words, their spelling, pronunciation, morphemic composition, morphological features.
The type of explanatory dictionaries includes dictionaries in which the interpretation of words that are not included in previously published dictionaries is given. Such a reference book "New Words and Meanings" was published in 1971 under the editorship of N.Z. Kotelova and Yu.S. Sorokin. The dictionary contains about 3,500 new words and expressions that appeared in active use in the periodical press and fiction, mainly in the period of the 50-60s of the XX century. A new edition of the dictionary, built on the materials of letters and literature of the 70s, was published in 1984.
In the 80s, the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences published a series of dictionaries - “New in Russian vocabulary. Dictionary Materials / Ed. N.Z. Kotelova. Dictionaries provided information about new words, meanings of words registered from press materials and periodicals.
Russian lexicography has accumulated significant experience in creating dictionaries and reference books of various types. Theoretically, the type of a dictionary is determined by the information about the word that is the main one for this dictionary. The practical classification of dictionaries is somewhat more complicated. There are two classes of reference books. These are philological dictionaries containing knowledge about the language, and encyclopedic reference books containing knowledge about the world.
The units of language serve as the central object of description of philological (linguistic) dictionaries. Dictionaries of the philological type store knowledge about the language tools used by people in their speech activity. Such dictionaries provide information that helps the reader to pronounce the word correctly, write his speech in writing and correctly understand the text written by someone. The use of language guides allows a person to perform unmistakable speech actions so that the meaning contained in his statement is understandable to other people.
The central object of the description of encyclopedic reference books are concepts associated with individual words, phrases, and knowledge about the world and people correlated with these concepts. Thus, non-linguistic realities are characterized in encyclopedias and reference books, that is, our knowledge of objects and things, concepts related to the phenomena of nature and society is stated, biographies of people are given, information is given about important events, historical dates are indicated. Dictionaries of this type are compendiums about the surrounding world.
Within each such class of publications, specific reference books can be characterized by additional properties that determine the type and quality of information contained in dictionary entries.
Handbooks are distinguished by several parameters. These parameters can be combined in one dictionary or be a differentiating feature for dictionaries. Dictionaries are characterized by the object of description, the volume of the dictionary, the principles of selection of the dictionary, the conceptual and thematic composition of the dictionary, the order in which the units of description are located, and the addressing of the dictionary.
The object of description for reference books of the encyclopedic class is knowledge about extralinguistic realities. For example, a linguistic encyclopedic dictionary contains knowledge about the languages of the world, fixed in special concepts and terms that reflect specific properties and phenomena characteristic of a particular language, a group of languages, or all languages.
Dictionaries of the Russian language are also divided into two subclasses according to the object of description: dictionaries that describe the formal (morphological, syntactic) features of the vocabulary, and dictionaries that describe the semantic features of the use of words in the text. In particular, dictionaries that describe the formal side of the use of Russian vocabulary include morpheme dictionaries, spelling, spelling dictionaries, dictionaries of difficulties (correctness), grammatical, syntactic dictionaries. Dictionaries describing the lexical semantics of the Russian language include explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, phraseological, paroemia dictionaries.
The parameter of the volume of the dictionary takes into account not so much the quantitative composition of the vocabulary as its qualitative composition. This means that small-volume dictionaries do not contain a small number of words, but only the most necessary, minimally sufficient vocabulary units that can be used to characterize the object of the dictionary description. Dictionaries of medium volume contain such a quantitative composition of the dictionary, with the help of which the bulk of speech cases that correspond to the object of the dictionary description are described. Large-volume dictionaries cover the largest possible composition of vocabulary units that make up the object of the dictionary description and describe it with academic completeness.
The principles of dictionary selection for Russian language dictionaries are an important differentiating parameter, which includes the selection of words on the basis of novelty, on the basis of synchrony and diachrony, on the basis of the regional existence of vocabulary, on the basis of the origin of words, on the basis of the fixation of words in the speech of a certain author or in a certain text. According to this parameter, there are dictionaries formed according to the unity of stylistic characteristics (colloquial vocabulary, swear words, everyday vocabulary), and dictionaries of a general type. A dictionary formed according to such predetermined principles, as an object of description, can have both grammatical and semantic features of the selected vocabulary.
According to the principles of vocabulary selection, reference books of the encyclopedic class are divided into encyclopedias containing a compendium of knowledge and industry reference books containing special information from a particular area.
For dictionaries that describe the lexical system of the Russian language, the conceptual and thematic composition of the dictionary is an important differentiating parameter. This parameter distinguishes between universal and aspect dictionaries. Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms, dictionaries on onomastics and toponymy stand out among aspect dictionaries.
The conceptual and thematic composition of the vocabulary of encyclopedic reference books corresponds to the principles of selection of the vocabulary and differs in terms of universal and specialized.
Alphabetical, reverse, ideographic, semantic, thematic dictionaries are distinguished by the order of the units of description.
Dictionary addressing is an important parameter of reference publications. This parameter must be specified in the annotation to any dictionary. Many other dictionary parameters depend on the categories of readers for which the dictionary is intended. Usually, reference books are aimed at those who use the dictionary for mastering or deeper study of their native language, and for those for whom this language is a foreign one.
The purpose of orthoepic dictionaries is to provide information about the pronunciation, stress and formation of grammatical forms of each word included in the dictionary. In dictionaries of this type, the pronunciation norms of the literary language are interpreted in relation to each unit of the dictionary. For this, a special system of regulatory guidelines is being developed, and prohibitive marks are being introduced. Depending on the volume of words included in it, such dictionaries can be intended for both specialists and the general reader. For example, the Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms (under the editorship of R. I. Avanesov) is the most famous dictionary of this type. It is designed for specialists - philologists, teachers of the Russian language, lecturers, radio and television announcers, etc. For all other readers, the dictionary can be a reliable standard reference tool.
Dictionaries of this type contain information about the origin of words, language sources of entry into our speech. Dictionaries that describe this aspect of the life of a word indicate the original language material, the original sound and meaning in the source language, and provide other additional information about the word that explains the conceptual content of the borrowed word. The direct object of the description of the etymological dictionary is borrowed vocabulary, which is accompanied by reference information about the language source, the original forms of the word and its sound are reconstructed. The completeness of the etymological information about the word varies depending on the intended readership. The reference edition, intended for specialists, is characterized by the maximum completeness of the vocabulary, a detailed presentation of the history of the life of the word, and a broad argumentation of the proposed etymological interpretations. Educational etymological dictionaries aimed at the general reader have a smaller vocabulary, consisting of the most frequent borrowed words of the literary language. Popular dictionaries give one version of the origin of the word and a brief, simplified argument for it. Popular etymological dictionaries of the Russian language are the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by G. P. Tsyganenko, the Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by V. V. Ivanov, T. V. Shanskaya and N. M. Shansky. The "Historical and Etymological Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language" by P. Ya. Chernykh is intended for the general reader. The most famous scientific publication, of course, is the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes by M. Fasmer.
As examples of dictionaries of a general type, one can point to ordinary explanatory and bilingual (translation) dictionaries, in which the vocabulary that exists in the general literary layer of the language is described with varying degrees of completeness. Speaking of dictionaries of a general type, specialists mean dictionaries of varying degrees of completeness, in which, in one way or another, the common folk, general literary vocabulary is interpreted. Dictionaries of this type, of course, include the Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes by D. N. Ushakov, the Dictionary of the Russian Language by S. I. Ozhegov, the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by S. I. Ozhegov, N. Yu. Shvedova, the Modern Explanatory Dictionary Russian language S. A. Kuznetsova, Brief explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, ed. V. V. Rozanova, Small Explanatory Dictionary of V. V. Lopatin, L. E. Lopatina, etc. Dictionaries of a general type can, without a doubt, include all explanatory dictionaries that develop a separate lexical class of a general literary language. These are dictionaries of foreign words, phraseological dictionaries, dictionaries of personal names, etc. General non-linguistic dictionaries include various encyclopedic reference books (for example, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, the Encyclopedic Dictionary).
In the practice of written and oral speech, many people face difficulties of a different nature. These include: writing individual words, pronunciation of a word or choosing the place of stress in some word form, word usage corresponding to the specific meaning of the word, grammatical attribution of the word, choosing the correct case form and number in a given speech situation, problems with the formation of short forms of adjectives, personal verb forms, syntactic and lexical compatibility of the word, etc. All these difficulties should be solved in dictionaries of difficulties. However, it is hardly possible to find an objective criterion for the selection of linguistic material in such a dictionary, especially when it comes to a dictionary intended for an indefinitely wide range of readers. When deciding on the composition of the vocabulary for such a publication, the compilers determine the circle of potential readers and those areas of word usage that are most relevant for the intended readers. Dictionaries of difficulties include such cases that are described in orthoepic, grammatical and general philological dictionaries. The compilers of such dictionaries, of course, rely on such sources, in which various spellings, pronunciations and word usages are registered, and recommendations of a normative nature are given. Not the last role in the preparation of such reference books is played by the authors' own research, supported by the experience of observing the speech of educated people, experimental verification of "difficult" cases. This allows you to include in the dictionary words that, as a result of historical changes, exist in our speech in two versions: in the old and new, as well as new words, the pronunciation of which has not yet been established. As examples here you can specify such reference publications as: Kalenchuk M. L., Kasatkina R. F. Dictionary of Russian pronunciation difficulties: Ok. 15000 words. M., 1997; Gorbachevich K.S. Dictionary of difficulties in pronunciation and stress in modern Russian: 1200 words. St. Petersburg, 2000; Verbitskaya L.A. and others. Let's speak correctly! Difficulties of Modern Russian Pronunciation and Stress: A Brief Reference Dictionary. M., 2003.
At the end of the 19th century, dictionaries were first published in Russia, which included the characteristic "complete" in their name. As an example, the following publications can be mentioned: Orlov A.I. A complete philological dictionary of the Russian language with a detailed explanation of all the differences between colloquial speech and its written image and indicating the meaning and replacement of all foreign words that are part of the Russian language with purely Russian words: 2 volumes. M., 1884-1885; The most complete explanatory dictionary, which contains 200,000 foreign words included in the Russian language of our Russian literature / Comp. Kartashev, Velsky / Ed. Luchinsky. Ed. 9. - M., 1896-1897. - 208 p. In such cases, the word "complete" denoted such a dictionary, which presumably contains all the words found in Russian texts. Asking the question what, in fact, it means: to compile a complete explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, Lev Uspensky wrote: “Try, comparing the old and newer lexicons of the common Russian language with each other, to find out where the countless new words and terms that have been added to it in recent years have come from. a hundred years. You will soon notice: the vast majority of them were not created at the desks of writers, not by the inspiration of poets or linguists. They were born in the tense atmosphere of inventive laboratories, in noisy factory workshops, in the fields where a person works, creating at once both new things and new words necessary for their name. (...) Who can say in advance which of the professional words - whether the word “booty”, which is different from the literary “booty” by the place of stress, or the expression “to the mountain”, used instead of the usual “on the mountain” or “up” - will firmly enter into it tomorrow? Obviously, we need a dictionary and professional, industrial, special words and expressions. In the scientific classifications of dictionaries, the term “complete” denotes the type of edition containing the exhaustive composition of those layers and categories of vocabulary that serve as the object of description of this reference book. In this sense, the Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. V. V. Lopatin, and the Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. S. A. Kuznetsova, and Pushkin's Dictionary of Language in 4 volumes, and Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes. According to the nature of the selection of vocabulary, full-type dictionaries are "Pskov Regional Dictionary", "Dictionary of Bryansk Dialects". They describe all the words (literary language and dialect) recorded in the speech of the indigenous inhabitants of this territory. According to this criterion, such reference publications as the “System Dictionary of Subject-Ordinary Vocabulary of Dialects of the Talitsky District of the Sverdlovsk Region”, as well as the “Complete Dictionary of the Siberian Dialect” or “Vershininsky Dictionary”, describing the vocabulary of one village, can be classified as full-type dictionaries. Dictionaries of full type are opposed to dictionaries of differential type. The dictionary of such dictionaries is selected according to some one differentiating parameter. This may be a sign of difficulty in the speech use of the word, the limited scope of the use of the word on a territorial, temporal, social, professional basis, etc.
Dictionaries of neologisms describe words, meanings of words and phrases that appeared in a certain (described) period. Developed languages are actively replenished with new words. Studies show that the number of neologisms that are used in speech practice is in the tens of thousands. With the advent of computer technologies that allow processing huge arrays of unstructured textual information, there is a need for automatic analysis of word forms, including newly formed ones. This made the collection and description of new words especially relevant, which, in turn, led to the emergence of a new lexicographic branch of knowledge - neography. In the USSR, the first dictionary of this type "New words and meanings: Dictionary reference book (based on the materials of the press and literature of the 60s)" ed. N. Z. Kotelova, Yu. S. Sorokin was released in Leningrad in 1971. Since then, work on the collection and analysis of new vocabulary has been carried out on an ongoing basis. As an example, one can point to the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language at the Beginning of the 21st Century: Actual Vocabulary”, ed. G. N. Sklyarevskaya.
Grammar dictionaries are dictionaries that contain information about the formal (inflectional and syntactic) properties of a word. The order of words in such dictionaries can be either direct, when the words are arranged in alphabetical order from the first letter that begins the word to the last letter of the word, or in reverse, when the words are arranged alphabetically, starting with the last letter of the word. The reverse order allows readers to present word-formation properties of the word. The principles of selection and the amount of information about a word are different depending on the purpose and addressee of each grammar dictionary. One of the best dictionaries of this type is the Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Inflection” by A. A. Zaliznyak. It contains about 100 thousand words arranged in reverse alphabetical order. For a detailed description of the complex system of inflection, shaping and stress, the dictionary uses a unique system of indices that refer a word to a certain category.
Phraseological dictionaries as headings of dictionary entries contain phrases that are reproduced in speech practice in their entirety, without rearrangements or changes in their parts. Phraseological units are one of the most conservative categories of vocabulary. The specific properties of these linguistic units are determined by a number of important distinguishing features: semantic integrity, stability, and transverbal reproducibility. There are many phraseological dictionaries. Among them is the "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" ed. A. I. Molotkova is by far the most complete dictionary. Educational dictionaries of a general type include the “School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by V.P. Zhukov and A.V. Zhukov, the Dictionary-Reference Dictionary of Russian Phraseology by R.I. Yarantsev. The most complete bilingual phraseological dictionary is the “French-Russian Phraseological Dictionary” by V. G. Gak and others.
Reference publications, distinguished by the sectoral (i.e. professional) sign of the limited scope of the use of the word, include dictionaries that interpret the meanings of words, and encyclopedic reference books that describe our knowledge of the world. As a dictionary of the first type, you can point to the "Explanatory Dictionary of Selected Medical Terms. Eponyms and figurative expressions” / Ed. L. P. Churilov, A. V. Kolobov, Yu. I. Stroev. There are many more examples of the second type, for example: "Naval Dictionary" / Ch. ed. V. N. Chernavin. - M.: Military Publishing, 1990; Encyclopedic edition “Political science. Lexicon / Editor A. I. Solovyov. M.: Russian political encyclopedia; Geography. Concepts and terms = Geography. Concepts and Terms: five-language academic dictionary: Russian, English, French, Spanish, German V. M. Kotlyakov, A. I. Komarova. M.: Nauka, 2007 and others.
The purpose of language guides of this type is to indicate the normative spelling of the word that corresponds to the rules of spelling. One of the first dictionaries of this type was published in 1813 under the title "Dictionary of Russian Spelling or Spelling". Since then, a wide variety of general, branch, school dictionaries of this type have been published. The most complete dictionary of a general type today is the Russian Spelling Dictionary: about 180 thousand words, resp. ed. V. V. Lopatin. This is an academic dictionary that reflects the Russian vocabulary in its current state by the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. Heading words are given in their normative spelling with indication of stresses and necessary grammatical information.
Dictionaries of this type contain information about the morphemic articulation of the word, its word-formation structure. Such directories provide information about the structure of the word and the elements of which this word consists. In word-building dictionaries, words are collected both by root nests and in alphabetical order. Some school dictionaries of this type provide a description of both the morphemic and word-formation structure of head words. This helps students to better understand the issues that are encountered in the state final exam in the Russian language.
The dictionary is the whole universe in alphabetical order!
When you think about it, a dictionary is a book of books.
It includes all other books. Need
just take them out of it.
INTRODUCTION
The work of collecting and systematizing words and phraseological phrases is called lexicography (from the Greek lexis-word and grapho-writing).
Lexicography is one of the applied (having practical purpose and application) sciences included in modern linguistics. Its main content is the compilation of various language dictionaries. This is the science of dictionaries, how to make them most intelligently, this is the very practice of compiling dictionaries.
It is clear that one cannot compile dictionaries without understanding what a word is, how it lives and how it “works” in our speech. This is the task of lexicology. At the same time, dictionary compilers, thinking about words, their meanings, their "behavior" in speech, enrich the science of the word with new observations and generalizations. Hence, lexicology and lexicography are closely related.
Thus, lexicography is a scientific technique and the art of compiling dictionaries, the practical application of lexicological science, which is extremely important both for the practice of reading foreign literature and learning a foreign language, and for understanding one's own language in its present and past.
In order to more fully and correctly understand what lexicographers (compilers of dictionaries) do, you need to get acquainted with the results of their work, that is, dictionaries. Let's consider different types of dictionaries used in the Russian language.
Types of dictionaries used in Russian
Linguistic dictionaries collect and describe the lexical units of the language (words and phraseological units). In non-linguistic dictionaries, lexical units (in particular, terms, single-word and compound, and proper names) serve only as a starting point for reporting certain information about objects and phenomena of extralinguistic reality. There are also intermediate varieties of dictionaries. In addition, any dictionary can be classified as either "general" or "special".
Common explanatory and translation dictionaries can serve as examples of general linguistic dictionaries, covering with varying degrees of completeness all the vocabulary that is in common use. A special linguistic dictionary develops one area of vocabulary, sometimes quite wide (for example, a phraseological dictionary, a dictionary of foreign words), sometimes quite narrow (for example, a dictionary of personal names given to newborns). A general non-linguistic dictionary is a general encyclopedia (for example, TSB - the Great Soviet Encyclopedia). A special non-linguistic dictionary is a special (industry) encyclopedia (medical, legal, etc.) or a brief dictionary of a particular (usually narrower) field of knowledge, or a biographical dictionary of figures in a particular industry (writers, artists, etc.) .), or a particular country (dictionary-reference type "Whoiswho").
An explanatory dictionary is one whose main task is to interpret the meanings of words (and phraseological units) of any language by means of this language itself. Interpretation is given using a logical definition of the conceptual meaning (for example, to heat up - to heat up to a very high temperature; a record holder is an athlete who has set a record), by selecting synonyms (annoying - annoying, obsessive) or in the form of indicating a grammatical relationship to another word (covering - action on the meaning of verbs cover and hide). In some explanatory dictionaries, the meanings of words are revealed, when necessary, with the help of drawings. ." etc.). Separate meanings, as necessary and possible, are illustrated with examples - typical combinations in which the given word is involved (for example, the iron is hot, the atmosphere is hot - where the verb already appears in a figurative sense: “it has become tense”), or (especially in larger dictionaries) quotes from established writers. As a rule, explanatory dictionaries also give a grammatical description of the word, indicating with the help of special marks the part of speech, the grammatical gender of the noun, the type of the verb, etc. The pronunciation of the word is also indicated to some extent (for example, in Russian explanatory dictionaries - stress).
Usually explanatory dictionaries are dictionaries of the modern literary language. Some of them are strictly normative in nature, that is, they select only facts that fully comply with the literary norm, recommend these facts as the only “correct” ones, and cut off everything that even slightly deviates towards common speech. Many other explanatory dictionaries are characterized by a broader understanding of the literary language and, accordingly, the inclusion of colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary in the dictionary (except for narrow regional, dialect, highly professional and purely slang elements). Both the latest academic dictionaries of the Russian language belong to this type - the 17-volume Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1950-1965) and the 4-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language (1957-1961), as well as the one-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language C I. Ozhegov (9th rev. and additional edition under the editorship of N. Yu. Shvedova, 1972), which is very useful for practical purposes, and the earlier “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by the team of authors, ed. D. N. Ushakova (4 volumes, 1935-1940). Of particular importance for Russian lexicography is, of course, the 17-volume academic "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language", containing more than 120 thousand words.
Of a different nature is the famous, repeatedly reprinted "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dal (4 volumes, first edition 1863-1866), which includes in abundance the regional and dialect vocabulary of the middle of the 19th century and in relation to the completeness of coverage of this vocabulary and the abundance of vernacular expressions is still unsurpassed. It includes about 200 thousand words of the literary language and dialects.
The main task of the explanatory dictionary is to interpret the meaning of words and their use in speech, to distinguish between right and wrong, to show the connection of words with language styles, to give the reader information about the features of case, generic, pledge, aspect and other grammatical forms of the word; along the way, it indicates how words are written and pronounced.
Explanatory dictionaries, as a rule, also turn out to be normative, that is, explaining words in accordance with the requirements of literary and linguistic norms (a norm in relation to a language is a rule developed with the participation of literature and accepted by society as a mandatory rule that regulates the use of a word in speech, its spelling, pronunciation and stress) . So, all the listed explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language are normative, with the exception of V.I. Dahl.
Explanatory dictionaries are opposed by translation dictionaries, most often bilingual (for example, Russian-English and English-Russian), and sometimes multilingual. In translation dictionaries, instead of interpreting the meanings in the same language, translations of these meanings into another language are given, for example, to heat up - becomeheated, importunate - importunate, troublesome. Depending on whether the dictionary is intended as a tool for reading (listening) to a text in a foreign language or as a tool for translating from one's native language into a foreign language, it is desirable to build it in different ways. Thus, a Russian-English dictionary for the English may give less information in the "right" (ie, English) part than a Russian-English dictionary intended for Russians gives them. For example, when translating a Russian appeal, an English dictionary can simply list all possible English equivalents (address, appeal; conversion; treatment, circulation, etc.), since the Englishman knows the semantic differences between these English words; in the dictionary for Russians, it will be necessary to indicate that address and appeal is ‘appeal to ...’, moreover, appeal is ‘appeal’ in the sense of ‘call’; that conversion is ‘conversion’, etc., that treatment is ‘treatment with ...’, ‘treatment with someone’, acirculation ‘circulation of goods, money, etc. P.'; in addition, you will have to indicate with what prepositions these English nouns are used, even indicate the place of stress (address, etc.), i.e., provide the English equivalents with many explanations that will help to use them correctly when translating the text with the word address from native Russian into foreign English . It is clear that in the English-Russian dictionary the picture will change accordingly. A good translation dictionary should also contain stylistic marks and highlight cases where the translation equivalent is stylistically inaccurate. The translation of words always presents a great difficulty, since the scope of the meaning of a word in different languages often does not coincide, figurative meanings in each language develop in their own way. corresponds to spanek, and to the second - sen, similarly in English they distinguish between sleep and dream, slumber; in German Schlaf and Traum. On the contrary, the difference between the verbs go and go, which is important for the Russian language, will not be reflected in the translation into Bulgarian, where there will be a common verb ida, idvam, and French, where arriver is both go and go, etc.
Translation dictionaries can be bilingual (Russian-French, English-Russian, etc.) and multilingual. The theoretical and practical significance of such dictionaries is very small. Much more important are multilingual special dictionaries that translate any industry terminology into a number of languages, for example, published in Russia in 1881 "Pocket Russian-English-French-Italian-Danish foreign-Latvian marine dictionary". Recently, brief multilingual dictionaries with a selection of the most common words and expressions have become quite widespread. An example is the “Slavic Phrasebook”, published in Sofia in 1961. It contains greetings (“Hello!”), Warnings (“Beware!”), Words for conversation on everyday topics at a party, in a store, at the post office, etc. d. in Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian, Polish and Czech. Multilingual dictionaries can have a different target setting. So, in the 18th and early 19th centuries, “language catalogs” were distributed, where all known translations into any languages were selected for a given condition; later this type became narrower and more practical, combining translations either into a group of related languages, or into a group of languages of the same geographical area in aid of tourism and travel.
To general dictionaries, we also include dictionaries that consider (in principle) the entire vocabulary, but from a specific point of view. Such, in particular, are word-building dictionaries that indicate the division of words into their constituent elements, that is, they provide information about the morphological composition of the word (for example, “School word-building dictionary” by Z.A. Potikha (1964). related languages), containing information about the origin and original motivation of words. Brief etymological dictionaries are usually limited to giving for each word one etymology, which seems to the author of the dictionary the most probable. Larger and more solid dictionaries, as a rule, give correspondences in related languages and set out "controversies", that is, disputes of scientists concerning the etymology of certain words, brief summaries of the proposed hypotheses and their critical assessment are given. It is customary to include in these tymological dictionaries words whose etymology remains unclear. An example of etymological dictionaries is A. Preobrazhensky's Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language, Russischesety mologisches Wörterbuch»M. Fasmer, which began to appear in Russian translation in 1966. For practical purposes, the “Concise Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanova and T.V. Shanskaya.
From etymological dictionaries, historical dictionaries should be distinguished, which, in turn, are represented by two varieties. In some of them, the goal is to trace the evolution of each word and its individual meanings over the written history of the corresponding language, usually up to the present (or some segment of this history). Examples of dictionaries of this type are the “big Oxford dictionary” of the English language, German dictionaries - started by the brothers Grimm, and G. Paul's dictionary; a large dictionary of the Swedish Academy and some others. The second variety of historical dictionaries should include dictionaries of ancient periods of the history of the corresponding language, for example, “Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language” (in three volumes) by the philologist and ethnographer I. I. Sreznevsky, published in 1893-1903, and additions to it in 1912, as well as dictionaries of individual writers of the past (including recent ones) or even individual monuments.
The forerunners of historical dictionaries were alphabet books, lexicons and the so-called near-text dictionaries: they were placed right next to the texts and they explained the words of only a particular given text. L. V. Shcherba once characterized the essence of the historical dictionary as follows: “A historical dictionary in the full sense of the term would be such a dictionary that would give the history of all words over a certain period of time, and not only the emergence of new words and new meanings would be indicated, but also their death , as well as their modification.
Acquaintance with historical (as well as with etymological) dictionaries allows you to find out the history of words and expressions of the modern language, to look into their "biography". So, for example, by opening the dictionary of I. I. Sreznevsky, you can find out that such single-rooted and close-meaning modern words as worker, worker, worker (about a person) go back to the word slave, having undergone a long evolution in their meanings. These and other words with the same root are provided with examples from ancient written monuments.
Another kind of historical dictionary is the writer's dictionary. The dictionary of a writer or a separate monument must be exhaustive, that is, it must: a) include absolutely all the words used in the writings (also in surviving letters, etc.) of this writer and b) indicate all the forms of these words encountered. Typically, such a dictionary not only illustrates with quotes from the text all the selected meanings and shades of meanings, but also gives the "addresses" of all uses of the word (for example, volume, page, line for each use case). If a dictionary is built in this way not by one writer, but by a whole period in the history of a language, such a dictionary turns out to be exhaustive for this period, or the so-called "thesaurus". A good example of a writer's dictionary is Pushkin's Dictionary of Language (vols. 1-4, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, M, 1956-1961), dictionaries of Shakespeare, Goethe and other great writers have been created abroad. Such dictionaries are very necessary for science in order to be able to more fully and correctly understand how the so-called language of fiction develops, that is, the style of the general literary language that serves artistic creativity, verbal art. First of all, dictionaries are compiled based on the works of the most prominent writers and poets of national importance in the development of culture.
A special place is occupied by dialectological or dialect dictionaries. A dialect dictionary can be differential, that is, containing only dialect vocabulary that differs from the common language, or complete, covering in principle the entire vocabulary that exists in dialect speech - both specific to a given dialect and coinciding with the vocabulary of a common language. In addition, it can be either a dictionary of one dialect (even the dialect of one village), or a dictionary of a whole group of related dialects, considered as one dialect, or, finally, a comparative dictionary of many or even all territorial dialects of a language. Dialectological (in the broadest sense) include slang and slang dictionaries. Some old dialect dictionaries, such as "Materials for an explanatory regional dictionary of the Vyatka dialect" by N. Vasnetsov (1908), "Smolensk regional dictionary" by V. Dobrovolsky (1914), and new : Dictionary of modern Russian folk dialect, ed. I.A. Osovetsky, which gives the lexical system of one of the dialects (village Deulino) of the Ryazan region, "Pskov regional dictionary with historical data", which began to appear in 1967; “Dictionary of Russian old-timer dialects of the middle part of the river basin. Ob" and the like. Dictionaries that include different dialects of the language are represented by the “Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” of the Academy of Sciences (1852), “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. Dahl, “Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects” and the like.
An interesting and relatively new type of dictionaries are frequency dictionaries. Their task is to show the comparative frequency of the use of the word-language in speech, which practically means in a certain array of texts. Examples of frequency dictionaries are "The RussianWordCount" (Detroit, 1953) by Yosselson, compiled on the basis of statistical analysis of the use of about one million words, and "The Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language", compiled by E. A. Steinfeldt and published in Tallinn in 1963. The dictionary contains 2500 the most common words selected from modern texts (fiction for children and adults, plays, radio programs, newspapers) with a total volume of 400 thousand word usages. The most important parts of the dictionary are: 1) a general list of words arranged in descending order of frequency, with an indication of the absolute number of occurrences of its use for each word; 2) a list by parts of speech indicating the frequency of individual grammatical forms (for example, the word year was encountered 810 times, including 684 times in units and 126 times in plural, 111 times in nominal, 244 times in give birth, etc. d.); 3) a general list of words in alphabetical order with an indication of frequency (for homonyms - separately by parts of speech; for example, the union a met 3442 times, the particle a - 578 times, the interjection a - 54 times). Frequency dictionaries make it possible to draw very interesting conclusions about the functioning of words and grammatical categories of a language in speech, since the words in them receive a numerical, statistical indicator, that is, digital information about how often this or that word is used in the language.
Spelling dictionaries provide information about the correct spelling of words, and orthoepic ones indicate the “correct” (that is, corresponding to the accepted norm) pronunciation of words and their forms. For example, the reference dictionary “Russian Literary Pronunciation and Stress” by R.I. Avanesov and S.I. Ozhegov.
Among special linguistic dictionaries, various phraseological dictionaries are of great interest. They are translated (for example, the English-Russian phraseological dictionary of A. V. Kunin) and monolingual, giving an interpretation of the meanings of phraseological units by means of the same language. To this last type belongs, in particular, the Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. A. I. Molotkov (M., 1967), which includes 4000 dictionary entries, as well as an older, but not lost its value, dictionary by M. I. Mikhelson, giving foreign language parallels to Russian phraseological units, as well as information about their origin. The material of phraseological dictionaries is not words, aphraseological phrases. Such dictionaries exist in all languages. In Russian, the most common are: “Winged words” by S.V. Maksimov (a number of publications) and N.S. and M.G. Ashukins (M., 1960) and the previously mentioned "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language".
A variety of phraseological dictionaries are dictionaries of "winged words", that is, running quotations from literary works, aphorisms of famous people and other phraseological units, mainly of book use, having a literary source. The most successful of the Russian dictionaries of this type can be considered a dictionary of N. S. and M. G. Ashukins. A special kind of phraseological dictionaries are dictionaries of folk proverbs and sayings, for example, “Proverbs of the Russian people”, collected by V. I. Dal (1st ed.: M., 1862; 4th ed.: M., 1957).
From other special linguistic dictionaries, we mention dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, foreign words, dictionaries of abbreviations, various dictionaries of proper names, dictionaries of rhymes. Among the bilingual special dictionaries, we note the dictionaries of the so-called "false friends of the translator", that is, words that are similar in sound and spelling in any bilingual languages, but differ in meaning (for example, in Bulgarian, mountain means 'forest', and not at all 'mountain', in English magazine- 'magazine', not 'shop', in Ukrainian ugly - 'beautiful', not 'ugly', or in German kalt- 'cold', and the similar Italian caldo means 'hot, warm').
Dictionaries of synonyms are of great practical importance in the study of both one's own and a foreign language. Along with large special synonymous dictionaries, brief, such as textbooks, synonymic dictionaries are very useful, similar to the "Concise Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language" by V.N. G.); "Concise Dictionary of Synonyms of the English Language" by I. A. Potapova (1957), "Concise Dictionary of Synonyms of the French Language" by L. S. Andreevskaya-Levenstern and O. M. Karlovich (1959) and others.
A special group is made up of linguistic reference dictionaries, which do not provide an explanation of the meaning of a word or the features of its use and origin, but provide various kinds of information about the word as a linguistic unit. Linguistic reference dictionaries can be of various types depending on the nature of the references.
They should be distinguished from non-linguistic special reference dictionaries such as the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, the Dictionary of Literary Terms, etc., in which non-words are explained, and the concepts, objects, phenomena called by these words, references are not given about words (origin, composition, etc.). .), but about the objects themselves, concepts, phenomena.
Interesting material on the morphological composition of the word is also provided by the so-called reverse dictionaries, where the words are arranged not in the order of the initial letters, but in the order of the final ones, for example, in the “Reverse Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language” (1958) X. X. Bielfeldta words are arranged as follows: a, ba , woman, toad, laba, etc. - in the "reverse alphabet", that is, counting from the end of the word, and not from its beginning.
The dictionary of foreign words gives a brief explanation of the meanings and origin of foreign words, indicates the source language (the latter circumstance brings dictionaries of foreign words closer to etymological ones).
The foundation for the creation of such dictionaries was laid under Peter I, at the direction of which a handwritten "Lexicon of new vocabularies in alphabetical order" was compiled. This dictionary contained 503 words. The dictionary contains words from the sphere of military art, navigation, diplomacy, administration. At the words with the letters A, B, C, D, Peter's own corrections were made (1725).
Of the modern dictionaries, the most famous is the "Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by I. V. Lekhin, S. M. Lokshin, F. N. Petrov (editor-in-chief) and L. S. Shaumyan (6th ed. M., 1964 ,. 23,000 words). Its publication began in 1939.
Dictionary L. P. Krysin (2nd ed., add. M., 2000) contains about 25,000 words and phrases that entered the Russian language mainly in the XVIII-XX centuries. (some - at an earlier time), as well as those formed in Russian from foreign language foundations. It is the first philological dictionary of foreign words, that is, one that describes the properties of a word, and not the thing it denotes: its origin, meaning in modern Russian, as well as pronunciation, stress, grammatical characteristics, semantic connections with other foreign words, stylistic features, typical examples of use in speech, the ability to form related words.
Lexical borrowing is a normal and necessary process in the development of any language, including Russian. But sometimes such borrowing is not necessary. On this occasion, disputes arise from time to time in the scientific literature and periodicals: how justified is the borrowing of certain foreign words, often leading to clogging the language.
A special type of dictionary is the so-called extensive (in two books) "Dictionary of foreign expressions and words used in Russian without translation" by A. M. Babkin, V. V. Shendetsov (M.-L.: 1966. 1344 words and expressions) . Dictionary entries give notes indicating the language - the source of borrowing, the terminological confinement of words or expressions, their stylistic and grammatical characteristics, examples of use (for example: nota bene, Latin - note well, Notre-Dame - French. 1. Mother of God, Mother of God. 2. Cathedral of Our Lady in Paris... 3. Liter Same as "Notre-Dame de Paris" - Hugo's novel... Post scriptum... Moratorium... and many, many other words and expressions).
Dictionaries of neologisms describe words, meanings of words or combinations of words that appeared in a certain period of time or were used only once (occasionalisms). In developed languages, the number of neologisms recorded in newspapers and magazines during one year is tens of thousands. Neologism (from Greek neos - new and logos - word) - literally "new word". Neologisms include single words, compound words (stargazer, launch vehicle); set phrases with signs of terminology (commercial network, household service, spaceship, put into orbit); speech turns (new thinking, human factor). Neologisms, perceived by the general literary language, directly and directly designate new objects, phenomena, concepts. The indispensable signs of neologisms are their freshness and novelty. However, these signs are temporary, since usually neologisms are quickly absorbed by the language, become familiar to its speakers and lose these initial signs (cf. , rotaprint, transistor).
Occasionalisms (from Latin occasio - case) are speech phenomena that arise under the influence of the context, to express the meaning necessary in this particular context, individual stylistic (their other name is copyright). For example, V. Mayakovsky loved to invent new words (hulk, copper-throated, endless hours, verse, piano, legend, grouse, broadway, etc.). The author's neologisms can be found in almost all classic Russian literature: wide-noisy oak trees (A. Pushkin), sonorous and measured steps (M. Lermontov), loudly boiling goblet (F. Tyutchev), udilozakusny (I. Turgenev), light snake (A. Blok), thief (M. Gorky), freshly cursed (L. Leonov), birch, blossom (S. Yesenin), ringing-hoofed (A. Fadeev), buddlyanin (V. Khlebnikov).
Another source of enrichment of the vocabulary of the language is the inclusion of dialect and vernacular words in it. Such, for example, have become familiar words partner, loaf, study, earflaps. This also includes the jargons included in the dictionary - social and professional.
Sometimes there are also normative and non-normative dictionaries. The majority of reference dictionaries (orthoepic, spelling), the bulk of explanatory dictionaries are normative. Non-normative ones include historical, etymological, etc. dictionaries. Recently, in connection with the intensification of the struggle for the culture of speech, special dictionaries began to be published, showing the norms of word usage in especially difficult cases. Such, for example, is the dictionary-reference book “Correctness of Russian speech” published under the editorship of S. I. Ozhegova (M., 1962).
Finally, there is a type of universal dictionaries, both explanatory and encyclopedic, also including etymological and historical references, sometimes the most important material of foreign-language quotations, and supplied with drawings when necessary. These are various "Larousse dictionaries" (named after the French publisher who organized the release of such dictionaries), in particular "Big Larousse", "Small Larousse", etc.; English "Webster Dictionaries" (named after the first compiler of these dictionaries), etc.
Compilation of dictionaries
An important issue in compiling a dictionary is the question of the order of the material.
Most often, the alphabetical order is used, sometimes in one combination or another with other principles of arrangement. For example, in many cases, nesting is used, i.e., combining into one “nest” (within one dictionary entry) words related by the common root, even if this violates the alphabetical sequence. In fact, in these cases, there is a deviation from the alphabetical order of words towards the alphabetical order roots. This turns out to be very convenient for some types of dictionaries, for example, for derivational and etymological ones. Of the Russian explanatory dictionaries, the nesting principle is most widely used in the first editions of Dahl's dictionary.
A special use of the alphabetical principle is in reverse dictionaries, where words are arranged alphabetically not by the initial, but by the final letters of the word: a, ba, woman, toad, ... amoeba, ... service, ... hut, ... washer, ... flask, ... dam, etc. to the last words ending in -ya: front, ... unmarried.
Among the non-alphabetic principles of material arrangement, the most important is the principle of systematics (logical classification) of concepts expressed by lexical units. It is on this principle that ideographic dictionaries (also called "ideological" or "thematic" dictionaries) are built. One or another logical classification of concepts is developed, and everything that is to be included in the dictionary is located under the headings of this classification. Ideographic dictionaries can also be bilingual and multilingual. The systematic principle of arrangement is applied in the dictionaries of proverbs by Dahl and Chelakovsky (cf. for example, Chelakovsky's headings: I. God. Religion. Damn. Sin ... II. Good - evil ... III. Truth - lies ... etc. .d.).
Compiling dictionaries is a very difficult job. In addition to general linguistic provisions about the word, its meanings and use, grammatical and phonetic characteristics, one must know the technique of compiling dictionaries and understand the composition of the dictionary, which contains: presentation of the meanings of a particular vocable, 3) stylistic, grammatical and phonetic remarks or marks to words and their meanings, 4) illustrative examples, 5) idiomatic and phraseological combinations for a given word, and 6) translation (in multilingual dictionaries) or interpretation (explanation - in monolingual dictionaries).
CONCLUSION
Dictionaries and reference books are constant companions of our life, serving us to expand our knowledge and improve our linguistic culture. They are deservedly called satellites of civilization. Dictionaries are a truly inexhaustible treasury of the national language.
List of used literature
Sergeev V.N. Dictionaries are our friends and helpers. – M.: Enlightenment, 1984.
Modern Russian: Textbook for Pedagogical Institutes / N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanov - 2nd ed., Spanish. and additional - M .: Education, 1987. - 192 p.
Krysin L.P. Life of the word. - M., 1980.
You rarely meet a person who has not looked into the dictionary at least once in his life. With their help, we not only learn the meaning of certain words, select synonyms or antonyms, but also learn a lot of new things.
Let's talk about what dictionaries are, what is their classification and remember the main "linguistic reference books" of the Russian language.
Dictionary Science
Lexicography is one of the branches of linguistics that deals with the problems of studying and compiling dictionaries. It is she who is engaged in the classification, puts forward requirements for the design of articles and their content.
Scholars who compile dictionaries call themselves lexicographers. It is important to note that dictionaries do not have authors, only compilers. This is due to the fact that they are compiled using special cards, on which the meanings of words and their forms are fixed. In this case, the compiler can use both cards collected by him personally, and cards collected by a whole staff of linguists.
Classification of modern dictionaries
All dictionaries are divided into encyclopedic and philological, or linguistic.
Encyclopedic dictionaries provide information about various events. A striking example of such a dictionary is BES - the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. The encyclopedia includes
What are linguistic dictionaries? This group of dictionaries deals directly with words and their interpretation. They are also divided into bilingual and monolingual.
Bilingual dictionaries contain the language and their foreign language equivalent.
Monolingual dictionaries are divided into groups depending on their purpose.
The most used types of dictionaries
What are the types of dictionaries? Among the monolingual dictionaries, the following should be distinguished:
Famous dictionaries of the Russian language
Let's now discuss what are the dictionaries of the Russian language.
- The most famous is the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, compiled by the famous scientist V. I. Dahl. This guide contains about 200 thousand words. Despite the fact that it is already more than a century old, it is read one of the most complete and used in our time.
- The second no less important "Explanatory Dictionary", compiled by another well-known linguist S.I. Ozhegov.
- The Orthoepic Dictionary was published by two different linguists - R. I. Avanesov and I. L. Reznichenko. Both dictionaries are impressive and will be useful not only for schoolchildren and students.
- We also note the "Dictionary of Synonyms" by Z. E. Aleksandrova and the "Dictionary of Antonyms" edited by L. A. Vvedenskaya.
What other dictionaries are there? You can find out the history of many words familiar to us by referring to the work of N. M. Shansky “A Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, and A. I. Molotkov’s “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” will help you get acquainted with phraseological units and their meaning.
It is also worth noting the "Dictionary of the difficulties of the Russian language" edited by the famous Russian philologist, author of many monographs and a collection of rules of the Russian language D. E. Rozental and M. A. Telenkova.
The structure of a dictionary entry
In conclusion, I would like to add a few words about the structure of the dictionary entry.
Any dictionary entry begins with a heading word, which is often written in capital letters and highlighted in bold.
We note right away that the words used in dictionaries are always spelled correctly, therefore, if you doubt the correct spelling of a word, it is not necessary to refer to a spelling dictionary. It is enough to open any available at your fingertips.
Most dictionaries also indicate the correct stress. Almost all Russian dictionaries will contain this information. What other notes are there?
After the headword comes information about what part of speech it belongs to. Then its meaning is described or there is a list of synonyms, antonyms - it all depends on the type of dictionary. The dictionary entry ends with examples of use - quotes from books, magazines. If this word has features in use, this information is also indicated at the end of the article.
findings
We have analyzed what lexicography is, what dictionaries are and their meaning, listed the main types, and also provided a list of the most useful for any educated person.
Remember, if you experience difficulties in writing or pronouncing a word, you cannot choose the most successful one, you just need to open one of the books we have listed.
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