The best armor. Truth and fiction: Knights, armor, weapons. Armor and weapons of medieval knights

In the Middle Ages, a helmet was an invariable and most important attribute of knightly armor. In addition to its main purpose - to protect the owner's head, it also served to intimidate opponents, and in individual cases was a distinction during tournaments and battles, where it was difficult to make out who was who in the general crowd. For this reason, gunsmiths tried to endow each of their products with features inherent only to it, and often real works of art appeared in their workshops.

Helmets of the inhabitants of the Ancient World

The oldest prototypes of future knightly helmets dating back to III millennium BC e., discovered during the excavations of Ur ─ the largest city of the Sumerian civilization. Their appearance in that era was made possible thanks to enough high level metal processing technologies.

However, helmets made of gold and copper were extremely expensive and out of reach for most warriors. Therefore, the bulk of the warriors used special headdresses made of leather and linen, reinforced with copper plates only in the most vulnerable places.

The birthplace of iron helmets, which appeared in the 8th-7th centuries BC, were two states of the Ancient World ─ Assyria and Urartu. There, for the first time, gunsmiths began to abandon bronze and preferred a cheaper and more durable material ─ iron. The workshops made steel helmets of a spherical shape, however, they were able to completely displace their bronze predecessors only in the 1st millennium BC. e.

Armor as a symbol of the era

Historians note a very paradoxical fact: the heyday of the production of knightly armor, and in particular helmets, falls on the period of the Late Middle Ages, that is, the XIV ─ XV century, when chivalry itself has already lost its importance as the main fighting force.

Thus, the numerous armors presented in various museums of the world and sometimes being true masterpieces of weapons art, for the most part, are only decorative attributes of the era and indicators of high social status their owners.

The advent of steel helmets in Europe

The beginning of the widespread use in Europe of protective equipment made of iron is considered to be the Early Middle Ages, which, as is commonly believed, came after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. Combat helmets, created in the early period of this era, were distinguished by a characteristic feature ─ they were based on a frame of thick steel strips, on top of which metal segments were attached. Such a design provided them with reliability and simplified the manufacturing process, but also significantly increased the weight of the product.

Only in the 6th century, European gunsmiths abandoned the frame structure and switched to the manufacture of a new type of helmet, riveted or soldered from several segments. Often, the craftsmen supplemented them with nose guards ─ narrow, vertically arranged metal strips that protected the face of a warrior. This novelty was first used by the Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons, and only over the next two centuries did it become widespread among other European peoples.

The emergence of new models of helmets

In the 12th century, knightly helmets with a cylindrical crown came into use, which soon transformed into a new independent type, which received the name “topfhelm” for its characteristic shape, which means “pot helmet” in German. They survived until the 14th century.

Approximately in the same period, another peculiar type of helmets appeared - hats, which were metal caps with fields, the shape of which often varied depending on the taste of the master and the desire of the customer.

Since the main advantage of the hats was their relative cheapness, they were used mainly by infantry and poor mounted knights. By the way, in the 15th-16th centuries, one of the varieties of this type of helmet was used by the conquistadors ─ the Spanish and Portuguese conquerors of the New World.

Further developments of gunsmiths

The most widespread were the so-called cerveliers ─ iron hemispherical helmets, tightly fitting the head and resembling a modern helmet. They were deprived of any external protective elements, with the exception of the nasals, but at the same time they had an important advantage: pads made of thick shock-absorbing material and covered with fabric were attached to their inner side. They softened the blows received by the warrior in the head.

The cerveliers remained in service with the largest European armies until the beginning of the 14th century, after which they were supplanted by domed or hemispherical helmets, bascinets, equipped with chain mail, and having many varieties. It is known that initially they, like cerveliers, were intended to be worn under the larger topfhelm helmets, which were discussed above, but over time they received independent use.

Many original helmets of this type, equipped with visors, have survived to this day. various designs. Some of their samples are equipped only with nose pads or generally have a design that did not provide for face protection. A common element has always been a chain mail frame that protected the neck and shoulders of a warrior.

Knights sung by poets

About knightly armor and its transformation over the centuries, modern researchers receive information not only on the basis of those specimens that make up the collections of the largest museums in the world, but also from the literary monuments of the Middle Ages, among which French poems occupy a special place.

Their authors paid great attention to describing not only the exploits of the heroes, but also their armor, the decoration of which sometimes had both a decorative and heraldic character. For example, knightly helmets often featured not only plumes of feathers, but also rather complex designs in the form of horns and crests of fantastic animals, as well as elements of the family coats of arms of their owners.

The appearance of helmets equipped with a visor

An important stage in the history of protective weapons was the appearance in the first quarter of the 13th century of helmets that completely protected the head and were equipped with only narrow slits for the eyes. The effectiveness of this design prompted gunsmiths to further develop it, and about a century later, knightly helmets equipped with a visor, a movable part designed to protect the face of a warrior, came into use. In the middle of the XIV century, they became an integral part of any combat armor.

When studying helmets different eras catches the eye characteristic difference inherent in Western European samples. It is noted that Asia in all ages was characterized by open structures that provide soldiers with wide visibility, the same can be said about the helmets of Ancient Rome. In Europe, on the contrary, the knights preferred reliable deaf protection of the head and face, even in cases where it created certain inconveniences.

"Dog Hood"

Gunsmiths sought to combine reliability with comfort in their products. An example of this is the type of helmets that appeared in the 14th century and was firmly established, bearing the characteristic name "hundsgugel", which in German means "dog's hood".

Its peculiarity was the presence of a cone-shaped visor extended forward, in shape it really resembled the muzzle of a dog. This design served two purposes. Firstly, it made the warrior's head more protected from the arrows and spears of the enemy, which ricocheted down an inclined surface, and secondly, it made it possible to make more ventilation holes on the enlarged surface of the visor, and thereby facilitate breathing.

Models of helmets of the Late Middle Ages

In the 15th century, despite the fact that the importance of heavy cavalry in battles decreased significantly, the design of armor continued to improve, as the custom of jousting was preserved throughout Europe. At this time, the most interesting novelty was a helmet with a visor, called "armet".

Unlike the cone-shaped structures that existed at that time, this helmet had a spherical shape and a chin rest that opened into two halves, fastened during the battle with a pin. In addition, he was equipped with a second visor that moved to the back of the head and special devices that reliably protected the throat and collarbones.

Another knightly helmet, which became widespread in the era of the Late Middle Ages, is also very interesting. It is called "salad" and is a distant relative of the bascinets described above. A characteristic feature of these designs was the backplate ─ the part of the helmet extended back, which not only protected the warrior from blows from the rear, but also did not allow him to be pulled off the horse with special hooks designed for this purpose. Salads were made both with and without visors. In the first case, they were intended for mounted warriors, in the second, for infantry.

Combat and tournament helmets

The helmets of the Middle Ages, like all protective weapons, developed in two different ways depending on their purpose. For tournaments, heavier and more durable samples were forged, providing greater security, but not allowing them to stay in them for a long time. In particular, the widely used “toad head” tournament model, which was one of the most reliable in the history of chivalry, but lacked proper ventilation, was designed only for short-term use, not exceeding 5 minutes. After this period, the supply of air in it dried up, and the warrior began to suffocate.

Combat weapons, which included the entire set of armor, were made in such a way as to allow the owner to stay in it for a long time. Based on this, in its manufacture, gunsmiths tried to give all the details smallest weight. This requirement fully applied to helmets. Without sacrificing reliability, they had to be extremely light, well ventilated and provide good visibility.

Judging by historical sources, the most common type of armor in the 13th century was chain mail, consisting of iron rings connected to each other.
However, despite its wide distribution, only a few chain mails dating back to the period before the 14th century have survived to this day. None of them are made in England.
Therefore, researchers rely mainly on images in manuscripts and sculptures.
To date, the secret of making chain mail has been largely lost, although descriptions of some procedures are known.

First, an iron wire was pulled through a board with holes of different diameters. The wire was then wound around steel rod and cut the resulting spiral along, forming separate rings.
The ends of the ring were flattened and a small hole was made in them. Then the rings were woven so that each of them covered four others. The ends of the ring were connected and secured with a small rivet.
To make one chain mail, several thousand rings were required.
The finished chain mail was sometimes cemented by heating in the thickness of burning coals.
In most cases, all chain mail rings were
riveted, sometimes alternating rows
riveted and welded rings.

There were also large chain mail, which reached the knees in length, had long sleeves ending in mittens.
The collar of a large chain mail turned into a chain mail hood or balaclava.
To protect the throat and chin, there was a valve, which before the battle went up and was fixed with a ribbon.
Sometimes such a valve was absent, and the sides of the hood could overlap each other. Usually the inner surface of the chain mail, in contact with the skin of a warrior, had a fabric lining.
In the lower part, the large chain mail had cuts that made it easier for the warrior to walk and get on the horse.
A quilted hat was worn under the chain mail balaclava, which was held with strings under the chin.

Around 1275, the knights began to wear a mail balaclava separated from chain mail, but the old chain mail, combined with a balaclava, continued to be widely used until the end of the 13th century.
Chain mail weighed about 30 pounds (14 kg) depending on its length and the thickness of the rings. There were chain mail with short and short sleeves.
Around the middle of the 13th century, Matthew of Paris depicted combat gloves separated from the sleeves of chain mail. However, such gloves met
infrequently until the end of the century.
By that time, leather gloves with reinforcing overlays made of iron or whalebone appeared.
The lining could be located outside or inside the mitten.
Leg protection was provided by chausses - chain mail stockings. Chausses had leather soles and were tied at the waist like traditional stockings.
Linen underpants were worn under the choise.

Sometimes, instead of chausses, the legs were protected by chain mail strips that covered only the front side of the leg, and were held on by ribbons at the back.
Around 1225, quilted cuisses appeared, which were worn on the hips. Cuisses were also hung from the belt, like chausses.
In the middle of the century, for the first time, the use of knee pads was noted, which were attached directly to chain mail or to quilted cuisses.
Initially, the knee pads were small, but then they increased dramatically, covering the knees not only in front, but also on the sides.
Sometimes knee pads were made of hard leather. The knee pads were held in place with lacing or rivets.
Elbow pads were very rare.
The shins were covered with metal leggings worn over the shosses.

Quilted aketon or gambeson were usually worn under chain mail.
Aketon itself consisted of two layers of paper fabric, between which was placed a layer of wool, wadding and other similar materials.
Both layers, together with the lining, were sewn with longitudinal or sometimes diagonal stitches. Later, aketones made of several layers of linen fabric appeared.
According to some descriptions, it is known that gambesons were worn over aketones. Gambesons could be made of silk and other expensive fabrics.
Sometimes they were worn on chain mail or plate armor.
Sometimes a long, loose shirt was worn over chain mail. Shirt
was too mobile to be quilted.
Although chain mail, due to its flexibility, did not hinder the movements of a warrior, for the same reason a missed blow could cause serious damage from bruising and concussion to breaking a bone.
If the chain mail could be pierced, the fragments of the links could get into the wound, which caused additional pain and threatened infection.
In some manuscripts of the XIII century, you can find images of foot soldiers in leather armor, reinforced with metal plates.

In some illustrations in the "Matsejovskaya Bible" you can see warriors with a surcoat on their shoulders that has a characteristic bend. It can be assumed that under the surcoat in this case they wore a shell.
There is another explanation.
Fawkes de Breotet's list (1224) mentions an epauliere made of black silk. Perhaps here they meant a shoulder-shock absorber or a collar that goes over the shoulders.
Indeed, there were special collars, they can be seen in several drawings depicting warriors with open aventails or removed balaclavas. Outside, such a collar was sheathed with fabric, and inside it could be iron or whalebone. Separate collars were quilted.
It is not known whether the collars were a separate item or were part of the aketon. It is also unknown how the collar was put on.
With equal probability, it could consist of two parts connected on the sides, or have an articulation on one side and a fastener on the other.

At the end of the century, gorgets began to be used to protect the neck, which came to England from France.
A surcoat was a cape worn over armor.
The first surcoats appeared in the second quarter of the 12th century and spread everywhere by the beginning of the 13th century, although until the middle of the 13th century there were knights who did not have a surcoat. The main purpose of the surcoat is unknown.
Perhaps it protected the armor from water and prevented them from heating up in the sun.
It was possible to wear your own coat of arms on a surcoat, although most often surcoats were of the same color.
Surcoat lining usually contrasted with the color of the outer layer.
On the belt, the surcoat was usually intercepted with a cord or belt, which simultaneously intercepted the chain mail, shifting part of its mass from the shoulders to the hips.
There were surcoats reinforced with metal plates.
In the middle of the XIII century, a new kind of armor appeared - a plate shell, which was worn over the head like a poncho, and then wrapped around the sides and fastened with ties or straps.
In front and on the sides, the shell was reinforced by a plate of iron or whalebone.

The scaly shell was rare. Scaled shells are sometimes found on book miniatures, but they are almost always worn by Saracens or
any other opponents of Christian knights.
Scales were made from iron, copper alloy, whalebone or leather.
Each scale was attached to a cloth or leather shirt in such a way that the top row of scales overlapped the bottom row.
There were several main varieties of the helmet.
A conical helmet could be forged from a single piece of iron with or without reinforcing pads, or it could consist of four segments connected by rivets, like the old German Spangen helmet.
Such segmental helmets were used in the middle of the XIII century, but even then they were considered obsolete.
By 1200 there were hemispherical and cylindrical helmets. All helmets had a nose plate and sometimes a visor.
At the end of the 12th century, the first primitive great helmets appeared. Initially, great helmets were shorter at the back than at the front, but already on the seal of Richard I there is an image of a great helmet that is equally deep both in front and behind.
Closed great helmets became more and more popular throughout the 13th century. In front there was a narrow horizontal slit for the eyes, reinforced with metal plates.
The flat bottom of the helmet was attached to it with rivets. Although the bottom of the helmet, for reasons of strength, should have been made conical or hemispherical, this shape of the helmet took root and became widespread rather late.

In the second half of the 13th century, the upper part of the helmet walls began to be slightly conical, but the bottom remained flat. Only in 1275 did large helmets appear, in which the upper part is a full, rather than a truncated cone.
By the end of the century, helmets with a hemispherical bottom also appeared.
By 1300 helmets with a visor appear.
In the middle of the 13th century, a bascinet helmet or cervelier appeared, having a spherical shape. The bascinet could be worn both over and under the mail balaclava.
In the latter case, a shock absorber was put on the head.
From the inside, all helmets had shock absorbers, although not a single sample has survived to this day. The earliest extant - shock absorbers
XIV century - represent two layers of canvas, between which horsehair, wool, hay or other similar substances are laid.
shock absorber or glued to inside helmet, or laced through a series of holes, or secured with rivets.
The upper part of the shock absorber was adjustable in depth, allowing the helmet to be adjusted to the wearer's head so that the slots were at eye level.
At the big helmet, the lining did not fall to the level of the face, as there were ventilation holes.
On the head, the helmet was held by a chin strap.
At the end of the 12th century, a crest appeared on helmets. For example, such a helmet can be seen on the second seal of Richard I.
The crest was sometimes made from a thin sheet of iron, although wood and cloth were also used, especially on tournament helmets.
Sometimes there were voluminous combs made of whalebone, wood, fabric and leather.

A protective covering used to protect a person from various types of weapons, both melee and ranged (for example, bows). Armor was used both to protect soldiers and fighting animals such as war horses (armor for horses was called barding).

Armor has been used throughout history, and made from a variety of materials; starting with the simplest leather armor, personal armor evolved to armor. For most of military history, the production of metal armor in Europe was the most technologically advanced process. The production of armor was the reason for the development of many technologies ancient world such as woodworking, mining, metal refining, vehicle manufacturing (such as chariots), leatherworking, and further decorative metalworking. This production influenced the development of the industrial revolution, and influenced the commercial development of metallurgy and engineering.

Technologies armor were the single most influential factor in the development of firearms, which revolutionized the battlefield.

materials

Used for centuries big variety materials for the production of armor: skins, leather, bones, linen, wood, bronze, iron plates. The armor's resistance to penetrating impact depends on the thickness of the steel - 2mm thick steel withstands 3 times more impact energy than 1mm thick steel.

Armor characteristics

Since the 15th century most human body was protected by specialized steel elements, usually worn over linen or woolen underwear, which were fastened to the body with leather straps, clasps and drawstrings. Mail protected those areas that could not be protected by plate armor; such as back and knees. Notable components of plate armor include the helmet, gauntlets, breastplate, and .

For the elite full armor made individually. Most of armor was bought "as is", but some armor was customized for the individual owner. The cost of armor varied greatly depending on the era and place, and included both the cost of manufacturing and the cost of the decoration of the armor. In the 8th century mail was worth 12 oxen; by 1600 a rider's armor was worth 2 oxen. Typical full plate armor cost approximately £1 in 14th century England, with a warrior earning around 1 shilling a day during the same period. Thus, the armor was worth approximately 20 days of service. But plate armor was only available to those who could buy it: the nobility, the landowners and the mercenary professional warriors who were the main part of the armies in the Medieval period. Soldiers of lower standing wore significantly less armor. Full plate armor made the wearer virtually invulnerable to sword blows, and also provided substantial protection from arrows, clubs, and even early firearms. The edge of the sword could not penetrate the relatively thin plate (only 1 mm). Also, even though arrows from bows and crossbows, as well as early firearms, could penetrate plates, especially with close range, later improvements in steel processing and armor design made this method of attack much more difficult. As the pinnacle of development, hardened steel armor was nearly impregnable on the battlefield. Knights were more vulnerable to polearms such as halberds and blunt weapons such as maces or warhammers, which dealt damage without penetrating armor and resulted in injuries such as fractures, internal bleeding, and/or head injuries. Another tactic was to strike in the gaps between the pieces of armor, using daggers, spears, and the points of other weapons, hitting the eyes or joints.
Contrary to popular misconceptions, well-made medieval "combat" armor (as opposed primarily to the ceremonial "ceremonial" or "tournament" armor favored by kings and nobility of later years) hindered its owner no more than modern military equipment. It must be remembered that the knight was trained to wear armor with adolescence, and he was able to develop technique and endurance for running, crawling, climbing stairs, as well as mounting a horse without a crane. Full medieval plate armor, presumably, weighed about 30 kg, and was on average lighter than modern army equipment (up to 50 kg).

armor history

Many factors have influenced the development of armor throughout human history. The most significant factors in the development of armor include the economic and technological needs of production. For example, plate armor first appeared in Medieval Europe when water wheel-powered hammers made plate formation faster and cheaper. In the same way, modern military forces usually do not provide their soldiers with the best protection, as it would be extremely costly. Throughout time, the development of armor has paralleled the development of weapons on the battlefield, and gunsmiths have sought to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.

Mail armor

Mail is made from iron rings connected to each other, which can be riveted or welded. Chainmail is believed to have been invented by the Celts in Eastern Europe around 500 B.C. As the Celts moved west, mail began to spread. Most of the cultures that used chain mail used the Celtic word "byrnne" or variations thereof, referring to the Celts as the creators. The Roman army has used chain mail throughout almost its entire history. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the infrastructure for making plate armor was largely lost in Europe, leaving mail armor as the best armor available during the Early Medieval period.

Transition to plate armor

Gradually, small additional iron plates or disks were added to chain mail to protect vulnerable areas. By the end of 1200s. thus the knees were protected, and two round discs called "besagews" protected the armpits. There are many ways to improve the protection of chain mail, and in all likelihood, gunsmiths experimented with various options for protection. Reinforced leather and cotter pins were used to protect parts of the arms and legs. A plate jacket appeared, an armor made of large plates sewn onto a textile or leather jacket (sometimes quite long).

Early plate armor in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th-15th centuries it was made of iron. Iron armor could be carburized or tempered for a harder surface. Plate armor became cheaper than chain mail by the 15th century because it was less labor intensive to manufacture, and labor became much more expensive after the bubonic plague in Europe in 1348-49, although it required more metal for its production. Mail continued to be used to protect parts of the body that could not be adequately protected by plates, such as the armpits, elbows, and groin. Another advantage of the armor was that the support for the spear could be mounted on the chest plate.

Probably the most recognizable style of armor in the world is the plate armor associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages.

Until about 1400, a complete set of plate armor was developed in the armory workshops of Lombardy. Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armour.

In the early 15th century, small "hand guns" began to be used on the battlefield during the Hussite Wars, in combination with walking-town tactics, allowing infantry to defeat armored knights on the battlefield. At the same time, crossbows became powerful enough to pierce armor. Rather than eradicate armor as a class, the threat of firearms spurred improvement. protective properties armor. This was a 150 year period in which better and more metallurgically advanced steel armor was used, due to the danger posed by firearms. Thus, firearms and armored cavalry were "threat and retribution" together on the battlefield for nearly 400 years. K 15c plate armor in Italy they were almost always made of steel. In southern Germany, gunsmiths began to harden their steel armor only at the end of the 15th century.

The quality of the metal used to make armor, worsened as armies got bigger and armor was made thicker, requiring the introduction of riding horses. If during the 14th-15th centuries the armor rarely weighed more than 15 kg, then by the end of the 16th century the armor weighed 25 kg. The increasing weight and thickness of the armor of the late 16th century gave a significant increase in strength.

During the appearance of the first pistols and arquebus, firearms had a relatively low bullet speed. Full armour, or breshtuki, actually stopped bullets fired from short distances. The front breshtuki, in fact, were shot during the tests of the armor. The point of impact of the bullet was often surrounded by engraving to indicate it. This was called "proof". Armor often had manufacturer's insignia, especially if it was good quality. The arrows of the crossbow, if still in use, seldom penetrated good armour, nor did any bullet, except those fired at close range.

In fact, rather than making armor obsolete, the advent of firearms spurred the development of armor into its later stages. For most of that period, armor allowed horsemen to fight while being constantly in the sights of arquebusiers without becoming an easy target. Full suits of armor were commonly worn by generals and royal commanders until the second decade of the 18th century. It was the only way, which allowed you to be safe at a distance from the battlefield from the distant fire of muskets.

The horses were protected from spears and infantry weapons by the steel plate protection of the "bard". This gave protection to the horse and enhanced the visual impression of the knight on horseback. Later, elaborately crafted bards were used in ceremonial armor. .

They preferred armor. Mail armor began to lose its relevance when longbows and crossbows were invented. Their penetrating power was so great that the nets of metal rings became useless. Therefore, I had to protect myself with solid metal sheets. Later, when the dominant position was occupied by firearms, they also abandoned the armor. The rules were dictated by military progress, and gunsmiths only adjusted to them.

Knight in chain mail, over which a surcoat is worn
There are espaulers on the shoulders (progenitors of the epaulette)

Initially, chain mail covered only the chest and back. Then it was supplemented with long sleeves and mittens. To XII century chain mail stockings appeared. So almost all parts of the body were protected. But the most important thing is the head. She was covered by a helmet, but her face remained open.

Then they made a solid helmet, which also covered the face. But in order to put it on, a thick fabric cap was first put on the head. A chain mail headband was pulled over him. And from above they put a riveted metal helmet on their heads.Naturally, the head was very hot. After all, the inside of the helmet was still covered with suede. Therefore, many holes were made in it for ventilation. But this did not help much, and the knights immediately tried to remove heavy metal protection from their heads immediately after the battle.

Knight helmets of the XII-XIII centuries

Shields were made teardrop-shaped. They were decorated with knights' coats of arms. Coats of arms were also displayed on special shoulder pads - espaulers. The espaulers themselves were made not of metal, but of leather, and performed purely decorative functions. Helmet decorations were made of wood and covered with leather. Most often they were made in the form of horns, eagle wings or figures of people and animals.

The knight's armament included a spear, a sword, a dagger. The handles of the swords were long so that they could be clasped with 2 hands. Sometimes used instead of a sword falchion. It is a cutting blade similar in shape to a machete.

Falchion on top and two knightly swords

In the XIII century, leather plates began to be applied to chain mail. They were made from several layers of boiled leather. They were added only to the arms and legs. And, of course, surcoat. It was a very important piece of clothing. It was a fabric caftan, which was worn over armor. Wealthy knights sewed surcoats from the most expensive fabrics. They were decorated with coats of arms and emblems. This type clothing was required. According to the concepts of Catholic morality, uncovered knightly armor was akin to a naked body. Therefore, it was considered indecent to appear in them in public. Therefore, they were covered with cloth. In addition, the white fabric reflected Sun rays, and the metal heated up less in hot summer days.

Knight in armor

Knights in armor

As already mentioned, long bows and crossbows appeared in the second half of the 13th century. The bow reached a height of 1.8 meters, and an arrow fired from it pierced chain mail at a distance of 400 meters. Crossbows were not that powerful. They pierced armor at a distance of 120 meters. Therefore, chain mail had to be gradually abandoned, and they were replaced by solid metal armor. The swords have also changed. Previously, they were chopping, but now they have become stabbing. The sharp end could pierce into the joint of the plates and hit the enemy.

A visor in the form of an elongated cone began to be attached to the helmets. This form did not allow arrows to hit the helmet. They skimmed over the metal, but did not pierce it.

Helmets of this form began to be called Bundhugels or "dog snouts". By the beginning of the 15th century, armor had completely replaced chain mail, and knightly armor had taken on a different quality. Metal began to be decorated with gilding and niello. If the metal was without decorations, then it was called "white". Helmets continued to improve.

From left to right: arme, bundhugel, bicok

The helmet was quite original bicoque. His visor did not rise, but opened like a door. The strongest and most expensive helmet was considered arme. He withstood every blow. It was invented by Italian masters. True, he weighed about 5 kg, but the knight felt absolutely safe in him.

Whole schools of craftsmen appeared who competed with each other in the manufacture of armor. Italian armor

outwardly very different from the German

and Spanish.

And they had very little common features with English.

Craftsmanship improved, and the price grew. The armor was getting more and more expensive. A knight of that time needed several types of armor: one for battles, two for tournaments (for equestrian and foot combat), as well as a “ceremonial” one.
Therefore, armored headsets came into fashion. That is, it was possible to order a complete set, but it was possible to pay for only part of it. The number of parts in such prefabricated armor reached 200. The weight of a complete set sometimes reached 40 kg. If a person chained in them fell, he could no longer get up without outside help.

But do not forget that people get used to everything. The knights felt quite comfortable in armor for battles.

It was only necessary to walk in them for two weeks, and they became like family. It should also be noted that after the appearance of armor, shields began to disappear. A professional warrior, chained in iron plates, no longer needed this type of protection. The shield has lost its relevance, since the armor itself served as a shield.
Time passed, and knightly armor gradually turned from a means of protection into a luxury item.

This was due to the advent of firearms. The bullet pierced the metal. Of course, armor could be made thicker, but in this case their weight increased significantly. And this negatively affected both horses and riders.

They fired at first from wick guns with stone bullets, and later with lead. And even if they did not pierce the metal, they made large dents on it and made the armor unusable. Therefore, by the end of the 16th century, knights in armor became a rarity. And at the beginning of the 17th century they disappeared completely.

Only a few elements remained from the armor. These are metal bibs (cuirasses) and helmets. Arquebusiers and musketeers became the main striking force in European armies. The sword replaced the sword, and the pistol replaced the spear. A new stage of history began, in which there was no longer a place for knights dressed in armor.
Sergey Davydov

We got acquainted with a slender, consistent official version of the development of knightly armor. The following facts can be extracted from it:
1. From the 9th to the middle of the 13th century, chain mail dominated. And from the second half of the 13th century until the end of the 16th century, noble knights preferred armor, due to the appearance of crossbows and powerful bows.
2. A solid steel helmet was pasted over with suede from the inside. So that the head does not overheat inside the helmet, many holes were made in it. Before putting on a helmet, a fabric cap was put on the head, and a chain mail cap was pulled over it.
3. They began to attach a visor to the helmets in the form of a cone extended forward. This shape did not allow arrows to hit the helmet. They skimmed over the metal, but did not pierce it.
4. According to the concepts of Catholic morality, uncovered knightly armor was akin to a naked body. Therefore, it was considered indecent to appear in them in public. Therefore, they were covered with a cloth ( surcoat). In addition, the white fabric reflects the sun's rays, and the metal heats up less on hot summer days. Wealthy knights sewed surcoats from the most expensive fabrics. They were decorated with coats of arms and emblems.
5. The knight had several types of armor: one - for battles, two - for tournaments (for equestrian and foot combat), as well as "ceremonial".

So who are the knights?
Answer:
These are professional soldiers, who, as a rule, have their own military formations and, in between serving the crown and the church, were engaged in the redistribution of property among themselves. This is colorfully narrated by handwritten chronicles and numerous legends about the exploits of their famous ancestors, carefully preserved by grateful descendants.
In them, the ancestors-knights appear as noble warriors, and necessarily famous superpowers that are not characteristic of mere mortals.

Below are some excerpts about the sometimes incredible abilities of the ancient knights, from http://pro-vladimir.livejournal.com/266616.html#comments(more details here)
Exoskeletons of medieval knights
...
... "You yourself would be there ( in the castle ) began to spend all their days being the ruler of the surrounding lands? And to ride in fully clothed armor and even sleep? After all, even about "sleeping", they say, the Knight slept standing up! What kind of endurance and willpower to win is needed? To do it right in your pants, to sit in a piece of iron in wet clothes, in your own floating secretions, and even sleep standing up? Is this some kind of voluntary torture? Yes, you will rot alive there! ..

What is known about the Knights in full armor? That they even have a calf joint that is WHOLE and there is no heel as such, i.e. The "boot" immediately bends over the foot. At the same time, it is possible to put the leg forward with the foot through the one-piece calf armor only either by unfastening the foot, or without it, or by stretching the armor, well, or the armor is several sizes larger or having thin legs. But later armor already had doors on the calf joint ... it’s quite logical to use false armor made of different materials, but it’s no longer logical to use armor entirely made of metal, including boots that will slide, it’s no longer logical ... They also didn’t have a “door” and early helmets, so the visor opened later, and the head had to be poked through the neck hole. At the same time, this is not a sweater and not a knitted material that stretches, and not a jeans that can be pulled on, it's metal! Whoever has the desire can try to stick his head in at 10 liter jar through a narrow neck. If the ears pass through, then they will crawl through, but pulling back oh the problem! ..

The armor was not removed by the Knights outside the Castle. Which is already strange. Those. in the campaign for many days you are in armor, weeks! You pee and poop right there! And in order not to stink too much, they pour water over you through--through a raised visor or neck joint. Here historians have versions, in the annals there is no exact indication of how to pour water on a knight, but there is a clear explanation that you need to pour inside, from above and at least several times a day! Probably the easiest way to do this is through an opening visor, some helmets are even made like funnels, where the opening of the gap looks up from the inside!..

Stubbornly, because it is written in the documents, they assure that the Knights left the Castle already in Armor! At receptions, feasts, and so on, they were in Armor! Details and versions vary, but the essence remains the same!

Known from the documents and other oddities associated with the "iron" Knights. Legends tell us that even with his head blown off, such a Knight could fight! And on the engravings, we can see that the removal of the head, like a limb, did not bring defeat to the Knight ...

There are cases in history when the Knights fought a battle for SEVERAL days, and the army of them watched on the sidelines, “smoking”, perhaps all together celebrating this event, looking at the battle. After all, it’s not for nothing that they talk about the theater of hostilities, maybe it was a theater, and only then the audience began to beat each other’s faces, but doesn’t it happen with us? De judge on the soap and rushed. And when the Knight surrendered to the mercy of the winner, then his soldiers were resubordinated with the CONSENT of the losing Knight to the winner. Otherwise, they would simply be eliminated. Those. resubordination took place with the CONSENT of the losing side, something like a surrender pact, and not by the very fact of victory. Haven't we? And it would seem why? Why take out some keys from some cities and Castles to the winners? After all, they can take them away. But no! Even completely, COMPLETELY defeated enemies MUST sign something there and take out the keys to the winners, otherwise there is no way. It doesn't count as a win...

The knights, as legends tell us, had other oddities. For the LOSS of a Knight, his entire army was completely eliminated, the defeat with the transition to another knight was not counted, namely, it was LIQUIDATED physically. What gave this army quite a good incentive to protect the Knight. This strange custom is well known from documents, although historians cannot explain it in any way...

Pictures about a knightly attitude are more idealized, and there is a subtlety there that the lady of the Knight’s heart MUST be with her husband, i.e. there was no question of any physical intercourse between the Knight and the lady, only handkerchiefs and sighs, moreover, in public, i.e. to the public. Moreover, often it was in general visual contact or in the one-sided handkerchief mode from the hand of the chosen lady, after rubbing the eyes and blotting the mouth with the lady! Naturally from feelings, sir. And such a handkerchief with tears, licked by it and the snot of the Lady, was handed over to the Knight. The value is extraordinary, since tournaments were already collected for this! ..

Author pro_vladimir prefaces his post with:
"... Some luminaries from science, well, really want the foundations not to be touched. They didn’t bother with the oddities that stick out from these foundations in all directions. For this they are ready to forget how to distinguish the height of the doorway from the height of the ceiling. The technical elements are ready to be branded with beautiful uselessness. It develops the impression that for the sake of the usual they are ready to put an equal sign between a military parade and a gay parade. .. with which I completely agree, (as by the way, and with all the criticism). The author also gives his version explaining the superpowers of the knights:

... "It is quite another matter if it is cephalopod, and he needs armor like an aquarium, then all the carefully sealed gaps in the armor and the need to go out only in it are explainable. Yes, and with the need to freshen up inside with water, and other household trifles are easily explained, as well as high strength at times short stature. After all, physical mechanics cannot be deceived, if people have an internal skeleton and muscles are based on them, then the volume of the muscles matters, and the bones of the skeleton prevent them from increasing their volume, as well as the strength of the muscles themselves has a limit, because they simply break. But if you are a whole muscle, then the entire available volume is available for you to build up power, and you use the outer shell as bones, as do crayfish, crabs, and others that have powerful claws, but they are also a skeleton for them .. .
...Those. for some reason the Knight was always in armor on open spaces, for some reason he needed water and quite a lot, and inside. Maybe to compensate for evaporation and leaks, and not to flush excrement? And for some reason, there was an advertised and replicated ritual of transferring a “handkerchief” from some Ladies, for a heart or something else, did the Knights either fight or do something? Why do they even need this handkerchief with snot and secretions from the Ladies? Fetish? Or the transfer of genetic material? After all, mollusks are hermaphrodites and they have no idea who is who and how many times, and when mating, they can even release seed material into the water. But there is no water, as such, but pass through air environment seed material can also be used with a handkerchief. Then the principle is logical and the Lady is married and the battle for her scarf, when a more worthy Knight receives seed material and retires to his castle to be fruitful and multiply. Like a fish in a mobile aquarium came out of his own, got to the next one, received a portion of seeds, and took him to his aquarium. Everything is quite logical. It’s more logical than replicating and romanticizing fetishism on a snotty handkerchief of secretions Ladies ...
Let me disagree with the version of a mollusk, such as an octopus, inside the armor:
Muscles work only for contraction, that is, for flexion-extension, for example, in one joint b. flexor muscle and, accordingly, extensor muscle, and movement in the joint with the help of this pair of muscles is possible at a maximum of 180 degrees and in one plane. And so for each joint. In addition, muscles d. attached to adjacent segments of the armor to create a lever, and this should be. suckers, and again with a set of specific muscles, and this again takes up part of the volume of the limb. If there are no suction cups, then the limb of the reptile sitting inside will dangle from wall to wall, i.e., a tentacle not attached to armor segments, to ensure the degrees of freedom of each point of the tentacle, b. a set of pairs of muscles, similar to the human tongue, providing movement in two perpendicular vertical planes and one horizontal, perpendicular to the vertical ones, so the force of movement in one direction will be provided by muscles occupying a small part of the cross section (6th part), for example, the knight's arm. And in general, why does a mollusk need an alien life, alien passions and alien desires?
Another note on the official introduction of knight helmets:
The historian, who invented suede and a fabric cap between the head and the steel of the helmet, obviously fell away from the army in his youth. Such a pad will not protect against loss of consciousness after being hit with a club. Well, and most importantly, the bulk, especially supposedly older armor, of better quality, as metallurgists say, are made of stamped rolled alloy steel, when such technologies had not yet been invented. The video, which hardly depicts agility in a modern reconstruction of the capabilities of a knight dressed in stamped armor, is not convincing. If a person is really dressed in forged armor, for clarity, look at the thickness of the helmet,
then, having fallen in full vestments, he would hardly have been able to rise without outside help. It is also worth considering that there is a structural difference between "hardy" muscles and "fast" ones: the former lose in speed, the latter in endurance.

Below from the comments:
elektromexanik And here's more about the line of the eyes ...

Here, in order to use the eyes through the slits of the helmet, a normal person must tilt his head back to see anything. In the second case, in order to contemplate the surroundings, you need to stuff a cap the size of a pillow into your helmet.

Below is a real find that lay in the ground for some time, although the accuracy of dating is doubtful.

Visor. The archaeological find is possibly related to the events of the crusade of 1396 and the battle of Nikopol. Veliko Tarnovo Museum, Bulgaria.

In this selection of photographs from museums in Russia and Ukraine, I tried to collect Russian armor that was used by Russians, if not in battle, then at least in parades. At first glance, it may seem that Russia did not have its own style of armor, it is a Turkish-style armor and an admixture of Caucasian and Indo-Persian. But nevertheless, there are some peculiarities. Turban helmets have never been used in Moscow Russia and on the territory of Ukraine and Belarus. Body bekhtertsy armor was always fastened on the sides. Circular mirror armor in Muscovy was made with a corrugated surface, and was so popular that the term “krug armor” is used in English weaponry even for mirror armor brought from Turkey or Egypt.

Nevertheless, the Russian warrior of the 16th and 17th centuries was often very similar to those against whom he fought. Because his armor was bought from the "basurman", received as a trophy or a gift. This applies not only to weapons, upper class The Muscovite state used things and luxury items of oriental origin and did not see anything wrong with it - they were guided by beauty and quality.

Russian gunsmiths, in tribute to the style of their Eastern teachers, while producing their products, diligently minted Arabic script on their products, albeit with errors and abbreviations.

Russian helmets

Helmet attributed to Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. Diameter 19.5 cm. Armory of the Moscow Kremlin.

Dome-shaped, the crown is forged from one piece of iron, the nosepiece is riveted separately. A number of small round holes for fastening the aventail. A large plate of gilded silver, embossed with the figure of the Archangel Michael, is riveted to the frontal part, encircled by an engraved inscription in Cyrillic: "In the name of the Archangel Michael, help your servant Fyodor." The top is decorated with silver plates showing God Almighty and the saints: Basil, George and Fedor. The edge is framed with silver gilded embossing with figures of birds, griffins, and floral ornaments.

View from the front.

Helmet with. Nikolskoe ex. Oryol province. Accidental find, 1866 (Hermitage). Photo by A. N. Kirpichnikov

The three-piece crown is forged with longitudinal grooves to increase strength. An overlay with cutouts for the eyes and a humpbacked pointed nosepiece is attached to the front. The edges of the half-mask lining and the edge of the nosepiece are provided with small holes for the aventail, which covered the entire lower part of the face except for the neck. On the bottom of the case, the remains of 8-9 loops for the back of the aventail are visible. The circlet has not been preserved. The entire helmet is covered with a thin gilded silver sheet, which is damaged and crumbled in many places.

Cap with Deesis. Byzantium, XIII-XIV centuries. Iron. Forging, notch with gold, notch with silver. Diameter - 30.0 cm; weight - 2365.7 g. The Armory of the Moscow Kremlin.

The cap of the helmet is cone-shaped, divided into equal segments by eight gold twigs inlaid in iron and going down from the top. On a straight, almost cylindrical crown, carved gilded images of the Almighty Savior are placed along with name inscriptions. Holy Mother of God and John the Baptist (Deesis), Archangel Michael, Archangel Gabriel, two cherubs, two evangelists and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. Wide, slightly sloping margins are attached to the crown. The entire surface of the helmet is covered with the finest herbal ornament.

Half-mask found by B. A. Rybakov in 1948 during excavations of a citadel of the annalistic city of Vshchizh (Zhukovsky district, Bryansk region, Russia). Stored in the State Historical Museum (GIM, inventory 1115B; No. 2057). A restoration in 2010 showed silver and gold amalgamation.

Dating: second half of the 12th -13th century.

"Mugal" that is, from North India, helmets with masks. Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin. These masks have the remains of forehead hinges, and characteristic Mongoloid features. One of the masks is rigidly riveted to the helmet right through the hinge - obviously, this is a later “creativity” of museum workers. In fact, the masks were attached to the helmets using a forehead hinge and a locking flag, in the closed position, passing through a special slot inside the protective semicircular collar. Both the helmet and the mask are decorated with a similar floral ornament, which may testify in favor of their completeness. Another helmet from the Armory It is interesting that this helmet has a two-piece nose soldered to the mask with copper solder, and characteristic “scars” are made on the cheeks, which are present on almost all later masks.

Shishak of Tsar Mikhail Romanov. Armory of the Moscow Kremlin. Master. N. Davydov. 1613-1639. Iron, leather. Forging, notching with gold, riveting.

Hat spoon boyar Nikita Ivanovich Romanov. Russia, 16th century State Armory of the Moscow Kremlin. Nanosnik is lost, but there is a mount from it, the face is protected by chain mail. The ears are covered with earplugs woven into chain mail. The chain mail also belonged to Nikita Romanov.

The helmet of Alexander Nevsky, which belonged to Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. Deut. floor. 16 art. In 1621, remade by the master Nikita Davydov: he probably added a figure of a saint to the scabbard and an image of a crown to the crown.

Along the rim is an Arabic inscription from the Koran: "Rejoice the faithful with the promise of help from Allah and an early victory"

Armory of the Moscow Kremlin. Steel, gold, gems, pearls, silk fabric. Carving, forging, chasing, gilding, enamel. Diameter - 22 cm. Height - 35 cm. Weight - 3285 g.

Shishak of Prince Fyodor Mstislavsky. Armory of the Moscow Kremlin. Helmet of Turkish origin, 16th century. Naushi were added by restorers in the 19th century, they correspond to the helmet in period, but are somewhat large.

Inscriptions on Arabic on the crown of the helmet: In the name of God, good and merciful, I gave you a clear victory, may God forgive you the sins that you have committed and which you will create, the Lord of his grace will fill you, guide you on the path of truth and strengthen you with glorious help. Inscriptions on the ears: God, consubstantial king of all, immortal, wise, holy.

Collection from the Kyiv National Historical Museum. Dated to the turn of the 14th-15th century.

Helmet of Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich. Russia, 1557. Armory of the Moscow Kremlin. Gold, damask steel, silk fabric, precious stones, pearls. Forging, chasing, gilding, carving, enamel.

Made by order of Ivan the Terrible for his three year old son Ivan in 1557. This is evidenced by the inscription engraved in gold on the crown of the helmet. The lancet shape of the helmet with a high spire is typical of the first half of the 16th century.

Turkish helmet. Hermitage Saint Petersburg. Ser. - second. floor. 16th century Steel and gold, hammered, riveted and notched. Height 27.9 cm.

Shelom of Ivan the Terrible, presumably 1547. The diameter of the helmet is 19 cm - for the head of a teenager, Ivan Vasilyevich came to reign at the age of 14. The inscription at the bottom edge of the crown in Arabic - "Allah Mohammed" is an abbreviated version of the well-known Muslim prayer.

On the second belt it is written: "The Shelom of Prince Vasilievich the Grand Duke from (s) to Vasily Ivanovich, the ruler of all Rus', the autocrat."

Stored at the Livrust Camera Museum, Stockholm, Sweden (Stockgolm Livrust Kammaren).

Cappelin helmet. Masters: Ringler, Hieronymus. Germany, Auburg.

First third of the 17th century Steel and leather, hammered, carved, embossed, engraved and gilded. Vsta. 32.8 cm. Turkish-style armor was made not only in Turkey.

Misyurka boyar Golitsyn Vasily Vasilyevich (died in 1619). Armory of the Moscow Kremlin. Rare for Rus' early turban type.

High helmet, Russia, early 16th century. Iron, forging. Found in Moscow on the territory of Kitay-gorod.

Trophy Russian shishak, early. 17th century. Museum of the Polish Army. Warsaw.

Helmet "hat of Ericho" Turkey, XVI century. Damascus steel, precious stones, turquoise, fabric, white metal Forging, embossing, gold notching, carving Diameter: 21.3 cm Belonged to Prince Fyodor Ivanovich Mstislavsky