The sounds of speech, like any other sound, are the result of the oscillatory motion of an elastic medium. A stream of air pumped from the lungs sets the vocal cords into oscillatory motion, they transmit movement to particles of the surrounding air. Each particle first moves forward from the oscillating body, then returns back. The result is a periodic change in air pressure, that is, successive condensation of air (when moving forward) and vacuum (when moving backward). This creates sound wave(akusmu).
We can talk about the following acoustic components of speech sound:
Pitch depends on the number of oscillations per unit time. As the number of vibrations increases, the pitch of the sound increases, and as the number decreases, it decreases. The pitch of sounds is measured in hertz - one vibration per second (Hertz - German physicist). The human ear perceives sounds from 16 to 20,000 hertz. Changes in the pitch of sounds in speech create intonation and melody of speech.
The power of sound is determined by the amplitude of the vibrations of the sound wave: the greater the amplitude, the stronger the sound (lat. amplitudo spaciousness, vastness). In speech, the strength of sound is associated with the concept of forceful stress. The strength of sound is perceived by the listener as loudness. Scientists distinguish two thresholds: the threshold of audibility (when the sound is faintly distinguishable) and the threshold of pain.
Duration or longitude sound is related to the duration of a given sound in time with its number of vibrations: in Russian, for example, stressed vowels are longer than unstressed ones.
The nature of the oscillatory movement plays a large role in the acoustic coloring of sounds: if it occurs rhythmically, that is, the same periods are repeated at certain intervals, then such a sound wave creates musical tone; this is observed when pronouncing vowel sounds, when air from the lungs, passing through the vocal cords, does not meet any obstacles anywhere else. If the oscillatory movement is interrupted, then the ear perceives such a sound as noise. Consonant sounds are noisy: air, passing through the vocal apparatus, encounters obstacles along the way (with the participation of the palate, tongue, teeth and lips).
Tones and noises interact in the oral and nasal resonators, creating individual timbres sounds by which we recognize sound speech our friends and relatives.
Phoneme and phoneme system
The sounds of language can be characterized from three sides: biological, physical and linguistic proper (or, as they say differently, social, functional).
The biological sounds of language are characterized due to the fact that they are created by the human speech organs and, therefore, have a physiological conditionality. biological unit sound Russian scientist I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay called it kinema (Greek kinema “movement”).
We can talk about the physical side of speech sounds, keeping in mind that speech sounds, like any other sounds in nature, can be considered from an acoustic point of view (gr. akustikos “auditory”; acoustics - in physics - the study of sounds). Baudouin de Courtenay called the acoustic unit acousma (Greek akustikos “auditory”). The biological and acoustic aspects of sounds are studied by phonetics.
But these qualities of linguistic sounds are not the main ones for people; people do not even think about them.
The main aspect of speech sounds is their role in creating and distinguishing morphemes and words, i.e. semantic units of language. Sounds in themselves do not express meanings, but they are said to be directed towards meaning, i.e. help to identify words and distinguish their meaning. This aspect of speech sounds turns them from biological and acoustic units into actually linguistic units. Meaningful sounds are called phonemes. This understanding came from the theory of phonemes, or phonology (Greek phone “sound”, “voice” and logos “teaching”). The phoneme was discovered by the Russian scientist Ivan Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay. At first, his idea of the phoneme was developed by his students: in Kazan - Nikolai Vyacheslavovich Krushevsky, in St. Petersburg - Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba; then - members of the Prague Linguistic Circle, especially Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy and Roman Osipovich Yakobson, also Baudouin’s students in St. Petersburg. The question of the phoneme was also developed by the Swiss scientist F. De Saussure.
Phoneme- this is the minimum unit of language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds and serving to identify and distinguish words and morphemes.
Both phonetics and phonology are inextricably linked with each other by a common object - sound - and are mutually enriched by their achievements in the study of it. In a phoneme it is customary to talk about different features: differential and integral. Differential features- These are the semantic distinctive features of phonemes. Integral features(Latin integral “whole”) are non-distinctive features of phonemes (kinema, acousma), they only fill the phoneme.
Different languages have different quantities phonemes: in Russian – 39 (or 41), in English. – 40, French – 35, Finnish. – 30, Korean. – 39, Abkhazian. – 71. Naturally, there are different numbers of vowel and consonant phonemes: in Russian, for example, there are 6 vowels, and in German. - 13.
To fulfill this role - folding and distinguishing significant units of language - phonemes must be opposed to each other in the language system. This is where the term comes from opposition– opposition of phonemes (from Latin oppositio “opposition”). Phonemic contrasts in different languages are specific character. For example, in Russian longitude and brevity are not differential features, but in German they distinguish between words and meanings: biten- suggest, bitten- ask; Staat- state, Stadt- city.
The concept " phoneme" And " speech sound» do not match, because:
1. A phoneme can consist of two sounds (English diphthongs, fly"fly", boy"boy").
2. Two phonemes can be represented by one sound, for example, a word sew[shyt], where the sound [sh] combines the phoneme of the prefix [s] and the initial phoneme of the root [sh]; wash[myts], where the sound [ts] combines the final phoneme of the root [t] and the initial phoneme of the postfix [s].
3. A phoneme can be equal to zero sound, for example, the phoneme [t] in a word honest[chesnyi].
Phoneme as a complex phenomenon consists of a number of features that do not exist independently, outside the phoneme, but coexist simultaneously in its unity. Thus, in the phoneme [d] in Russian we can distinguish the following features:
sonority(cf. [t] house - volume);
hardness(cf. [d] home – Dema);
explosiveness(cf. fricative [z] dal – hall);
lack of nasality(cf. [n] I'll give it to us);
presence of anterior lingualism(cf. back lingual [g] ladies - din);
lack of labiality(cf. [b] dock - side).
Allophones, or variants of a phoneme, are its phonetically similar varieties, differing from each other by partial changes in individual distinctive features and located in relation to additional distribution (environment).
Hyperphoneme– a functional unit represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds common to several phonemes, in the absence of a representative of this unit in a strong position.
Neutralization– failure to distinguish several phonemes in a certain (weak) position.
Literature
Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. - M., 2000. P. 161-227.
Golovin B.N.. Introduction to linguistics. - M., 1977. - P. 31-69.
Introduction to linguistics. Reader / Ed. A.E. Supruna. - M., 1977 (I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A.A. Reformatsky).
THE WORD AS A SUBJECT OF LEXICOLOGY
Signs of a word
The linguistic units familiar to us - phonemes and morphemes - are not used separately, not in isolation, but only in mutual combination with each other. The combination of phonemes determines the material side of morphemes. The combination of morphemes is produced in the name of forming the structure of a larger and more complex linguistic unit - the word.
The word is the core unit of language, in connection with this we will name several important points :
· a person in verbal communication distinguishes only word and reacts only to its meaning;
· V word all phonemic and morphemic processes take place;
· word is an independent linguistic unit - a lexeme;
· word forms the basis of larger linguistic units - phrases and sentences;
· word is a part of speech and a member of a sentence.
That is why it is natural to talk about a phonemic word, a morphemic word, a lexical word, a word - a part of speech, a word - a component of a phrase, a word - a member of a sentence, and even about a word - a sentence.
The word concentrates the features of linguistic units of lower and higher levels, and therefore it is convenient to consider them around the word.
There have been many attempts in science to define the word, but due to its multidimensionality, none of the definitions has received recognition. The best way definition is a consistent and comprehensive description of the properties of an object. We will do this, but first we will still agree to consider the text from space to space as a word in the written form of the language. In relation to the letter type of writing, for example, of Indo-European languages, this method of defining a word is the most convenient.
To begin with, we note that among words it is customary to distinguish significant and auxiliary words.
Significant words– those to which objects, phenomena and their signs correspond in the objective world. Significant words have something to convey; they consolidate all the knowledge acquired by people in the process of their social practice. Significant words - lexemes correspond to objects, phenomena and their properties as names. This is their difference from morphemes: morphemes express meaning without naming, lexemes express meaning by naming. This ability of lexemes is called their nominative function (Latin nomina - names, names).
Function words- those that do not have objective correspondences in the non-linguistic world, but are used only with significant words, introducing additional shades of meaning into them. Function words are not names; they express meanings like morphemes, and therefore, as we have seen, they tend to turn into service affixes. But it is impossible to completely deprive function words of correlation with objective reality: through them a person expresses his understanding of the relationships between objects and their characteristics. But, nevertheless, we will consider the only meaning of function words to be purely grammatical. In connection with this, it should be noted that in the science of lexemes - lexicology - significant words are always meant, words are names. Function words are appropriate when we are talking about a word - a part of speech.
Now let's list the minimum signs, which are typical for words:
Phonet And chess office O mness. A word differs from phonemes in its two-dimensionality, since in its original form it always acts as an organic unity of sound and meaning. A word is always characterized as a specific phonetic whole - a complex of phonemes.
Semant And cecal shaft e ness- every word has one meaning or another.
Nedwood A rnity. A word is necessarily differentiated accentologically from phrases; it is either unstressed or has one main stress.
L e xico-grammat And logical attribution. Words are distinguished from morphemes primarily by the possibility of assigning them to a specific grammatical class (noun, verb, etc.).
Impenetrable A capacity. Words differ from prepositional-case combinations primarily in their impenetrability, i.e. It is impossible to insert one or another sound element into a word as a complex of phonemes.
So, word is a linguistic unit that in its original form has one main stress and has meaning, lexical-grammatical relevance and impenetrability (N.M. Shansky. Lexicology of the Russian language. - M., 1972. P. 32).
A word at the linguistic level is a very complex aggregate of meanings, forms and functions. A word, for example, is a morphemic association, which means that it expresses all the meanings of its constituent morphemes: material (lexical), derivational (expressive-emotional) and relational (grammatical). For example, in the word under the snow prefix under– expresses the lexical meaning of placing one below the other; root - snow- expresses an idea atmospheric precipitation in the form of white star-shaped crystals; suffix - nothing- with alternating k//h expresses the grammatical meaning of the subject husband. R. (compare - prostrate-) ; suffix - To- is an exponent of the derivational meaning of endearment; inflection - And expresses the lexical meaning of plurality.
Morphemic meanings create the motivation for the meaning of the word-lexeme and constitute, as they say, the internal form of the word.
Internal form of a word
This is the morphonological composition of the stem, which indicates a motivated connection between its sound and a given meaning. Root words, as a rule, hide the motivation of the meaning: snow, moon, field. Their internal form coincides with the lexical meaning.
A word as a separate linguistic unit - a lexeme - also has its own meaning, synthesizing the meaning of morphemes only to some extent. The word “snowdrop,” for example, means “a bulbous plant from the amaryllis family with white flowers that bloom immediately after the snow melts.” This meaning is lexical.
In addition, the word, being part of speech, expresses general meaning a whole class of words: the word “snowdrop” as a noun expresses, for example, the meaning of objectivity: the word “white” as an adjective expresses the meaning of a passive attribute, etc. This meaning is general grammatical; it could be called semantic (Greek semantikos - denoting). The semantics of a word would show what the word means: an object, a passive attribute, an action, etc.
And finally, when the word becomes a member of a sentence, the syntactic meaning of the subject - subject, predicate, definition, etc. - is added to its semantic volume. Syntactic meaning can be called communicative meaning (Latin communicatio - message, connection).
As you can see, there are many types of meanings in a word: lexical, semantic, grammatical, expressive-emotional and communicative. The word, due to the variety of types of meanings, is polysemic, polysemic (Greek poly - many, sema - sign). But when they talk about polysemy, they usually mean a multitude of it. lexical meanings, although it is one-sided and narrow. The word has multiple meanings and grammatical meanings: in the verb “ I'm coming» 7 grammatical meanings: the action is expressed, it does not transfer to the object, the 1st person performs the action singular present tense, the action has not yet reached its limit, it is reported indicatively, etc. So when we're talking about about the polysemy of a word, one must always specify what type of meaning is meant.
Acoustic properties of sound.
The sounds of speech pronounced by a person as a result of the processes of interaction between the central nervous system and peripheral speech organs, like any sound in nature, represent the oscillatory movement of an elastic medium. Each sound, regardless of the cause of which it is, has certain qualitative characteristics: height, strength (intensity), timbre. Speech sounds have all the characteristics.
Pitch depends on oscillation frequency vocal cords. The more frequent the vibrations, the higher the sound. The units of pitch are Hz. Hz corresponds to one complete oscillation per second. Wherein,full swing- this is the deviation of an oscillating body in both directions from the state of rest. If a sound source produces 200 vibrations per second, then a sound with a frequency of 200 Hz is generated. Sounds are characterized by a certain intensity (strength). The power of sound this is the amount of energy passing through 1 cm in one second 2 area located perpendicular to the direction of the sound wave. The strength of sound depends on the amplitude or range of vibration. The more vibrations, the stronger the sound. Strength should be distinguished from volume.
Sound timbre the result of a combination of the fundamental tone and partial tones. Those. it is the result of complex oscillatory movements that produce a sound wave. Speech sounds arise as a result of vibration of the vocal cords; when pronouncing a sound, depending on the movement of the speech organs, the volume and shape of the supraglottic resonator cavities change. Those. they take on a specific configuration, characteristic only of a given sound. The nasal cavity cannot change its configuration. The complex tone that arises in the larynx is modified by the resonance of the supraglottic cavities.In acoustics, resonance refers to the property of hollow bodies, or other devices transmitting sound energy, to selectively enhance or weaken the intensity of sound vibrations coming from any source.Some of its components are strengthened, others are weakened. The region of frequency amplification or otherwise the region of concentration of sound energy is called formant . The formant structure of a sound determines its spectrum. Range essential characteristic of sound.
Quantitative characteristics soundduration. Sounds differ in their longitude (the amount of time used when pronouncing them). The duration of sounds is related to for various reasons:
Rate of speech. Absolute and relative duration of sound. It is important to distinguish between two different types duration: phonetic and phonological. Phonetic the type is associated with a number of purely phonetic conditions. For example, in Russian, the duration of vowels in connected speech depends on the stress: the stressed one is longer than the pre-stressed one, and the pre-stressed one will be longer than the post-stressed one and the second pre-stressed one. The duration may also depend on other phonetic conditions: the position of the sound in a word before one or another consonant, its place in the word, etc. Phonological type is a case when the longness and shortness of a sound is their constant feature and it is possible to establish opposing rows of long and short sounds in the language. Phonological features: rounded and unrounded, rise.
DZ: Beloshapkova's abstract “Acoustic classification of sound.” "ratio ak. and articulatory classification of sound."
Questions for the phonetics exam
1. Acoustic properties of speech sounds
Sound– wave vibrations of an elastic medium that can cause auditory sensations. Sounds differ from each other in height, strength, duration and timbre.
Height– oscillation frequency. The higher the vibration frequency per unit time, the higher the sound. The unit of frequency is hertz Hz. Human ear from 16 to 20,000 Hz.
Force– depends on the amplitude of vibrations; the greater the amplitude, the stronger the sound. With force - volume. The unit of measurement is decibel dB.
Duration– duration in time. Measured – thousandth of a second – milliseconds (ms)
Timbre – individual feature, color of sound determined by its spectrum, the relationship between the fundamental tone and overtones.
Sound components:
body capable of oscillating
oscillating force
physical environment capable of transmitting vibrations
2. The concept of articulation. The speech apparatus, its structure and functions of individual parts.
Speech sounds are formed as a result of a certain operation of the speech apparatus.
Movements and positions of the speech organs - articulation sound.
A. Sound - coordinated work various parts speech apparatus.
Speech apparatus- a set of human organs necessary for the production of sounds.
Ground floor r/a – respiratory organs: lungs, bronchi, trachea - an air stream that creates sound and transmits vibrations to the external environment.
Middle floor r/a – larynx. Cartilage - vocal cords. Tension – voiced and vowels.
Top floor r/a – organs above the larynx: pharynx (nasopharynx, cavity: oral, nasal separated by the palate) Soft palate + uvula = velum palatine. Raised - mouth, lowered - nose.
The mouth changes, the lower lip is mobile.
The most mobile is the tongue. (tip, back: anterior middle posterior, root)
3. Segmental and supersegmental units of speech. Phrase, speech beat, phonetic word, syllable, sound as segmental units.
Our speech is a stream of sounds. Flow into segments, individual units: phrase, phonetic syntagm, phonetic word, syllable and sound.
Phrase- a segment of speech with a special intonation and phrasal stress and concluded between pauses. Corresponds to a statement that is complete in meaning. (not a proposal)
The phrase is divided into syntagmas.
Phonetic syntagma– intonation and stress + pauses are optional, shorter interphrase pauses.
Division - in meaning and syntactically.
Syntagma consists of words.
Phonetic word- a segment of a sound chain united by 1 verbal stress. Corresponds to 1 or more syntactic units.
Phonetic word - into syllables - into sounds.
Segmental units– sound, syllable, f. Word, f. Syntagma. Each subsequent one consists of smaller ones.
Merging segment units – supersegmental– syllabification of sounds, stress and intonation.
4. Vowels and consonants, their articulation and acoustics
differences.
All speech sounds are vowels and consonants.
Vowels– an air stream without obstacles is the main articulatory difference from consonants. Pure tonal sounds, periodic vibrations of the ligaments during the passage of air. Mouth openers. You can scream.
Consonants– presence of noise, non-periodic sound, air stream overcoming obstacles. Stronger air stream. Muscular tension at the site where the obstruction occurs. Mouth openers.
5. Classification of vowel sounds of the Russian language, articulatory and acoustic features. Classification of vowel sounds in school practice.
Vowels are purely tonal sounds. In the larynx as a result of vibration of the ligaments. Musical tone. The mouth and pharynx are resonators, differences between vowels. Volume and shape of resonating cavities. Each vowel is a special position of the speech organs.
Classification based on 3 characteristics:
labialized (oh, oh)
non-labialized (a, e, i, s)
upper rise (i, s, y) (narrow)
middle rise (uh, oh)
lower rise (y, o) (wide)
Front row (and, uh)
Middle row(s)
Back row (ooh, ooh)
lip participation
degree of vertical tongue elevation
the degree of horizontal retraction of the tongue back.
|
Lift/Row |
front |
Per/Wed |
average |
Wed/rear |
rear |
|
Upper |
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Top-mid |
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Average |
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Wed-low |
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Lower |
Open And closed vowels are “shades” of sounds.
6. Classification of consonant sounds of the Russian language according to place of formation. Classification of consonant sounds in school practice.
There are 5 main signs:
place of education(which active organ does the work and with which organ it comes close)
labial sounds [p], [p"], [b], [b"], [m], [m"];
labiodental sounds [f], [f"], [v], [v"];
Labial
lingual
dental sounds [t], [t"], [s], [s"], [z], [z"], [ts], [l], [l"], [n], [n"] ;
palatodental sounds [w], [sh":] [zh], [zh":], [r], [r"], [h"];
Forelingual
middle language, middle palatal sound[j];
back-lingual, back-palatal sounds [k], [k"], [g], [g"], [x], [x"].
7. Classification of consonant sounds of the Russian language according to the method of formation. Classification of consonant sounds in school practice.
method of formation (characteristics of obstacles in the oral cavity in the path of the air stream and the method of overcoming it)
Median [f], [f"], [v], [v"], [s], [s"], [z], [z"], [w], [w":], [w] , [zh":], [j], [x], [x"];
Side [l] / [l"];
Slotted(fricatives)
Occlusive
Nasals [m], [m"], [n], [n"]
Explosive [p], [p"], [b], [b"], [t], [t"], [d], [d"], [k], [k"], [g], [G"];
Africates [ts] and [h"].
Implosive
Trembling[r] / [r"]
8. Classification of consonant sounds of the Russian language by hardness/softness. Classification of consonant sounds in school practice.
They differ in the articulation characteristic of each group. When soft tongues are formed, the tongue is concentrated in the front part, while hard ones are concentrated in the back part of the oral cavity.
Solid [w], [g], [c], [t], [d], [n], [b], [c], [g], [s], [r]
Soft [sch], [h], [t"], [d"], [n"], [b"], [c"], [g"], [s"], [r"]
Palatalized (tongue shift forward, raised to the palate)
Pharyngealized ( hard sounds)
Labialized
The OG is built on knowledge of phonetics. During the preparatory period, the basic concept of phonetic units (sentence, syllables, sounds: sogl, vowels, voiced, unvoiced) is introduced for competent and conscious reading.
Our task is to develop phonemic awareness in students for further competent writing and reading. Knowledge of phonetics is also necessary for organizing work on orthoepy. Thus, knowledge of phonetics is necessary for the teacher to successfully carry out teaching work in primary school.
9. Classification of consonant sounds of the Russian language by noise level, by participation or non-participation of the voice. Classification of consonant sounds in school practice.
noise level (sonority/sonority, hardness/softness, dullness/sonority)
Sonorant [l], [l"], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [p], [p"], [j]
voiced [v], [v"], [z], [z"], [g], [b], [b"], [d], [d"], [g],
voiceless [f], [f"], [s], [s"], [sh], [p], [p"], [t], [t"], [k], [k"], [x], [x"], [h], [sch].
10. A syllable as a segmental unit of speech. Syllabic and non-syllabic sounds. Types of syllables.
Segmental (dividing a segment of a speech chain into syllables)
Supersegmental
Syllabic (open)
Non-syllable (closed)
Covered (begins with a non-syllabic)
Naked (begins with a syllabic)
11. Syllable from an acoustic and articulatory point of view. Various theories syllable
There are several theories:
Expiratory(a syllable is a sound combination pronounced with one impulse of air) does not explain all cases.
Sonorous(Avanesov) (a syllable is a wave of sonority, sonority. In syllables - sounds with sonority. The most sonorous is a syllabic sound.)
By degree of sonority:
4 – vowels
3 – sonorous
2 – voiced
1 – deaf
Dynamic(a syllable is a wave that has strength and intensity)
The strongest, most intense sound of a syllable is syllabic, less strong ones are non-syllabic.
One syllable can have two vowel sounds. The combination of two vowels within one syllable is called diphthong. There are no diphthongs in the Russian literary language, but they are found in Russian dialects, where they pronounce kor[uo]va, milk[uo], l[ae]s, s[sh?]no, etc. Diphthongs exist, for example, in English, German, Spanish and many other languages
12. Syllable division in Russian. Syllable division in school practice.
In a flow of speech, words are usually not divided into syllables, there are no boundaries between syllables, adjacent sounds both within a syllable and between syllables are pronounced without interruption, flowing into one another. It is impossible to detect these boundaries with any instruments. But sometimes we need
a word or several words loudly and clearly. Then the division between sounds weakens, the word breaks up into syllables.
Syllable division- a real or potential boundary between syllables, a place in a word where you can pause when chanting.
The laws of syllable division are not the same in different languages, even in dialects of the same language.
In the Russian literary language, based on Moscow pronunciation, most non-final syllables are constructed according to the principle of ascending sonority. In this case, the initial sound is the least sonorous, and the final sound is the most sonorous, i.e. syllabic. Therefore, most non-final syllables are open: [ka-ro-va] - 14-34-24, [bu-kva-l "ne] - 24-124-334.
The principle of ascending sonority determines a number of features of the syllable division. One intervocalic (located between vowels) consonant goes to the next vowel: [za-ro-breath], [na-su-he]. A group of intervocalic consonants goes to the next vowel if it consists of noisy consonants: [ku-ptsy], [i-zba], [ra-ssol]; sonorant consonants: [va-lna], [su-mrek]; it starts to get noisy
and ends with a sonorant consonant: [su-kno], [vo-bla|-
In all these cases, the beginning of a syllable, including the syllabic sound, is built according to the principle of ascending sonority.
In a group of non-syllable sounds, the first one always goes to the preceding vowel, if it is [i]: [tai-ga], [chai-n"ik].
The presence of a syllable separation after the first sound ensures an increase in sonority in the next syllable. But for a consonant before a noisy, the sonority can drop to the level of this noisy. Such a sonorant adjoins the following syllable: [na-tear"], [ko-lba].
The basic principle of syllable structure in the Russian language, syllable division, and the rules for transferring part of a word from one line to another may not coincide. The rules of transfer are based on several principles, and transfer of a word into syllables is only one of these principles.
13. Emphasis. Phonetic nature of Russian verbal stress.
A word may consist of one or more syllables. One syllable in a word is stressed, the rest are unstressed.
Word stress- this is the selection of one of the syllables of a non-monosyllabic word. With the help of stress, part of the sound chain is combined into a single whole - a phonetic word.
Phonetic nature:
Musical (tone change in the pitch of a stressed syllable).
Quantitative (a stressed syllable is always longer than an unstressed one)
Dynamic (stressed syllable is stronger than unstressed)
The methods of highlighting a stressed syllable are different in different languages. In the Russian language, a stressed syllable can differ from unstressed syllables in greater strength, duration and timbre - the quality of the sounds included in it.
Stressed and unstressed are the properties of the entire syllable.
Do not confuse syllable separation with moving words from one line to another
14. Place of stress in a word. Functions of word stress.
In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable of a word and on any morpheme - prefix, root, suffix and ending: release, house, road, dining room, affairs, dear, distribute, regroup. This emphasis is called different places or free. Stress can perform a semantic distinguishing function. Thus, the place of emphasis may differ:
Different words in all their forms: castle, castle
Some forms different words: squirrel and squirrel
Different forms of one word: hair and hair
meaningful
form-distinguishing
distinguishing between word variants
equal options (cottage cheese)
literary/colloquial (calling)
common/professional (compass)
outdated/modern (music)
modern/folklore (gold, silver)
15. Formative and word-formative stress. Mobility and immobility of stress.
When forming grammatical forms, words can remain in the same place; such an accent is called motionless or permanent formative: book, books. In Russian, most words (about 96%) have fixed stress.
In words with mobile formative stress transfers stress from one syllable to another, from one morpheme to another. Stress mobility within one morpheme is extremely rare: tree - trees. Usually, with a moving accent, the stress on the base alternates with the stress on the ending: hand - hands, remove - remove, remove - removed.
During word formation, the same patterns are observed as during word formation. Thus, the stress in a derived word can be on the same morpheme as that of the producing word: book- book.
This derivational fixed emphasis. In other cases, the stress in the producing and derived words falls on different morphemes: star- star. This derivational mobile emphasis.
16. Phrase, tact, logical stress.
If a phonetic syntagm or phrase includes several phonetic words, then one word carries a stronger emphasis. Such selection of one of the words of a phonetic syntagm or phrase can be carried out using syntagmic(syntagmatic) and phrasal accents. For example: Lizaveta Ivanovna | sat in_her room\still in_her people||.
Syntagmic and phrasal stress is not related to the meaning - the phonetic combination of several words into a phonetic syntagma or phrase, in the division of the text into syntagmas and phrases. It stands on the last word of the syntagma and phrase and indicates their boundary - the end of the syntagma and phrase.
In the flow of speech within a sentence (phrase), one of the word stresses may have greater force than the others. In this case, such an accent becomes a bar accent. If a sentence (phrase) has several speech beats, then one of the beat stresses is usually more intense than the other beat stresses. Such bar stress becomes phrasal, or logical, stress. Tactic stress usually falls on words, which are the semantic centers of these speech cycles, and logical stress takes on the word (or phrase), which serves as the semantic center of the entire sentence. Intonation-rhythmic identification of speech beats, beat and logical stresses is a prerequisite for the expressiveness of oral speech.
17. Clitics, their types. Weak stress.
Some words in speech are not stressed. They are adjacent to other words, forming one phonetic word with them.
An unstressed word standing in front of a stressed word to which it adjoins is called proclitic(monosyllabic prepositions, conjunctions and some particles: on the mountain; to_me;)
An unstressed word that comes after the beat to which it is adjacent is called enclitics(monosyllabic particles: tell me, is he coming)
Absolute proclitics and enclitics to the main word merge with it into one word, where vowels and consonants are pronounced in one lexical word: do_sada (cf. annoyance).
Relative clitics, without their own stress and adjacent to stressed word, characterize by the pronunciation of individual sounds than within one lexical word. For example, an unstressed conjunction But will retain the sound [o] in pronunciation: frost, but the sun [no-sontse] (cf. in the sun [na-sbnts]).
18. Phonology. The sound of speech and the sound of language.
To recognize words, speakers must pronounce the sounds that make up those words in the same way: [a], [da], [dam].
But at the same time, by just one word spoken by a person well known to us, we recognize this person without even seeing him.
Why do we still think that the same word pronounced by different people is the same word with the same composition of sounds?
We do not hear some differences between sounds: such differences are so subtle that they are beyond the limits of human perception.
All sounds within this zone are identified by speakers and are perceived as one sound.
Distinguish sounds speeches and sounds language.
Sound of speech is a specific sound uttered by a specific person on a specific occasion.
The sound of speech is a point in articulatory and acoustic space
Sound of tongue- this is a set of speech sounds that are close in articulatory-acoustic terms, speaking as identity.
The sound of a language is a sound type, a standard of sound that exists in the linguistic consciousness of speakers. Like any set, the sound of a language is no longer a concrete sound, but an abstraction.
19. The concept of phoneme.
We identify not only sounds that are close in articulatory-acoustic terms. A strict law operates in language: sounds are identified, the differences between which are associated with different conditions of their pronunciation.
Phoneme– a series of positionally alternating sounds determined by speech position.
Phoneme is an abstract unit of speech of positionally alternating sounds.
I distinguish 2 main functions:
perceptual (perception) – identify
significative - to distinguish
The main sound representative of a phoneme is the representative that experiences the least influence.
strong positions. If not, it’s weak.
Phonemes - construction material for significant units of language - morphemes and words, phonemes serve to form these units.
This phoneme function is called constitutive.
In speech, phonemes correspond to sounds. Speakers divide sounds into sounds in accordance with phonemic division. Without knowledge of the language and its phonemic composition, it is impossible to divide the sound stream into segments corresponding to sounds.
Phonemes are abstract units of the phonetic layer of language, embodied in speech in sets of positionally alternating sounds.
20. Alternations: positional and non-positional, phonetic and historical.
Phonetic laws– laws of functioning and development of the sound of language, i.e. laws changes sounds and combinations And alternation.
Alternating sounds- an exchange of sounds that occupies the same place in the same morpheme. (garden - gardens - kindergarten).
|
alternation |
|||||
|
positional |
non-positional |
||||
|
phonetic |
morphological |
||||
Positional:
Phonetic– position of sounds in a word
Morphological– position of a sound in a certain morpheme or grammatical form (south – south – southern).
Non-positional:
They have neither morphological nor phonetic conditionality, they exist only in individual words (sleep - sleep).
21. Neutralization of phonemes. Hyperphoneme.
Phonetic positional alternations can be of two types:
1) alternations forming parallel ranks that do not have common members;
2) alternations forming intersecting series with common members. (r/l views/meanings)
Coincidence, non-distinction between two or more phonemes in a certain position is called neutralization. In the neutralization position, these phonemes are realized by the same sound. (a-o-e in the first pre-stressed syllable.)
Neutralization of phonemes is necessarily associated with their alternations in the same morphemes.
Therefore, neutralization of phonemes is the removal of the opposition of phonemes in the same morphemes.
22. Phonetic position. Strong and weak positions of phonemes.
Phonological position- conditions for the use and implementation of phonemes in speech. In different positions, the same phoneme appears in different sound forms. The alternation of sounds embodying the same phoneme is determined by phonetic positions.
The phoneme, like sound, performs a signifying function, i.e. promotes the distinction between words and morphemes. Performing its function, the phoneme is in strong positions. If not - weak.
strong/weak positions for vowel phonemes
Strong - under stress. (blow)
Weak – no accent (melok/milok)
Neutralization of phonemes when two or more phonemes coincide. Occurs in a weak position. Sound has no function.
|
Consonant sounds (voiced/voiced) |
consonants (hard/soft) |
|
before a vowel sound before a sonorant sound combination B+ vowel |
at the end of the word (blood) before a vowel (mother) before all hard consonants (shelf) |
|
- at the end of a word – noisy before noisy (mowing) B+ noisy |
other. |
23. Positional phonetic alternations of consonant sounds according to deafness/voice and hardness/softness.
at the end of a word before a pause (oak - oaks)
a noisy voiceless before a noisy voiced one changes to a noisy voiced one (mow - co[z]ba)
noisy voiced before noisy voiceless changes to noisy voiceless (boat - lo[t]ka)
voiced/voiceless
Note: noisy voiceless ones change to noisy voiced ones before:
combination B + voiced consonant
Not happening:
before B + vowel, B + sonorant
hard/soft
Sound [n] – [n’] before hard sounds (screw - screw up)
Hard dentary before soft dentary – soft dentary (leaf - leaves)
24. Positional phonetic alternations of consonants with zero sound, by length/shortness.
1) Long consonants are saved:
At the beginning of the word (loan)
At the junction of prefix and root (sort)
Next to a stressed vowel (bath)
Not are saved:
At the end of the word (sum)
Next to a consonant (class). Crystals – crystalline.
2) Consonant/null sound
Stn/sts (revenge – local, six – six hundred)
Sts/zdts (plaintiff - plaintiff, bridle - uztsy)
Rdts/rdch (heart - heart, heart)
Stf/zdk (bride - daughter-in-law, ride - trip)
Nts/ndts (Dutch)
Lnz (sun)
[j] (stand - stop)
25. Positional phonetic alternations of consonant sounds by place and method of formation
local:
Before anterior palatal noisy consonants, dental noisy consonants are replaced by anterior palatal ones: [with] kashka
Dental [n] before velar consonants, which are usually followed by other consonants, are replaced by velar [ng]: ko[p]tora, but ko[ng]gress;
anterior lingual/dental before palatal:
palatal (play - sew [w])
By method of education:
Plosive consonants before fricatives of the same place of formation are replaced by affricates: o[ts]sypat (pour out), pya[ts"]sya (backward).
26. Positional phonetic alternations of vowel sounds depending on the proximity of hard/soft consonants.
Only in a stressed syllable.
Mom/mother, hands/hands, hatch/lukes
[a] [a'] ['a] ['a']
Parallel exchange.
27. Positional phonetic alternations of vowel sounds in
depending on place in relation to stress.
Formula Potebnya 1231 – the remaining unstressed syllables.
b – ab – a – b
b – ab – o – b
Formula Potebnya shows that:
in every phonetic word there is only one stressed syllable;
the first pre-stressed syllable is weaker than the stressed syllable, but stronger than all the others;
all other syllables are approximately equal in strength;
words with any number of syllables obey this formula;
pre-shock and post-shock parts phonetic word in Russian they are not symmetrical, they are arranged differently.
Cross exchange (rows have common members)
28. Differential and integral features of phonemes. Consonant sounds and phonemes, contrasted on the basis of deafness/voice.
Unpaired phonemes.
Phonemes are the minimal units of language; they cannot be divided into smaller, sequential elements. But, nevertheless, the phoneme is a complex phenomenon. It consists of a number of features that do not exist independently, outside the phoneme, but coexist simultaneously in the phoneme, differing in significatively in strong positions.
Features necessary and sufficient to determine a phoneme in significatively strong positions are called differential features of this phoneme.
The sets of differential features coincide for all phonemes.
The phoneme /a/ is realized by a number of sounds, the characteristics of which are lower rise and non-labialization. But /a/ is opposed to all other phonemes by one feature - lower rise. There is not a single phoneme, except /a/, that has the same feature. The sign of lower rise is differential for the phoneme /a/;
Integral features are those features of sounds embodying phonemes that are not involved in contrasting a given phoneme with other phonemes. Integral features are not independent, they are conditional.
High and middle vowels can be labialized or non-labialized; there is a choice of features. Low vowels are necessarily non-labialized. There is no choice of attribute here: the integral attribute is conditioned by the differential one.
So, [a] appears in a position next to soft consonants, [a] - between soft vowels; These are sounds from different series, but they embody the same phoneme /a/.
All phonemes form a system. The basis of any system is interconnection. The basis is the elements that need to be compared.
According to the general feature: b – b’voiced, labial, plosive - integral features.
Contrasted:
before vowels (sang - white)
before sonorants (shine - splash)
Neutralized:
at the end of the word (rod - pond)
in front of a noisy (teska)
Consonant phonemes unpaired in terms of softness and hardness form two different groups:
1) consonant phonemes, in all positions they appear as solid ones (cf. heat, zhor, beetle, fat, tin;
2) consonant phonemes, in all positions are soft (cf. hour, chok, chick, check, yet, reins, etc.);
3) the phoneme always appears as soft, ;
4) velar phonemes, which do not differ in hardness and softness, appear in their soft variants before [e], [i] (cf. guide, whale, hil, helium, bouquet, Hittites).
29. Differential and integral features of phonemes. Consonant sounds and phonemes, contrasted on the basis of hardness/softness. Unpaired phonemes.
All phonemes form a system. The basis of any system is interconnection. At the core are elements that need to be compared and contrasted.
b – b’ – place of formation, method of formation, hard/soft – differential characteristics.
H – j – 2 DP.
Contrasted:
before vowels (mother - knead)
at the end of the word (blood - blood)
l – l" (shelf, polka)
p/linguals before all hard consonants (rarely - radish)
Neutralized:
in all other cases.
Thus, before consonant phonemes that are unpaired in hardness-softness, the hardness and softness of the phonemes does not differ, with the exception of -, and only soft consonants appear before the phoneme.
30. Composition of vowel phonemes. Strong and weak positions of vowel phonemes.
There are as many phonemes in a language as there are sounds in the same significatively strong positions.
Many phonemes occur in strong position in a huge number of words. But what if a sound in a strong position occurs in only one word, or in rare words. Y.
In the Russian literary language, several phonetic subsystems are distinguished: common words, non-common (rare) words, words complex structure, interjections, function words. Each of these subsystems is characterized by its own phonetic patterns.
Moscow school:
A – O – U – E – I (I and Y)
Y exists, but only in the subsystem of non-common words; in the subsystem of common words there are: /i/, /e/, /o/, /a/, /u/.
31. The composition of consonant phonemes of the Russian language. Strong and weak positions of phonemes according to deafness/voice.
Isolating most of the consonant phonemes is not difficult:
In the position before vowel phonemes, consonant phonemes are pronounced most definitely, i.e. differentiated as much as possible. In this position there are 34 consonant phonemes that distinguish the sound shells of words:
labial - , - , - , - , - ;
lingual: - , - , - , - , - , - , - ;
midpalatal ;
postopalatine: , .
32. Historical changes in phonetics. Results of historical changes /accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation/
Laws |
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|
synchronous |
diachronic |
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|
Laws that operate simultaneously at the same time |
The laws of change during action are consistent. |
|||
|
A sound that appears in one position is replaced by another sound in another position. At the same historical time, linguistic era |
One sound is replaced by another sound in the same position, but in different linguistic eras |
|||
Phonetic processes |
||||
|
Not connected |
Connected |
|||
|
First/first |
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Processes associated with the influence of ambient sounds:
Contact (previous - adjacent - subsequent) in the garden, in the garden.
Distant (the sound is distant from other sounds) for us, for him.
Assimilation– likening vowel/vowel, consonant/consonant.
Dissimilation– dissimilarity of sounds. (sweetness – sweet + -ti- = sweets.)
Accommodation- adaptation of a vowel to a consonant and vice versa. (in ancient Russian g, k, x- were replaced by sizzling ones) I can - you can, I bake - you bake. (later they began to be replaced by whistling z, c) face - face, friend - friends. (in modern) game - play
33. Historical changes in phonetics. Results of historical changes/diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis/.
Diaeresis– loss of sound (sun, shine - shine)
Epithesis– insert sound (fire - fire)
Prosthesis– insertion of sounds (octopus - eight)
Metathesis- rearrangement of sounds.
M. are especially frequent in non-literary (colloquial, dialect) forms (for example, “perelinka” from “pelerinka” by analogy with the prefix “pere-”), etc.
M. differ by contiguity (rearrangement of nearby sounds: Russian “marble” from Latin marmor) and M. at a distance (for example, “case” from German Futteral). Particularly distinguished is quantitative M.
34. The concept of orthoepy. “Senior” and “younger” pronunciation standards.
There are 2 points of view on what Orthoepy does.
Avanesov believed that O. deals with all issues of pronunciation. This approach only applies if the Russian is foreign.
Panov considered it necessary to separate phonetics and orthoepy.
Phonetics - studies positional alternations of sounds i.e. alternations are non-exclusive.
Orthoepy - studies only those pronunciation norms that allow variations within the literary language.
Reasons for the differences in options:
Territory
Moscow
Petersburg
Chronological
stylistic
influence of the letter
"Senior" norm |
"Junior" norm |
|
[cm']eh, [ z'v']dammit, [ t'v']fierce |
[cm']eh, [ sound']dammit, [ tv']fierce |
|
[wow uh]ra, [ shi uh]gi, [ shi uh]moons |
[lady]ra, [ sha]gi, [ sha]moons |
|
stro[ g]th, soft[ k]th, ti [ x]th |
stro[ G']th, soft[ To']th, ti [ X']th |
|
post[ k]to spread, smear[ x]fuck |
post[ To']to spread, smear[ X']fuck |
|
hear[ ut], hwa[ l'ut], ho[ d'ut] |
hear[ at], hwa[ l'tt], ho[ d'bt] |
|
returned[ With], met[ sj] |
returned[ With'], met[ With' b ] |
|
ve[ R']x, four[ R']g, ve[ R']ba |
ve R x, four R g, ve R ba |
|
felt shn oh, wire shn th |
felt chn oh, wire chn th |
35. Pronunciation styles. Peculiarities of pronunciation of borrowed words.
Some words retain the pronunciation O (radio, bolero). In other cases, the pronunciation is variable (rococo)
In some borrowed words, the pronunciation of used O is regarded as deliberate (piano, glass, aroma)
Previously, there was a law in the Russian language - a hard consonant before the sound E can only be a soft consonant. (brunette, pioneer, plywood).
In modern language the law is lost - E after a hard consonant.
Many borrowed words begin with the letter E in the used position. In this case, the pronunciation option is if the word is sufficiently mastered in the language (exam, this, energy). If the word is poorly understood in the language, then it is pronounced b/u E (embryo, Evenk). The same thing with the pronunciation of E in the b/u position in the middle of the word. (sandwich)
36. Orthoepic variability in the pronunciation of vowel sounds.
1. The strong position for vowels is the position under stress. In an unstressed position, vowels undergo a change (qualitative or quantitative), i.e. are reduced.
Attention should be paid to difficult cases of reduction. After hissing[zh] and [sh] and sound [ts] unstressed vowel [a] is pronounced like short [a]: jargon, kings. But before soft consonants - like the sound [ые]: regret, thirty. In rare cases, [ые] is also pronounced before hard consonants: rye, jasmine.
2. After soft consonants in the first pre-shock in the syllable, in place of the letters a, e, i, the sound [ie] is pronounced: hours. This is called "hiccupping". It is found in neutral and colloquial styles. “Ekanye” (pronunciation of the sound [ei] in a given phonetic position characterizes stage speech: v[ei]nets, t[ei]rnovy. The pronunciation of h[i]sy is outdated, h[a]sy is dialectal.
3. The consonants c, zh, sh are hard sounds, after them the letters are in place and pronounced [s]: revolution[s]ya, zh[y]zn, sh[y]ry.
4. Pronunciation [ыъ] in an unstressed syllable.
Op[y]t. And also in 2 pre/shock. d[yy]movoy
5. Pronunciation [ъ] - у, [е] - у
In colloquial speech, in place of the letters u/yu there are reduced sounds revolutionary.
6. Proclitics and enclitics do not obey the general laws of reduction. For[a]_us, for[ie]_him.
7. In some complex and complex words, as well as in words with some prefixes, it is possible to position vowels without qualitative reduction. (heavy duty, old Russian)
37. Orthoepic variability in the pronunciation of consonant sounds.
1. The consonant [g] can be pronounced as [g] - year, [k] - enemy, [γ] - Lord, [x] - God, [v] - whom.
The sound [γ] within the modern literary norm is pronounced in a limited number of words, but the pronunciation [g]gospod, a[g]a, o[g]o can be considered a variant of the norm.
2. In the Russian language there is a tendency towards adaptability of the sound appearance of borrowed words from e after a hard consonant, many such words have “Russified” and are now pronounced with a soft consonant before e: museum, cream, academy, overcoat, plywood, Odessa.
But a number of words retain a hard consonant: antenna, business, genetics, detective, test.
Variant pronunciation allowed: dean, claim, therapy, terror, track.
The hard or soft pronunciation of a consonant is determined in dictionary order.
3. According to old Moscow standards, spelling combination chn pronounced as [sh]. Currently [shn] is preserved in the words: of course, boring, scrambled eggs, on purpose, birdhouse, trifling and in female patronymics in -ichna: Fominichna, Kuzminichna. In a number of words, double pronunciation is allowed: baked goods and baked goods, although the latter is becoming obsolete.
4. According to the “senior” norm, the combination cht was pronounced as [pcs] in the word that and words derived from it: nothing, something, etc.
Currently, this rule is preserved for all specified words, except something [w]. In all other words, the spelling cht is always pronounced as [cht]: mail, dream.
5. Combination railway in the word rain and its derivatives it was pronounced according to the “senior” norm as [zh’zh’] (at the end of the word - [sh’sh’]). Modern pronunciation [zh'] (at the end of the word - [sht']) is assessed as a variant of the literary norm.
According to the “older” norm, the spelling combinations zzh and zhzh (yeast, later) were pronounced as [zh’zh’] - a long and soft hissing. Currently, in place of zzh and zhzh, a hard hissing [zhzh] is pronounced. And this pronunciation is assessed as a variant of the literary norm
6. Pronunciation of combinations zdn, zdk, stl, stp, ndn.
In such combinations the background /d/ /t/ is not pronounced (joyful)
But in some cases, phonemes are preserved when they appear in 2 words lay, bony, abyss/t/ is preserved in words.
38. Modern Russian alphabet, its composition. Letter names. Meanings of the letters b and b.
21 letters are consonants, 10 are vowels and 2 are without sounds.
Each letter has two types of letters: printed and handwritten. Each option has two types of letters: uppercase (capital) and lowercase (small).
There are individual and complex letter names. Individual:
Titles vowels letters - two types.
a, i, o, u, y, e consist of one vowel sound.
The names of the letters e, e, yu, i consist of a vowel sound and a consonant preceding it [j]
The names of consonant letters are of four types:
1. The names of the letters b, v, g, d, zh, z, p, t, c, h consist of the corresponding consonant sound and the following vowel [e]: [be], [ve], etc.
2. The names of the letters l, m, n, r, s, f consist of the corresponding consonant sound and the preceding vowel [e]: [el"], [em], etc.
3. The names of the letters k, x, sh, sh consist of the corresponding consonant sound and the subsequent vowel [a]: [ka], [ha], etc.
4. Letter th from the beginning of the 18th century, when it appeared in our alphabet, it was called “and with a short” (by the “brief” icon above the letter; this name was formed according to the type of name of the letter i then available in the alphabet - “and with a dot”) In the second half of the 19th century they began to call it “and short.” This name is unfortunate: the letter th denotes the phoneme /j/, while the name “and short” connects the letter th with the sound [and]. Therefore, the letter y in school textbooks has a new name “y” (read [ii]).
5. Letters ъ and ъ in scientific literature, in accordance with tradition, they are called “er” and “er”. So, in particular, the letters of phonetic transcription are called. In school textbooks these letters are called " solid sign" And " soft sign" The name “soft sign” corresponds to one of the functions of indicating the softness of the preceding consonant phoneme.
Value of b
dividing
b value
dividing
softener
grammatical
39. Meanings of vowels. Vowels after sibilants and Ts
Depending on their position, vowel letters can mean:
1. After a space, a vowel, ъ and ь, the letters e, ё, yu, i mean, .
2. After the consonant letter ё, yu, i indicate the softness of the preceding paired consonant phoneme and vowel phonemes, .
3. After zh, ch, sh, shch, the letter e denotes a phoneme.
4. After a consonant, the letter e denotes a phoneme, and the hardness/softness of the preceding consonant remains either unindicated, or the spelling is outside the scope of the positional principle.
5. After a space, the letter and indicates a phoneme; after a consonant letter – the softness of the preceding paired consonant phoneme and; after b – a combination of phonemes.
6. After a space and a vowel, the letters a, o, y, e indicate; after the letters zh, c, ch, sh, shch - phonemes, in other cases - and the hardness of the preceding consonant phonemes.
7. The letter ы after a consonant indicates the phoneme and the hardness of the preceding paired consonant phoneme.
40. Meanings of consonants.
Depending on their position, consonants can mean:
1. The letters th, zh, ts, ch, sh, shch, indicate phonemes, .
2. The letters b, v, d, z, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f convey the common part of phonemes, , (place and method of formation, deafness/voice). The softness/hardness of these phonemes is indicated by the next letter, or a space, or remains unmarked.
3. The letters g, k, x indicate the entire volume of phonemes, and the subsequent vowel letter or space indicates in what variety (hard or soft) these phonemes are realized. It is quite acceptable to interpret back-language phonemes as paired in terms of hardness and softness (see point 2).
4. The soft sign has several meanings:
a) indicates the softness of the preceding consonant phoneme;
b) acts as a separating sign: it separates a consonant from the next vowel, while the vowels (e, е, ь, я) have the same meaning as after a space, and the letter i has the meaning;
c) the use of ь in words like rye, go, wash, take care, is entirely traditional and relates to spelling.
5. The hard sign is used as a dividing mark.
41. Basic principles of Russian graphics/phonemic and positional
The meaning of a grapheme in the Russian writing system is determined by the action of the basic principles.
1. Phonemic the principle determines that letters in Russian graphics represent phonemes.
2. Positional the principle determines how phonemes are transmitted in writing: the phonemic correspondence of letters can only be established taking into account their position in the word, i.e. her position.
The positional principle is associated with two features of Russian graphics: the designation of hardness/softness of consonants and the designation of the phoneme yot
42. Designation of the phoneme /j / on the letter.
A phoneme in native Russian words is designated by three different ways- depending on the position occupied.
1. At the beginning of a word and between vowel phonemes, iot is denoted by the letters i, yu, e, e.
2. After a consonant phoneme - a combination of the letters ъ or ь with the letters i, yu, e, ё, i.
3. After a vowel phoneme before a consonant phoneme, as well as at the end of a word, it is indicated by the letter y.
In some borrowed words, the phoneme is designated with a deviation from the positional principle: major, yod, battalion.
43. Designation in ya letter of hardness/softness of consonant phonemes.
In the Russian language there are no special letters to indicate hard and soft paired phonemes. The softness of a consonant phoneme before phonemes is indicated by the letters i, ё, yu, i. The hardness of a consonant phoneme before a vowel is indicated by the letters a, o, u, e, s. The softness of a consonant phoneme at the end of a word and before a consonant phoneme is indicated by a soft sign. The hardness of a consonant phoneme in the named positions is indicated by a space or the next consonant letter. The designation of hardness/softness of paired consonants has a number of features:
1. The hardness/softness of the consonant phoneme before e remains unindicated. According to one of the approaches, the softness of consonants is not independent, the phoneme in a given position is hard. According to other views, the position of the consonants in terms of hardness-softness before is strong, since there are pairs of words that differ in the hard/soft consonant before - mayor - mer, sir - ser. The situation is complicated by the fact that the contrasted words belong to different phonetic subsystems. If in native Russian words the paired consonant before is always soft, then the pronunciation norm in borrowed words is unstable and therefore cannot be reflected in writing (except in cases where the distinction between hardness and softness is semanticized). Therefore, it is advisable to consider hardness/softness as a paired consonant before the unmarked one.
2. There are different points of view on the phonological relations of hard/soft backlinguals. According to one point of view, – phonemes unpaired in hardness and softness, – varieties of phonemes, . According to another point of view, hard and soft backlinguals are considered as independent phonemes. The graphics indicate in what variety the back linguals appear before the vowel - hard or soft. To avoid contradictions in the phonological interpretation of graphic designations for combinations of back-language words with vowels, the following formulation can be proposed: the letters a, o, y after g, k, x indicate the hardness of the phoneme (hard variety of the phoneme); the letters i, ё, i, yu, i indicate the softness of the phoneme (a soft variety of the phoneme).*
3. The letters zh, sh, shch, ch, c designate phonemes that do not have the differential feature of hardness/softness. If there is no need to distinguish between hardness and softness in writing, then the phonemic graphics from the possible spellings select those that indicate vowels in an independent position: zhi, shi, cha, schcha, chu, schu. Such spellings are outside the action of the positional (syllabic) principle. The qualification of these spellings as deviations from the positional (syllabic) principle does not seem legitimate: the designation of hardness/softness of consonants is used where necessary, sibilants and affricates do not need this. The spellings i/y after ts, as well as o/e (ё) after sibilants are regulated by spelling.
4. The phoneme does not have its own constant graphic correspondence. In writing, it is conveyed by letter combinations (зж, Жж, Жд), which may also have other phonemic meanings, and the graphics do not indicate what meaning the named letter combinations correspond to in a particular context.
44. Spelling, its sections. The concept of spelling, types of spelling.
Spelling is a historically established system of uniform spellings, as well as a branch of linguistics that studies and develops a system of rules that ensure uniformity of spelling.
In spelling, sections are distinguished:
1. Representation of the phonemic composition of words by letters.
2. Continuous, separate and semi-continuous spellings.
3. Use of uppercase and lowercase letters.
4. Word wrapping.
5. Graphic abbreviations.
The problem of choosing a spelling is inextricably linked with the basic unit of spelling - the spelling. Spelling- this is a spelling that is selected from a number of possible ones in accordance with the spelling rule.
Depending on the nature of the choice of spelling, the following are distinguished: kinds spelling:
a) spelling-letter, including uppercase or lowercase, the presence of a letter or its absence;
b) spelling-space;
c) spelling associated with transfer;
d) spelling in graphic abbreviations.
45. Basic reforms of Russian writing.
The first set of spelling rules appeared only at the end of the 19th century. In 1873, a work appeared: “Controversial issues of Russian spelling about Peter the Great to this day.”
Until the 19th century, there were few literate people. The words were written correctly according to tradition, the canon.
In this work, the spelling was not simplified, the spelling was brought to uniformity.
In 1904, the spelling commission proposed the following changes in the field of spelling:
Kommersant was canceled at the end of a word
The endings of adjectives were replaced: - ago/-yago on -ogo/-him(good/blue to good/blue).
Plural endings of adjectives f.r. and Wed R.
–y/s to –y/s. (old/large to old/large)
The pronouns one - they, one - alone, her - her.
In the 60s at the Russian Language Institute Vinogradov headed the spelling commission M.V. Panov– continued. The proposals were published but not accepted.
46. Transmission of the phonemic composition of words by letters. Question about the main principle of this section. Phonemic principle of spelling.
Letters in a letter are designated by phonemes, regardless of the positions in which they appear. FP – for all morphemes:
unstressed writing of vowels (the same vowels are written as those under stress in the same morpheme) water - water
writing voiced/voiceless noisy consonants (soup - soups)
85% of all words are spelled FP. 15% - violate.
Note:
Not all scientists support this point of view; in many textbooks one can find arguments that the main principle of Russian orthography is morphological (morphemic)
This point of view is connected with the fact that scientists of the St. Petersburg school have a different idea of the phoneme.
The bottom line: morphemes with the same meaning are written alone, regardless of their pronunciation (city - city dweller)
Deviations from the phonemic principle:
Morphemic– writing the letters o/e after sibilants works. (whisper - whisper)
Traditional principle of spelling. In some cases, checking sounds in a weak position is not possible pie o/a/i/e.
The spelling that came by tradition. In this case, the traditional principle does not contradict the phoneme, because The phonemic principle limits the choice of letters and does not provide an unambiguous solution.
Note: There is a traditional spelling that conflicts with assistant, blue.
Phonetic – The letter does not denote a phoneme, but a sound. – free – cloudless, unprincipled.
47. Traditional principle of writing words.
Traditional the principle is a way of designating phonemes in weak positions of one of the letters, the choice of which is not clearly motivated by synchronous linguistic patterns, as well as designating phonemes in strong positions with graphic variants or deviations from the principles of graphics.
We can distinguish groups of words united by the specific implementation of the traditional principle:
1. In most cases, the traditional principle does not contradict the phonemic one, but complements it. There are about 15% of such writings. For example, in the word boot, the hyperphoneme limits the choice of the second letter (o or a), but does not clearly indicate which one to prefer. The choice of the letter a is based on the tradition of writing this word.
2. The writer experiences similar difficulties in situations where a weak position corresponds to a strong position with different phonemes. For example, in the roots zar-/zor-: dawn (zorka - glow). In this and other similar roots, there is also a hyperphoneme in vain and a traditional choice of one of the possible letters to denote the phoneme in a weak position. The phonemic principle in such cases cannot give an answer about the choice of letter, as in the words from point 1. However, unlike point 1, the graphic uniformity of the morpheme is not preserved in these words.
3. In the writing of roots in the words swimmer, swimmer (cf. swim), sunbathe (cf. tan), the letters e after hissing ones and c in an unstressed position in place of the stressed o (turret - shirt, knife - hedgehog) the graphic uniformity of the morpheme is not preserved when it is possible to check a weak position of a strong one.
4. The traditional principle is also used to convey phonemes in strong positions:
4.1. In the spelling of the letter g at the end of adjectives and pronouns - red, blue, what. This use contradicts the phonemic principle of graphics: the letter g denotes a phoneme.
4.2. In writing a soft sign after sibilants in personal endings of verbs, at the end of nouns of the third declension, in infinitive and imperative forms, at the end of individual adverbs and particles. Such writings by M.V. Panov refers to the traditional principle of graphics: a letter does not denote either a sound or a phoneme, its use is purely conditional. We will qualify such spellings as implementations of the traditional principle of spelling, since they do not apply to all word forms.
4.3. In the writing of individual words, for example the word near without a soft sign.
4.4. In the transmission of one phoneme by different letters, for example, tskat - circus - fathers - sisters.
48. Phonetic principle of spelling.
Phonetic principle - a way of denoting a phoneme in a strong and weak position with different letters, in which the graphic uniformity of the morpheme is not preserved. The sound that represents a phoneme in a weak position can be designated by different letters in the Russian graphics system. There are few spellings that correspond to the phonetic principle.
1. Final letters in the prefixes from-/is-, voz-/vos-, raz-/ras-, through-/through-, without-/bes-, niz-/nis-. For example, in the word useless the letter s is written in the prefix, and in the word cloudless z: different letters designate the phoneme in strong and weak positions, and the sound [s], which represents the phoneme in the weak position in the Russian graphic system, can be designated as the letter z, and the letter s.
2. The letters o and a in the prefixes raz-/ras-, roz-/ros-. For example, in the word scatter the letter a is written in the prefix, and in the word scatter the letter o: different letters indicate a phoneme in a strong and weak position. Moreover, the sound [Λ], which implements a phoneme in a weak position, in the Russian graphic system can be designated either by the letter o or by the letter a.
3. Spellings of the endings of nouns of the 1st and 2nd declension in the prepositional case and the 1st declension in the dative singular: to the (ob) army, about the sanatorium, about the building. Phoneme in these endings (cf. to the ground, about the horse, on the tip). The letter is also written according to the phonetic principle, since the sound [and] can be indicated in this position by both the letter i and the letter e.
4. Transmission in writing of consonant alternations according to voicedness/voicelessness in borrowings from the Latin language: abstract - abstraction, transcribe - transcription.
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The sounds of speech, like other sounds around us, are the result of special oscillatory movements of the air. There are two main types of sounds: musical tone (the result of rhythmic vibrations) and noise (the result of non-rhythmic vibrations). When speech sounds are formed, air vibrations are created by the speech organs. Rhythmic vibrations - tones - are created by the vocal cords, non-rhythmic - noises - arise when the flow of air exhaled from the lungs overcomes various barriers that are created in the oral cavity by the tongue and lips.
Thus, all sounds of the Russian language are divided into vowels And consonants. When vowel sounds are formed, the vocal cords are necessarily involved, which is why a tone is formed. At the same time, there are no obstacles in the path of air flow in the oral cavity, so there is no noise. When consonants are formed in the oral cavity, various kinds of obstacles are always created that the air stream must overcome, and therefore noise arises in the presence or absence of vocal cords.
This is an important difference between vowels and consonants. But there are other differences. M.V. Panov, in an experimental Russian language textbook for grade 5, gives the following explanation: “Vowels are mouth openers. The louder we pronounce them, the wider we open our mouth. Consonants are mouth-closers. The louder you need to pronounce them, the tighter you need to close your mouth. Say first quietly and then loudly: ah! A! Have you noticed that in the second case your mouth wants to open wider? Say first quietly and then louder: s! WITH! Have you noticed: when it is louder, the tongue tends to adhere more tightly to the teeth? Vowels are easy to shout. Shout: ah! O! eh! y! And! Easily? Consonants, on the other hand, are difficult to shout, and some are simply not allowed. Angrily yell at your desk neighbor: p! To! n! G! sh! ts! Happened?" notice, that this interpretation convenient for use in elementary grades when explaining the difference between vowels and consonants.
From an acoustic point of view, consonant sounds are not uniform. Depending on the degree of participation of tone and noise, consonants differ sonorous(from lat. sonōrus – sonorous) And noisy. When pronouncing sonorant consonants, tone significantly prevails over noise.
Sonorant sounds include [m], [m`], [n], [n`], [r], [r`], [l], [l`], [th`].
The main component of noisy consonants is the noise that occurs when an air stream overcomes an obstacle in the oral cavity. Moreover, depending on the work of the vocal cords, noisy ones are divided into voiced And deaf consonants. Noisy voiced consonants are formed using noise with the addition of tone (since the vocal cords “turn on”). In teachers' practice primary classes A convenient way for younger schoolchildren to distinguish between voiced and voiceless consonants is often used: you need to put your palm on your throat and name the consonant sounds one by one. When pronouncing voiced consonants, a slight vibration is felt under the fingers, created by vibrations of the vocal cords, but when pronouncing voiceless consonants, there is no such vibration.
Noisy voiced ones include: [b], [b`], [v], [v`], [d], [d`], [z], [z`], [zh], [zh`:] , [g], [g`].
Tone is not involved in the formation of noisy deaf people, only noise is heard: [p], [p`], [f], [f`], [t], [t`], [s], [s`], [sh ], [w`:], [k], [k`], [x], [x`], [ts], [h`].
As you can see, most noisy consonants form correlative pairs: [b] - [p], [z`] - [s`], etc. Such consonants are called paired according to voicedness-voicelessness. The same noisy consonants that do not have a paired voiced one ([ts], [ch`], etc.) - unpaired.
The acoustic characteristics of speech sounds can be represented in the form of the following diagram:
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All topics in this section:
Subject and tasks of phonetics
The subject of the study of phonetics is the entire sound system of a language: sounds in the flow of speech, their natural alternations, compatibility, acoustic and articulatory characteristics. In addition, in phonetics
Concept of sound and letters
The study of the Russian language in primary school begins with the teacher gradually introducing students to the sounds, and then to the letters with which these sounds are indicated in writing. Textbooks and programs
Phonetic transcription
Oral speech, which is the object of consideration of phonetics, differs from written language, which records spoken speech in letter designations. But when studying phonetics, there is a need to accurately characterize
Phonetic units of the Russian language
Our speech is not a continuous stream of sound. It is divided into segments, distinguished by various kinds of pauses. Indeed, to understand the meaning of what has been said, not only the grammatical sequence with
Vowel sounds
Different articulation (the work of the speech organs) allows you to pronounce sounds that are clearly different from each other. The quality of the vowel sound depends on the position of the tongue and the participation of the lips in the process of formation.
Consonant sounds
The articulation of consonants is more difficult than the articulation of vowels. The main feature of the formation of consonants is that the speech apparatus creates an obstacle in the form of closure or convergence of the speech organs.
Syllable. Hyphenation
Our speech is divided into segments of different durations. Let us remember that one of the units of such division is the syllable (see § 4). In modern Russian linguistics there are various theories
Sound changes in speech flow
Sounds in the stream of speech are very rarely used in isolation. They are usually closely related to each other and undergo various changes. If such changes occur within the same sea
Positional changes of vowel sounds
The alternation of vowel sounds depends primarily on their position in relation to the stressed syllable. In it, vowels sound most clearly, so the position of the vowel in a stressed syllable is called
Positional changes of consonants
Positional alternations of consonants are associated with the position of the sound in a word, as well as with the influence of sounds on each other. As with vowel sounds, consonants also have strong and weak positions. One
The concept of phoneme
One of the main phonetic units of language is sound - the minimum speech unit (see § 4). Consequently, it is easy to assume that it is the sound that performs the semantic-distinguishing function: [ardor] –
Composition of phonemes of the modern Russian language
Since a phoneme is determined by its strong variant, it is quite easy to count the number of vowel and consonant phonemes of the Russian language: there are as many of them as there are sounds in strong positions. However, not
Phonemic transcription
The sound composition of a word is conveyed using phonetic transcription, which takes into account all the diversity of spoken speech (see § 3). Phonetic transcription is of great importance for fixing acoustic
Phonetic transcription signs
[a] [o] vowels in strong position
Vowel sounds
It is based on the table presented in “Russian Grammar” (M.: Nauka, 1980). sounds characteristic rise
Consonant sounds
It is based on the table presented in “Russian Grammar” (M.: Nauka, 1980) sounds, voice and noise
Phonetic analysis of the word
I. The order of characterization of a syllable: 1. Stressed or unstressed syllable. 2. Covered or uncovered. 4. Open or closed.
The acoustic aspect of phonetics is the study of speech sounds in terms of their physical characteristics. Sound is a wave vibration of the air environment resulting from the movement of any physical body. When producing speech sounds, various speech organs act as moving bodies: elastic muscles in the larynx - vocal cords, as well as the tongue, lips, etc.
The speech signal is complex sound vibrations propagating in air environment. The sound of speech is the minimum unit of the speech chain that arises as a result of human articulation and is characterized by certain acoustic properties.
The sources of speech sounds in the articulatory tract are:
Noise (vortex) – narrowing of the pronunciation tract;
Explosive - sharp opening of the bow, change in air pressure.
Acoustics distinguishes the following main characteristics of sound: pitch, strength, duration and timbre.
The pitch of the sound depends on the vibration frequency, i.e. from the number of complete oscillations per unit time. The more vibrations there are per unit time, the higher the sound. The human ear can perceive vibrations ranging from 16 hertz to 20,000 hertz, i.e. distinguishes the pitch of sounds in this range. Sounds below 16 Hz are infrasounds and sounds above 20,000 Hz are not perceived by the human ear. The vocal cords can produce vibrations from 40 Hz to 1700 Hz. In fact, the range of the human voice ranges from 80 Hz (bass) to 1300 Hz (soprano). Average range in speech male voice equal to 80-200 Hz, female – 160-400 Hz [see. about this Girutsky 2001].
The strength of the sound depends on the amplitude of the vibration. The greater the amplitude of the vibration, the stronger the sound. The strength of sound is measured in decibels. The sounds of the human voice range from 20 dB (whisper) to 80 dB (scream). The human ear can perceive sound strength up to 130 dB. Stronger sounds can cause a person to go deaf.
In terms of perception, the strength of sound is called loudness. Loudness depends not only on the strength of the sound, but also on its height: sounds of the same strength, but different heights are perceived as sounds of different volumes.
Sound duration (longitude) – the duration of a sound in time. The relative length of sounds is important for language. For example, stressed vowels in most languages are longer than unstressed ones. The duration of speech sounds is from 20 to 220 milliseconds.
Oscillatory movements can be rhythmic, ordered and arrhythmic, disordered. Rhythmic vibrations produce sounds of a certain, stable frequency - tones. Arrhythmic vibrations produce sounds of uncertain, unstable frequency - noise. Uniform vibrations are vibrations of the vocal cords. The result of this vibration is a tone (voice). Uneven vibrations are vibrations of other parts of the speech apparatus, in particular, vibrations of the pronunciation organs in the oral cavity at the moment the air stream overcomes one or another obstacle. This sound is called noise.
In speech sounds, tone and noise are often combined into one mixed tone-noise sound. Based on the ratio of tone and noise, speech sounds can be divided into the following types:
Tone Tone + Noise Noise + Tone Noise
Vowels Sonorants Voiced consonants Voiceless consonants
From an acoustics point of view, the difference between tones and noises is as follows. An air particle can simultaneously carry out several periodic oscillations with different frequencies (different numbers of oscillations per unit time). If simple oscillations occur simultaneously, the frequencies of which are correlated in multiples (in the form of proper fractions), then they add up to a complex oscillation, which also turns out to be periodic (i.e., repeating in the same way at equal intervals of time). All complex periodic vibrations are called tones (harmonic sounds).
Non-harmonic sounds (noise) are the result of the addition of such simple vibrations, the frequencies of which have a non-multiple ratio (in the form of infinite non-periodic fractions). Such complex sounds cannot be periodic (it is impossible to find equal time intervals during which a complex vibration would be repeated in the same way) [see about this: Shirokov 1985].
The tonal sounds of speech (vowels, sonorants, voiced consonants) arise from the harmonic vibration of tense vocal cords. Noisy sounds speech (voiceless and voiced consonants) arise when the exhaled breath overcomes air flow various kinds of obstacles created on his way by the pronunciation organs.
Resonance plays an important role in the formation of speech sounds. Resonance occurs in a closed air environment (for example, in the oral or nasal cavity). The phenomenon of resonance is that the vibration of a sounding body causes response vibrations of another body or air located in a hollow vessel in a closed space. The resonator resonates at a certain frequency of vibrations and amplifies them. Resonance is an increase in the amplitude of a vibration under the influence of other vibrations of the same frequency. For example, the natural sound vibrations of the vocal cords can be amplified by various resonators in the mouth, nose or pharynx. In this case, it is necessary that the vibrations of the resonator coincide in frequency with the vibrations of the vocal cords.
Vibrations of the physical body that creates sound usually occur as a whole and in its individual parts. The tone created by the vibration of the whole body is called the fundamental tone. The fundamental tone is usually the highest in the sound. Tones generated by vibrations of body parts are called partials, or overtones. Overtones have a higher frequency than the fundamental tone. They give sounds that qualitative characteristic called timbre. Timbre distinguishes one sound from another, as well as the pronunciation of the same sound by different persons.
Due to the movements of the speech organs, the shape and volume of the resonator change, which leads to the appearance of different resonator tones.
The sound of speech is not a simple vibration of an air stream, but the addition of several simultaneous vibrations. Overtones are superimposed on the fundamental tone (this is the lowest frequency component of the sound). The number and ratio of these fluctuations to each other can be very different. The ratio of the amplitudes of the different tones that make up a given sound is of great importance. For example, if the fundamental tone of a sound has a frequency of 30 Hz, and the overtones have frequencies of 60, 120, 240, etc. hertz (multiple to the frequency of the fundamental tone), then different ratios of the amplitudes of the frequencies of the fundamental tone and overtones are possible. The timbre of a sound depends not only on the number and frequencies of the amplitudes of the overtones layered on the fundamental tone, but also on the ratio of the amplitudes of all tones that form the sound.
All these components are recorded by precise physical instruments, in particular, a spectrograph, which converts air vibrations into electromagnetic ones, and depicts electromagnetic ones in the form of a special picture with a drawn part of the spectrum - a spectrogram.
With the help of electroacoustic instruments, a complex sound is decomposed into its constituent tones and presented in the form of a sound spectrum. Spectrum – frequency composition of sound. A spectrum is a graphic “portrait” of sound, showing exactly how vibrations are combined in it different strengths and frequencies. Frequency concentration bands—formants—are recorded in the spectrum. The combination of formants and interformant regions gives the sound spectrum. The sound spectrogram is similar to thin shading, in which the formants correspond to denser bunches of lines (see Fig. 5).
Spectrogram of Russian sounds [i] [s]
(See Norman 2004: 213)
The vertical scale shows the vibration frequency in hertz, and the horizontal scale shows the sound strength. The acoustic characteristics of these two vowel sounds are different.
For “identification” and description of speech sounds, the first two formants are usually sufficient. In particular, we can assume that the timbre of sound [i] is determined by a combination of vibrations with a frequency of approximately 500 and 2500 hertz, timbre [s] - 500 and 1500 hertz. For [o] these values are 500 and 1000 hertz, for [y] - 300 and 600 hertz, [a] - 800 and 1600 hertz, etc. And in speech different people these values may vary slightly, depending on the pitch of the fundamental tone, determined by the structure of the speech apparatus. But their ratio remains constant. For example, formants [and] are correlated approximately as 1: 5, formants [o] - as 1: 2, formants [y] - also as 1: 2, but provided that both the first and second formants are lower than those of [ O].
The frequency of formants is in a certain way related to the articulatory properties of vowels. The frequency of the first formant depends on the rise of the vowel (the more open the vowel, i.e. the lower its rise, the higher the frequency of the first formant, for example, in [a] and, conversely, the more closed the vowel, i.e. the higher its rise rise, the lower the frequency, for example, [i], [s], [y]). The frequency of the second formant depends on the vowel row (the more front the vowel, the higher the frequency of the second formant, for example, [and]). Labialization of vowels reduces the frequency of both formants. In accordance with this, the high vowels [i, ы, у] have the lowest first formant in frequency, and the low vowel [a] has the highest first formant. The non-labialized vowel has the highest second formant front row[i], and the lowest is the labialized back vowel [u].
The formant characteristics of consonant sounds are usually more complex. Experimental phonetics has provided precise data on the tonal and formant composition of various sounds in different languages.
The most important acoustic feature of consonants is the nature of the increase in noise at the beginning of their sound. Based on this feature, plosive and fricative consonants are distinguished. The noise decay at the end of the sound is also taken into account. Based on this feature, glottalized consonants (glottal stops) are distinguished, during the formation of which a glottal stop occurs in the final phase of articulation, and non-glottalized ones. There are other acoustic features of consonants.
The use of physical equipment allowed phoneticians to identify and generalize features suitable for describing the sound structure of any language. The desire to describe the diversity of human speech sounds on a unified classification basis contributed to the development of universal classifications based on dichotomous criteria. Each sound with this approach can be characterized through a set of acoustic parameters such as “vocal - non-vocal”, “interrupted - uninterrupted”, “high - low”, “diffuse - compact”, etc.
Experimental (instrumental) phonetics deals not only with individual speech sounds and their classification, it also studies entire fragments of coherent speech - words and utterances. A sound in a speech stream is adjacent to other sounds, and this affects its acoustic properties. The sound “acquires” certain qualities from its neighbors, to the point that it can be very difficult to isolate a separate component from the sound stream.
To study the sound material of a language, experimental phonetics uses special instruments that make it possible to objectively record many significant physical properties sounds. Among these devices are kymographs, which mechanically record on special tapes the sound vibrations of air created by the pronunciation of individual sounds; oscilloscopes that convert air sound vibrations into vibrations electric current and recording these vibrations; tape recorders that record and reproduce sounds at the speed and sequence needed by the experimental phonetician. The most complex instruments are electrical spectrographs, which make it possible to record and analyze the “acoustic composition” of sound and “see” its phonetic structure. Using electrical spectrographs, precise data has been obtained that allows one to calculate the tonal and formant composition of various sounds in different languages.
Currently, the physical properties of sounds are studied not only by linguists, but also by psychologists, engineers, mathematicians, and physicists.
Experimental phonetics solves many applied, practical problems. In particular, it helps to improve telephone and radio communications, sound recording and playback equipment. Electroacoustic research methods make it possible to identify a speaker by voice, i.e. establish, if necessary, the authorship of speech. The problem of automatic recognition of sounding speech (understanding of human speech by a computer), as well as the problem of artificial speech synthesis based on the acoustic characteristics given to the machine, remains relevant for experimental phonetics. Special devices have been created - speech synthesizers, which in practice carry out this task.
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