was very important in the philosophical reflections of Dostoevsky. In nationalism, as in socialism, he saw a form of expression of man's religious inclinations. Nationalism is not a herd instinct, the need to unite in the name of survival, he believed.
On the contrary, the phenomenon of nationalism is a rather late phenomenon. This is a cultural product that has grown out of the awakening awareness of the calling to carry out a special mission. Anyone who rejects nationalism as an atavism is simply blind and does not see an important cultural and philosophical problem.
Through the mouth of his literary character, Dostoevsky expresses the following idea: “If a great people does not believe that the truth is in them alone, if they do not believe that they alone are capable and called to resurrect and save everyone with their truth, then they immediately turn into ethnographic material, and not into a great nation. A true great nation can never reconcile itself to a secondary role in humanity ... but certainly and exclusively to the first. Whoever loses this faith is no longer a people. But there is only one truth, and therefore, only one of the peoples and can have the true God, even if all other peoples had their own special and great Gods. The only people “God-bearer” is the Russian people ... "
Dostoevsky opposed the deification of man in the form of the idea of a superman or a socialist utopia. The idea of the deification of the nation did not cause rejection in him, since his love for Russia was too strong to openly admit that nationalism is also deification, a departure from the truth.
An important page in the work of Dostoevsky is the desire of the writer-philosopher to answer the eternal questions: What is religion? What is God? What is faith? For Dostoevsky it is obvious that the hallmark of religious ideas is the desire for universality. The all-humanity, universality of Christianity is its most attractive feature. If we consider the claims to the universality of socialism, then it can probably be considered a religion. Another religion is nationalism, especially if it takes the form of a great people's desire for world domination. "Humanity as a whole is always striving for the creation of a universal state," says The Brothers Karamazov. "There were many nations great history, but the more developed they were, the more unhappy they were, because when you become stronger than others (peoples), you feel the need for a world-encompassing union. "According to Dostoevsky, the true God is the Christian God, while the gods of socialism and nationalism are fetishes. It can be said that all his work is aimed at defining the difference between true and false gods.
In conclusion, I would like to note the contribution of the great writer-philosopher to psychology. It has become common knowledge that Dostoevsky is one of the most remarkable forerunners of psychoanalysis. The splitting of the personality and internal contradictions, dreams as a reflection of unconscious desires, hidden sexuality and the desire for self-knowledge as the driving forces of our actions - all this was described by Dostoevsky long before Freud and Adler. Of particular interest is Dostoevsky's contribution to the psychology of crime and punishment. He never ceased to be amazed at "the human ability ... to nourish in their souls the most exalted ideals and, side by side with this, the most disgusting baseness, and all this is quite open." Dostoevsky, who viewed man as a complex, contradictory being, is a great teacher of modern psychology.
If we evaluate Dostoevsky's work more broadly, then we can say that he created part of the foundation of the European spirituality of the 20th century, filled the vacuum in the ideological foundations of the modern European tradition.
Another great Russian writer - Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy(1828–1910) is also hardly an academic philosopher. All his life he strove to clearly and, if possible, simply explain the fundamental philosophical and religious issues, resorting to a peculiar confessional and preaching style.
In his youth, Tolstoy was deeply influenced by the philosophical ideas of J.-J. Rousseau and Voltaire. Tolstoy and Rousseau were kindred spirits in many ways. A distinctive feature of both was the combination of rationalism with criticism of civilization. Rousseau rendered big influence on Tolstoy's thoughts on education and, to a certain extent, on his religious ideas, but not on his aesthetics and philosophy of history. Tolstoy's hatred of the church and priests is very much in tune with Voltaire's famous position. Later, Tolstoy discovered A. Schopenhauer, called him the greatest genius and was surprised that he was so little known. At the same time, Tolstoy was reading Kant, who also had a significant influence on him as a thinker. Tolstoy's philosophical style is reminiscent of Schopenhauer's. Both are characterized by confidence, strength and brightness of the image.
In his philosophical works, Tolstoy considers almost all forms of human existence from his own, often unusual, but always profound point of view. He created the philosophy of history and the theory of art. Tolstoy worked for almost six years on a critical translation of the Gospel from the original language into Russian, with proper philosophical commentaries and explanations. To this should be added a mass of works on socio-ethical, national-economic, pedagogical and political issues.
One of the questions deeply occupied Tolstoy was the theme of death. According to Tolstoy, death is a painful death, a reminder of the meaninglessness of life. To overcome death, we must break all ties that bind us to everything personal: to our loved ones, to our property, to our fame and our success. We must rise in love for everything and everyone that identifies our life with life itself. Then death will not overtake us. Our death is only a physical change of the flesh, which - if you look deeper - concerns us as little as any other of the separate objects of being. “In the cosmic ecstasy of love, the destructive forces of space and time cease to operate,” writes Tolstoy in his most profound philosophical work. "About life". Finding meaning in existence for Tolstoy means finding something that overcomes death. And the question of the meaning of life for Tolstoy is the most important religious question. Religion and death are close. Religion for Tolstoy is a force that gives a person the opportunity to face the fact of death and at the same time not part with life of his own free will.
Tolstoy is often called an anarchist, a subverter of idols and authorities. Anarchism Tolstoy is closely connected with his desire for simplification, an attempt to construct a living space in which most of the ethical and social norms that complicate life in a cultural society would be discarded. He never concealed his hatred for all representatives of authority and order on earth: generals, ministers, judges, priests and the like. But in Tolstoy's anarchism one can see not only psychological grounds. AT in a certain sense We can also talk about the socio-cultural basis. Perhaps Tolstoy's hatred of order is not so much a hatred of order in general, but of the unnatural orders of the milieu to which he himself belonged.
Most researchers of Tolstoy's work note his peculiar desire to "turn his back on Europe." Apparently, this is due to Tolstoy's deep conviction that, geographically and historically, Europe is only a small corner of the world. We must learn to look beyond the European horizon. The leading motive in Tolstoy's thinking is the idea that there are ethical, religious and social ideals more universal than European ones. In the Catholic, Orthodox and Reformed churches, he saw a distortion of the basic ideas of Christian teaching. When Christianity is freed from European clothes, a grain of wisdom remains from it, which can be crystallized, for example, from Buddhism or Confucianism.
Main thesis philosophy of history Tolstoy can be summarized as follows: all historical events are necessary. The course of history is determined not by the free intervention of individual individuals, but by transpersonal factors, which, however, cannot be recognized. Tolstoy goes on to argue that the problem of free will recurs throughout history throughout history. Every serious historian is compelled to think about it, if not in the abstract, then at least in some concrete historical context. Freedom and necessity are two sides of the same coin.
It is an indisputable fact that the more our knowledge deepens, the less inclined we are to talk about chance and free will. In this regard, Tolstoy examines the relation of historical necessity to the place of the observer in time. He says that a phenomenon seems to us all the more necessary the further it is removed from us in time. But it is also true that at a very great distance the connection of events disappears in the darkness of ages and for this reason alone seems mysterious and incomprehensible. When considering the relationship of historical perception to the removal in time, another aspect is revealed. Namely, the necessity that we find in a historical phenomenon extends not only to what happened, but no less to what followed it. Tolstoy criticizes teleological historiography, which sees the driving force of history in the conscious goals of historical figures or historians themselves.
As for the topic of personality in history, there is, Tolstoy is sure, a tendency to overestimate the so-called independence of great people. So there is a stupid admiration for the heroes in history, who actually deserve critical exposure. When studying the positions of prominent personalities, we must start from the fact that they did not have independent significance as a historical factor.
To understand history, according to Tolstoy, means to feel a particle of living life in its concrete reality and the endless complex interaction between its parts. In its highest manifestation, this understanding is a synthesis of scientific knowledge and artistic forms.
In his philosophy of art Tolstoy, in addition to exploring the concept of art, also speaks about what kind of art he considers good, or, in other words, corresponding to the enlightened religious opinion of our time. According to Tolstoy, good art should be of two main types. He calls them religious and universal art.
National and ethnic problems at the present stage of human development are among the most acute and painful, and in this regard, the study of the phenomenon of nationalism in the history of political thought is of particular relevance.
The activation of the processes of nationalism is most pronounced among peoples at earlier stages of socio-political and economic development. Adaptation to the global technogenic civilization is often perceived by them as the economic and cultural expansion of more developed neighbors, accompanied by the imposition of an alien way of life on them. A similar situation is developing in today's Russia.
Law and modern states at the turn of the millennium, during the lifetime of one generation, the previously existing value system collapsed and a new one began to emerge, which led to a feeling of insecurity among a huge number of people. The previously clearly delineated life in society began to lose its certainty, and a person faces the problem of choosing new guidelines. Therefore, the desire to regain a stable social identity and the psychological comfort associated with it increases, which very often manifests itself in the form of nationalism.
Assessing nationalism from a moral and ethical point of view, most researchers recognize its enormous historical role in the development of many nations and states. It is indicated that only over the past one and a half to two centuries, thanks to nationalism, France was consolidated, Italy, Germany were united, the political independence of Poland, Finland, Greece was restored, many peoples of Asia, Africa and Asia won independence. Latin America. This includes the former Soviet republics. It is believed that it was nationalism that destroyed and erased from the map of the Earth such great world empires as the Austro-Hungarian, British, Ottoman, Russian. We also note that many achievements in literature, art, culture and in a number of humanities were largely due to nationalism.
At the same time, it should be noted that nationalism was a powerful tool in the hands of the dictatorial regimes of Italy and Germany, Spain and Portugal, and in combination and intertwined with fascism and racism, it harmed the development of many peoples of the world.
Hundreds of books have been devoted to the problem of nationalism, the search for its roots and origins, and the disclosure of the nature and essence of this phenomenon, however, it cannot be argued that its mystery has been fully solved.
At the end of the 90s of the XX century - early XXI century, nationalism began to manifest itself clearly in the political and social life of Russia. It can be argued that there was an explosion of national intolerance, and nationalism gained new strength, finding its reflection in the nationalist parties. The subject of our research topic is the concept of nationalism, and the object is the prospects for the development of the future of Russia in the conditions of nationalism.
The concept and essence of nationalism
There is no short and comprehensive definition of nationalism, and probably cannot be. Having considered the many existing definitions of this phenomenon, one can point to a number of qualities and characteristics of nationalism, which is a manifestation of respect, love and devotion to that nation, people, ethnic group to which a given person belongs - devotion to self-sacrifice in the present, respect and admiration for the past and desire for prosperity, glory and success in the future. In this nation, each individual is a part of the whole, and the nation cannot and should not leave its person defenseless both inside and outside its habitat, and vice versa, each individual of this nation must always be ready to sacrifice himself for the sake of his people. Nationalism is often confused with patriotism, but there is a serious difference between them. Nationalism represents boundless love and readiness for self-sacrifice for one's people, ethnic group, and patriotism is the same love and readiness for self-sacrifice in the name of the motherland, state.
There is nationalism - the spiritual self-consciousness of the people, which has a Divine basis; the instinct of national self-preservation, faith in the strength of one's people; the predominance of the interests of one's ethnic group over all others, leading to the nation's ability to effectively fight hostile foreign elements. Nationalism represents the highest phase of the development of patriotism, in which the main truth is that the nation is primary, the state is secondary.
Now let's move on to the very essence of nationalism. The idea of a nation inevitably gives rise to specific political actions, in a systematized form and representing nationalism. In the very general concept nationalism is political movement aimed at expressing and protecting the interests of the national community either in the international arena or in relations with state power. Moreover, the first of them is the nationalism of the leading, or main state-forming nation, while the second is the nationalism of the ethnic minority.
Objectively, national movements are aimed at using political mechanisms both within the state and in the international arena to increase the level of community of citizens of the same nationality and protect their interests. Nationalism, from the point of view of the political sphere, works most effectively only when relations within the country need the cultural and social cohesion of society or individual sections of its population.
Practical experience has shown us that nationalism is not only used in recognizing the existence of a nation, as well as its special interests, but also claims the superiority of nationally oriented needs over all other hopes and intentions of people. A high assessment of national priorities is often intertwined with ideas of independence, which, in turn, almost constantly gives rise to demands for obtaining a certain part of state sovereignty and its political and administrative consolidation. All this may mean granting the nation a certain autonomy within the state, and even the creation of an independent state entity.
In most cases, the goal of nationalism is also to increase the efficiency of the state, to carry out reforms in it that can qualitatively increase the level of cultural and social protection of citizens of a particular nationality. Another fairly common goal of national movements is the acquisition by national groups of "national-cultural autonomy", which guarantees the acquisition by citizens of a particular nationality of other opportunities for expressing their identity, expanding the rights to special forms of political representation, and legislative initiatives.
Given the high political significance national movements in modern states, in many cases nationalism is used as a political cover for gaining power by completely different social forces. This form of nationalism often becomes a cover or a tool for penetration into the political market of those forces that are not interested in public disclosure and presentation of their true goals to public opinion.
Types of nationalism and the causes of its occurrence
Many researchers believe that nationalism is an ideology and politics that actively use national feelings and emotions for their own purposes. Let us consider in more detail the classification of Snyder and Hayes.
According to Snyder, there are four types of nationalism:
1. Integrative nationalism (1845-1871). During this period, according to Snyder, nationalism was a unifying force that contributed to the consolidation of feudal fragmented peoples (Italy, Germany).
2. Dividing nationalism (1871-1890). The successes of nationalism in the unification of Italy and Germany stimulated the struggle for national independence of the peoples belonging to the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and other empires, which ultimately led to their disintegration.
3. Aggressive nationalism (1900-1945). The first half of the 20th century witnessed an acute conflict of opposing national interests, which resulted in two world wars. During this period, nationalism becomes identical with imperialism.
4. Modern nationalism (1945 - present). The new nationalism made itself known mainly through anti-colonial revolutions. This period is marked by the spread of nationalism on a global scale.
Hayes in his classification distinguishes the following types of nationalism: Jacobin, traditional, liberal, integral and economic.
These two classifications do not explain anything and only serve to confirm that nationalism is a policy and ideology that uses national feelings to achieve its goals.
Consider the most extended classification of E.A. Pozdnyakov:
1. Ethnic nationalism is the nationalism of an oppressed or enslaved people fighting for their national liberation, it is the nationalism of a people striving to acquire their own statehood. It has its own policy and ideology.
2. State-state nationalism is the nationalism of state-formed peoples (nations) striving to realize their national-state interests in the face of such nations.
3. Everyday nationalism is a manifestation of nationalistic feelings at the level of the individual and small social groups. It is usually expressed in xenophobia, in a hostile attitude towards foreigners and representatives of other ethnic groups.
As a result, it is worth noting that nationalism is nothing but a combination of ideology and politics in their inseparable unity. If at least one element is removed, then we will get a feeling of attachment to our people, as well as devotion to our homeland, that is, ethical categories that in themselves do not have real power. But if we add to them the appropriate ideology and politics, then we will get a nationalism capable of creating and destroying states, uniting and dividing people, and under certain conditions, inciting enmity, conflicts and hatred.
Nationalism has always been perceived ambiguously. In Marxist-Leninist historiography and political science, the nationalism of the oppressed nations and the nationalism of the peoples of the colonial and dependent countries stood out as unambiguously positive. At the same time, bourgeois nationalism, despite its often creative role, was considered a negative phenomenon. As for proletarian, socialist or communist nationalism, it could not exist at all. Only internationalism could coexist with these epithets.
And modern nationalism is perceived in Russian society in two ways. Many condemn it, considering it a destructive ideology, while others actively support it, often in an aggressive form (for example, skinheads).
At the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century, nationalist problems in Russia acquired unprecedented acuteness and relevance. What are the reasons for the spread of nationalist ideology at the end of the 20th century in a country that fought against nationalism, namely, with its most extreme and cruel manifestation - fascism. First of all, it is worth noting that Russia is a multinational country, more than one hundred and thirty peoples and nationalities live in it, and national problems have always existed here. But in the 1990s, national and racial conflicts on the territory of Russia, as well as the confrontation of individual nationalities reached a record high. The reasons for this phenomenon are instability in the country and low level life, the uneven development of regions and the intensification of migration processes, the growth of conflicts between cultures and ethnic groups, the war in Chechnya, separatism and terrorism.
Nationalism in the context of globalization
In the conditions of globalization taking place against the backdrop of a deep crisis of modern civilization, the problems of nationalism have become the most relevant. This phenomenon has produced controversial results. On the one hand, the living conditions of ethnic and national communities are most closely approaching due to integration processes. And, on the other hand, globalization leads to the loss of their identity by these communities, stimulating nationalism as a response. Thus, globalization and nationalism are two interdependent, often inseparable phenomena of our time. In Russia, the relevance of the problem of nationalism is not only associated with globalization, but also due to many prerequisites laid down during the period of "socialist national construction". In connection with the collapse of the USSR, the transition of Russian society from the Soviet system to the liberal-democratic one, many of the "time bombs" laid by the founders of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics have exploded or are ready to explode.
The problem of nationalism
History provides many examples of nationalism. The most striking and closest historical example is National Socialism or German Nazism, which was an extreme and cruel manifestation of nationalism. Destroyed to the ground economy, general disbelief and apathy, mass unemployment - such was Germany, which was defeated in the First World War. Hitler came to power, who inspired the Germans with the idea of their superiority over all other peoples. This idea has found many supporters, both in Germany and abroad. National Socialism became the dominant ideology of the Third Reich.
What was the essence of German Nazism? Its ideologists proclaimed the German nation the highest value, for the sake of which everything could be done. Jews and Gypsies turned out to be people outside the law and subject to immediate destruction, it was decided to leave the Slavs alive, but only as cheap labor. Negroes and mulattoes also caused Hitler a strong annoyance.
Nationalism destroyed Germany.
The logical consequence of the National Socialist ideology was an attempt to conquer "living space", which turned into a debilitating war in the East. However, Hitler miscalculated: the combined forces of the allies defeated the troops of the "Third Reich" and their allies in Europe, Africa, Asia, pacific ocean. So the Germans were cured of nationalism.
Today we are witnessing the revival of Nazism - neo-Nazism. And not only in defeated Germany or in the countries allied with it. This phenomenon also affected the peoples of the former Soviet Union (especially Belarusians, Russians, Ukrainians), who fully survived the horror of the Nazi invasion. And now not only individual politicians, but also entire organizations proclaim the ideas of national exceptionalism, skillfully confusing the average citizen, passing off nationalism for patriotism.
In our opinion, today the danger of the emergence of Nazism in our country is small, but the fact that this inhuman political doctrine still exists, and the number of its supporters does not decrease, leads to sad thoughts about our future. Namely, can humanity learn the lessons of past events and prevent a repeat of the collapse?
Contemporary nationalism in Russia
At present, there is a noticeable increase in nationalist sentiments in Russia, as evidenced not only by the activities of Russian nationalist groups and organizations, but also by the millions of votes cast for the Liberal Democratic Party, a significant part of which belong to nationalist-minded voters, as well as the intensification of separatist sentiments in the national republics Russian Federation. What is the socio-psychological basis of various manifestations of nationalism?
Obviously, one of its carriers (perhaps the most massive) is the lumpenized part of society. Marx also saw in the lumpen proletariat - "this scum of all classes" - a layer of people who do not have a firm social position and therefore are unstable and corrupt. Nationalism attracts the lumpen because it gives him the consciousness of superiority over the representatives of all other nations as a result of his mere belonging to a given national community. No labor, no effort, no talent or merit is needed to consider myself superior to a Tatar, an Armenian, an Uzbek, or a Jew just because I am Russian. Or consider myself superior to a Russian because I am a Chechen (or Jew, Armenian, Georgian, etc.). Nationalism divides nations.
As one of the factors influencing the processes taking place in society, in the sphere of national relations, there is a certain tradition of a nationalist nature, suppressed in the past, but preserved and still nourishing and supporting nationalist sentiments in the Russian environment. Indeed, in the USSR, not only the actively cultivated factor of “friendship of peoples” operated, but the conditions of hidden tension in interethnic relations and the negative perception of people of a different nationality were also preserved. On a surface public life everything seemed to be in harmony with the official ideology of internationalism, but after the weakening of its fetters, national problems began to appear already in the period of perestroika.
The collapse of the USSR led to the aggravation and the emergence of new problems and contradictions in almost all of its former republics and in many respects contributed to the growth of nationalism in all parts of the former Soviet Union. Having gained sovereignty, the new states needed an ideological justification for their legitimacy, and the ideology of nationalism became the most convenient for this.
As for Russia, it became like Germany during the Versailles Treaty. Previously, Russia and Russians were primarily identified with the Soviet Union all over the world, but now it has turned from a mighty superpower like the USSR into an economically uncompetitive state dependent on the West. According to a number of economic, demographic and environmental indicators, Russia has shifted backwards. The death rate exceeded the birth rate. The existence of Russian science, the only means by which the country can overcome its technological lag behind the West, has been threatened.
Russia has become a country without a past and future, its entire recent history has been revised and revised, and the life and work of entire generations Soviet people was crossed out, devoid of meaning. With the collapse of the USSR, 25 million Russians lost their homeland, finding themselves in neighboring Russia, but already foreign states. In some former republics of the USSR, they began to be oppressed and expelled from the country, they began to be discriminated against on a national basis. The country and the people suffered a terrible national humiliation. Isn't this the ground for nationalism?! One can only be surprised that his rise was not as powerful as one might expect.
Nationalism as a political threat
The growth of nationalism poses a huge political threat to Russia, so it is necessary to put up barriers to it.
Nationalism became the banner of reactionary political forces in Russia during the wars and revolutions of the early 20th century. The Communists came to power under the flag of internationalism and international solidarity of the working people, and, indeed, these slogans were put into practice. Solution of internal national problems associated with the building of socialism, with the progress of the economy and culture, i.e. considered as part of the overall process of social development. The class approach dominated.
But already before the war, under the banner of internationalism and under the pretext of fighting local nationalism, the destruction of national cadres began. A stream of repressions swept through all the national republics, and the Russian people suffered from this no less than others. During the period Patriotic War the place of internationalism was taken by patriotism and statehood. During this period, entire nations were subjected to repression. A complete departure from the principle of internationalism was marked by the struggle against cosmopolitanism that began in 1948, when the former internationalists suddenly became "rootless cosmopolitans." At the same time, it is hardly possible to declare the transition of the party leadership to nationalism. The difference between patriotism and nationalism was discussed above, and the new policy became an expression of patriotism as a party ideology of statehood.
During the years of stagnation in the field of national relations and in the national question as a whole, as in many other things, there was a doublethink, a split between the real life process and its ideological and propagandistic garb. A lot was hidden from public opinion, from the assessment of society - moods, real problems, tension, conflict situations. Banned was the objective scientific study scope of national relations and publicity in this area is not allowed. Officially, the national question was considered resolved and not subject to discussion. All this had a corrupting effect on the public consciousness.
Forces in the early 90s. of the last century, who came to power in Russia on a democratic wave, set themselves the goal of putting an end to the “empire” at all costs and freeing themselves from the power of the “center”, i.e. union leadership. At the same time, they rejected everything positive that was achieved in the relations between nations, in the rapprochement of peoples during the years of Soviet power, and completely ignored the patriotic feelings of the majority of the Soviet people who voted in a referendum on March 17, 1991 for the preservation of the Union.
The paradox of history is that Russia, which for many centuries gathered lands around itself and created a powerful state, now, in the person of its supreme power, acted as the main initiator of the collapse of this state, declaring its sovereignty and the priority of its laws over those of the Union. For Russians, this act was a violation of a long-term historical tradition. And this violation itself and the events that followed it contributed to the growth and strengthening of nationalism in the country. At the same time, by destroying the Union, the Russian "democrats" played into the hands of the local separatists, for whom nationalism was the banner of their struggle for power.
A wave of anti-Russian nationalism has risen in Ukraine, especially in its western regions. The President of Russia described the situation as follows: “What happened? What happened is that people are tired of poverty, of theft, of the rudeness of the authorities, of their irrepressible greed, of corruption, of the oligarchs who have climbed into power. People are tired of all this. And when society and the country slide into such a state, people begin to look for ways out of this situation and, unfortunately, they partially turn to those who, speculating on current difficulties, offer some simple solutions. Among them are nationalists. And what, we didn’t have this, perhaps, in the 90s? Was there not this “parade of sovereignties”, was there no nationalism that flared up then in a bright color? Yes, it was all, we all went through it! And this is how it happens everywhere. This is what happened in Ukraine. These nationalist elements took advantage of this and brought everything to the state we are seeing now. Therefore, this is not our failure, this is a failure within Ukraine itself.” Nationalism began to spread in the Central Asian and Transcaucasian republics. Local nationalism and separatism also exist in Russia itself.
To overcome global problems and dangers, it is necessary to unite the efforts of all the peoples of the Earth, of all mankind. And these dangers include not only the threat of exhaustion of non-renewable natural resources, but also much more. The prospect of isolation and national isolation of Russia, which the nationalists offer her, will not protect Russia from these dangers, but rather strengthen them. The current government is aware of this threat and counteracts it. “As for radical nationalism, we have always fought against it and will continue to fight,” V.V. Putin. “I have repeatedly said that nationalism is a very harmful and destructive phenomenon for the integrity of the Russian state, because it initially developed as a multinational and multi-confessional country.”
In the modern world, the processes of internationalization of public life are underway, caused by the dynamics of the world market, technological progress, the development of science and education, the informatization of society, and the growing mobility of the population. These processes are inevitable and it is pointless to resist them. But they give rise to contradictions, because they collide with traditional national cultures, and they themselves are contradictory, since they not only smooth out national differences, but also open up new opportunities for national development.
Modern nationalism is trying to slow down the processes of integration and internationalization taking place in society. But the path of nationalism is a dead end, its attitudes do not allow finding ways to resolve the contradictions that arise here, to work out the principles of coexistence of different cultures.
Mankind has already matured to understand that the diversity of nations, cultures, languages is its wealth, its property, which there is no need to refuse. And this means that the essence of the national question in its modern form can be summed up in one sentence: how everyone can learn to live together and in peace.
Ways to overcome the problems of nationalism
National contradictions and conflicts will continue to arise, since the relationship and interaction of nations has not only purely ethnic, but also economic, political, cultural and other components. And therefore of paramount importance for ensuring normal interethnic relations has a national policy and development of mechanisms for resolving emerging contradictions.
World experience shows that people of different nationalities can get along well with each other if one nation does not place itself above others, if the language and culture of each nation can develop freely and no obstacles are placed on them, if people of different nationalities, based on the fact that the limit of my freedom is the freedom of another, they respect each other's customs and traditions. It is also very important how the peoples themselves relate to each other, what prevails in their feelings - a calm and kind attitude towards this or that nation, or enmity, hostility and even hatred. Negative attitudes can flare up quickly, but fade slowly. Therefore, a consistent policy focused on the peaceful resolution of contradictions and the prevention of national clashes and bloody showdowns is so important. These include democracy, political stability, the development of integration processes on the territory of the CIS, the right of a nation to self-determination up to the formation of statehood, the autonomy of nations in matters of culture and language, and the recognition of national equality. Great importance has intolerance and avoidance of mutual hostility of nations, negative perception of other customs, traditions, peculiarities, etc.
Whatever contradictions arise in the mutual relations of nations, they must reckon with each other's interests. The world is dominated by integrative processes, the era of national wars is a thing of the past. Learning how to continue to live peacefully and together is a big job that affects all aspects of public life: the economy, politics, the social sphere, and culture. It is necessary to think over how to make the idea of the national revival of Russia a joint concern of all its peoples, where each, in accordance with his abilities, contributes to the common cause, where the role of the Russian people and their responsibility is decisive, and where forward movement will take place on the basis of the principles of democracy, patriotism , justice, humanism and mutual respect. Then nationalism will not pass to Russia.
The emergence of ethnic conflicts and clashes have become a frequent occurrence in Russia. Nationalism arises at a low standard of living, with a strong differentiation of society, and, penetrating into various strata of society, contributes to the emergence of aggressive youth and the emergence of political parties of a nationalist orientation.
At present, there appears to be little immediate threat to democratic freedoms from the radical nationalist movement. At the same time, due to a number of economic and social reasons, there is a possibility of a gradual shift of the current regime towards more radical forms of nationalist ideology. To solve the problems associated with ethnic conflicts and xenophobic clashes, the state must choose and consistently implement a balanced policy.
National strife, national enmity... Intolerance towards a person with a different language, skin color, different culture. In one country, then in another, ethnic conflicts flare up. What is behind this? What fuels this feeling?
The author in this article raises the problem of interethnic relations that is relevant in our time.
Recently, it has been one of the central problems of our life, more and more often it makes itself felt not only in such cases, one of which is described by the author, but also in bloody hooligan clashes. From TV screens, from the pages of newspapers, we learn about the terrible reprisals of skinheads against foreigners. Nationalism leads to such terrible events - the most disgusting manifestation of the imaginary superiority of one nation over another. The author is especially bitter about the problem that has arisen, because Russia has traditionally evolved for centuries as a multinational state, famous for its single multinational literature, culture, science, international relations, even the victory in the Great Patriotic War is the merit of the entire multinational Soviet people, and attempts to destroy all this cannot cause the author's pain.
A clearly formulated author's position helps to better understand the idea of the text: the fight against nationalism is the task of the whole society and every person.
I cannot but agree with the author. Many arguments can be made in defense of this position. D. Likhachev, A. Pristavkin, A. Solzhenitsyn and other famous people repeatedly addressed this problem. And, Pristavkin in the story "A golden cloud spent the night" considers this problem through the prism of the children's fates of Sasha and Kolya Kuzmenysh, shows. That children do not turn away from each other neither the color of the skin, nor the shape of the eyes. I would also like to single out the film “We are from the future”, in which modern skinheads go into the past and participate in the battles for their homeland, after which they turn from Nazis into pacifists.
The most striking thing is that the governments of some countries, which should prevent national conflicts, by their actions contribute to their kindling. Recall the incident in Estonia with the transfer of the monument Soviet soldiers, and in Georgia - the explosion of a monument to the heroes of the Great Patriotic War, who deeply offended the veterans and the memory of those people who sacrificed their lives to save all mankind from fascism.
It seems that the problem raised by the author is unsolvable. As long as humanity exists, so many wars and conflicts exist. If for thousands of years people have not been able to change anything, is it worth it for us to try? Costs! And I am sure that we will succeed if everyone starts with moral education himself.
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abstract
On the topic: "Nationalism: Pproblems and contradictions"
Tambov 2009
1. The concept of nationalism
2. Nationalism as an ideology
3. Origins of nationalism in Russia
4. Stages of the ethnic process
5. Models of Russian nationalism
6. Ways to resolve ethnic conflicts
Literature
1. The concept of nationalism
Nationalism is a system of ideological and value orientations that recognize the priority of the national idea in the political life of society.
Nationalism is an ideology and politics based on the ideas of national superiority and opposition of one's nation to others.
Nationalism is a doctrine and political practice based on the idea that the basis of statehood, economic and cultural systems are integral communities called nations.
Different political ideologies usually manifest themselves in national forms, reflecting the peculiarities of the situation, interests, mentality, cultural and other traditions of certain nations. In cases where the national problem dominates over the social, when the content of the ideology is based on the opposition of nations, the recognition of the exclusivity and superiority of one's own nation over others and the desire to provide it with privileges at the expense of other national groups, it is nationalistic.
Nationalism in its modern sense originated in the 18th century as a form of protest against national oppression and lack of rights. The prerequisite for its emergence was the development of communication between representatives of ethnic groups and the formation of a common national identity among them. Being directed against national oppression, colonial dependence and various forms of discrimination, national ideology plays a progressive role: it contributes to the consolidation and liberation of the nation, the creation of independent states, the development of national culture and the development of national interests. However, in the modern world, when the state respects human rights, when it ensures the equality of all nations, it loses any progressive, humane content.
The national ideology is formed on the basis of real national communities of people, however, it exaggerates, exaggerates the significance of national differences and the merits of one's own nation. Using national self-consciousness, patriotic feelings, linguistic and other ethnic kinship, it transforms them into a hostile, aggressive position in relation to other nations.
In the modern world, its distribution is based on methods of manipulating people's minds, sophisticated technologies of mass deception with the help of the media.
2. Nationalism as an ideology
Nationalism as an ideology is a kind of group egoism that does not recognize the equality of nations and their representatives.
Fascist ideology is an extremely radical form of nationalism. She interprets the concept of nation as the highest eternal community based on the unity of blood. All nations are divided into superior and inferior. At the same time, the former must dominate the latter, ruthlessly suppressing resistance up to destruction.
A classic example of fascism is Italy in the 20-30s of the XX century, the ideology of Mussolini's movement.
Widespread manifestations of nationalism today are separatism and isolationism, breaking the natural ties between peoples and causing damage to citizens of all nations.
Nationalist ideas and values are usually disseminated by political elites and rulers to achieve their own selfish goals: justifying their own claims to power, distracting the population from failures in politics, the seizure of other people's wealth, etc.
Religious ideologies have a wide political influence, for example, Christian-democratic, Islamic fundamentalism, the ideology of the “greens”.
Political directions of nationalism: democracy, fascism, communism.
Features of nationalism:
· Based on the requirement that governments and the ruled must have a cultural identity;
· Development modern systems mass communications facilitates the spread of a unifying national ideology;
· National ideologies are attractive to the subordinate classes, providing them with some protection from exploitation;
· In the 21st century, nationalism is associated with the economic development of third world countries and with the struggle for regional equality in societies.
3. Origins of nationalism in Russia
Russia was developing into a multinational country under the pressure of various circumstances. The unification of peoples took place both voluntarily and forcibly.
In cases where accession was achieved through coercion, it was most often dictated by the urgent need to secure these lines in areas that posed a constant threat.
Unlike the practice of other countries of the West and East, the peoples annexed to Russia were not subjected to humiliating discrimination in the system of government.
For them, it most often had not a direct, but an indirect purpose, without encroaching on the basic norms of their social life, while respecting their customs and religious commitments.
The internal autonomy of multinational communities and external Russian administrative restrictions indicate that not suppression, but political compromise was incorporated into the Russian state system.
Russia, formally proclaimed a federation in 1918, has gone through a complex and contradictory path of development. As you know, most federations in the world were created by uniting peoples or territories into a single complex state. The formation of such states took place in the direction from the bottom up, through the transfer of part of their rights by regional authorities federal authorities state power based on the division of powers between them. In this regard, in the vast majority of even multinational federative states, not to mention mononational ones, they were based on the territorial principle of government, with the goal of bringing the authority closer to the population and the controlled territory.
The Russian Federation was formed differently. This is due to a number of objective and subjective reasons. By the end of the First World War, tsarism began to lose control over part of the outlying territories, which had previously been under authoritarian political regime tightly controlled from the center. The change in the form of government (transition from a monarchy to a bourgeois republic) further weakened the unity and territorial integrity of the country.
The Bolsheviks inherited a territorially fragmented country with a collapsed mechanism of state power. Obviously, they had only one way out - to proclaim a federation of the national type, based on the principle of autonomization. That is, the federation was created not according to the traditional type of combining several parts into one whole, but, on the contrary, by transferring part of the powers to the local authorities from the central government.
Naturally, the central government sought either to turn this procedure into a formal act, or to retain the ability to control and interfere in the exercise of power by the bodies of the subjects of the federation.
Russia in Soviet times was complex education, uniting peoples of different language groups, cultures and confessions. The ethnic core of the country is Russians, who make up more than 80% of its population.
However, this does not allow us to refer the country to the type of mono-ethnic states, since the territory of Russia is the historical homeland of many peoples who have retained their cultural identity.
The ethnopolitical process in the country proceeds differently depending on the specifics of the socio-cultural and socio-economic regions of the country that have developed.
Four regions of active manifestation of the ethnopolitical process can be distinguished:
Russian North (territory of settlement of the Finno-Ugric peoples),
South Siberian region (zone political activity Yakuts, Tuvans, Buryats),
Tatar-Bashkir region, North Caucasian.
4. Stages of the ethnic process
The ethnopolitical process in the regions went through several stages:
1. First stage (late 1980s - 1991)
During this period, the sovereignization of the autonomies of Russia takes place - they acquire the status of independent republics within the Russian Federation, the state status of the languages of the peoples is legally formalized. Ethno-cultural societies are formed as socio-political movements, congresses of peoples.
2. Second stage (1991-1994).
leading trend this stage is the struggle within the republics between the official authorities and national-political movements over the state structure of the republics, their political status. Important milestones of this stage, which influenced the settlement of ethnopolitical problems, were the signing of the Federal Treaty (31.03.1992) and the approval of the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993).
3. The third stage began in 1995.
This period is characterized by a tendency to resolve interethnic conflicts at the intra-republican level, the transition to the phase of strengthening the republican statehood, the loss of initiative by national political movements and parties, the development of a national policy strategy and optimization of the country's federalization path.
4. Fourth stage (2000s)
New trends appeared in the ethnopolitical process. The legal acts of the constituent entities of the Federation have been brought into line with federal legislation. Bilateral agreements between subjects and federal center as having played their role and exhausted themselves at a new stage in the development of statehood. There is a trend towards consolidation of the subjects of the Federation.
The immediate threat of the collapse of Russia has passed. However, it still remains whole complex problems of inter-ethnic relations that have not yet been resolved, the main of which are the socio-economic and political difference in status of peoples. The problem of the need to form a general civil national identity of the Russian population, which should acquire a dominant character in relation to local ethnocultural differences, is becoming more and more obvious. The stabilization of the ethno-political situation depends no less on the solution of this problem than on the achievement of success in the economy.
5. Models of Russian nationalism
It is necessary to distinguish between "classical" and "post-classical" models of Russian nationalism.
The first is characterized by a rigid dependence of political practice on ideological values and a hierarchy in the setting and implementation of ideological goals.
Varieties of the classical model in Russia include ethnic, patriarchal and sovereign nationalism.
Ethnic nationalism is based on the idea of "blood" kinship and the "innate" national idea. Its supporters, despite their small numbers, strive to create paramilitary squads, act from extremist positions under the slogan "Russia for the Russian people."
Patriarchal nationalism, likening the nation to a "big family", refers to the communal traditions of the Russian village. His ideal is pre-Petrine Russia. Representatives of this movement are mainly engaged in educational activities for the purpose of national education.
sovereign nationalism. Its supporters preach the idea of a state as a non-alternative type of Russian statehood based on a powerful military potential, a rigid vertical structure of state power and the priority of a state-controlled economy. The slogan of "sobornost", adherence of the Russian people to Orthodox traditions, social justice and the "spirit of the sovereignty of the nation" is used.
Postclassical nationalism in Russia is interesting because its ideological and value components are more pragmatic. Acting on the principle of political expediency, he is capable of compromise.
6. Ways to resolve ethnic conflicts
Deepening economic ruin, growing social tension, political struggle, the collapse of the old ideological guidelines and the emergence of surrogates, the corruption of old and new bureaucratic structures, the paralysis of power in the center and in the localities, that is, the destruction of the old and the absence of the new - these are the common features of conflicts on ethnic grounds.
National tensions have existed and will continue to exist as long as national differences persist. A multiethnic society is inherently less stable than an ethnically homogeneous society, and the essence of the national question comes down to which of the two opposing tendencies will prevail and become dominant.
If the state is democratic, then the conflicts that arise in it are accompanied by structural changes in the very political system of the state, and if the state is authoritarian - by increased repression and suppression of movements, which leads to new knots of tension.
Among the measures leading to the resolution of ethnic conflicts are: the transfer of a significant share of power to ethno-regional territories; adoption of electoral laws stimulating inter-ethnic negotiations; creating conditions for the growth of the welfare of economically disadvantaged minorities.
Literature
nationalism ideology ethnic
1. Ethnos and politics: Reader / Avt.-comp. A.A. Prazatskas - M.: URAO publishing house, 2000 - 400 p.
2. Pugachev V.P., Political science, higher education - M .: Philological Society "Slovo", 2003.- 576 p.
3. Political encyclopedia. In 2 vols. Vol. 2 / Nat. Societies. - scientific Fund; Ruk. project G.Yu. Semgin. - M.: Thought, 1999.- 701 p.
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Municipal educational institution
"Kulunda Secondary School No. 2"
RESEARCH WORK
TOPIC:
"MYSTERY OF NATIONALISM"
prepared:
It has its own politics and ideology.
2. State-state nationalism is nationalism
state-formed peoples (nations) striving to hold in
life of their national-state interests in the face of the same
other nations. It is not uncommon for large nations to play the role of oppressors
small nations inside and out. The politics and ideology of such nations received in
political literature is the title of great power. In this case, the sovereign
state nationalism usually comes into conflict with nationalism
ethnic.
3. Household nationalism is a manifestation of nationalist feelings on
the level of the individual and small social groups. It is usually expressed in
xenophobia, in a hostile attitude towards foreigners and representatives of other
ethnic groups. Its connection with ideology and politics is not always direct.
and open nature, but, nevertheless, it exists. Household nationalism
- an important tool in the hands of the ethnic and sovereign-state
"nationalisms" - they resort to it to achieve their goals, to it
they lean on and, if necessary, skillfully kindle it; his outbursts
are rarely spontaneous - as a rule, they are behind the corresponding
ideology and politics.
Pozdnyakov notes that the closer to everyday and ethnic
nationalism, the more psychological moments are manifested in it,
and vice versa; but in none of these cases does nationalism cease to be
a social phenomenon. This is his fundamental quality.
As a result, it is worth noting that nationalism is nothing but
politics and ideology in their inseparable unity. Having removed one and the other, we
we get a fairly harmless feeling of attachment to our people,
devotion to the motherland. By itself, it does not represent a driving force. But
if we add to it the appropriate ideology and politics, we get
nationalism, inciting enmity, hatred and conflicts around.
In modern Russian society, the perception of nationalism is twofold. FROM
on the one hand, it is condemned, considering it an aggressive ideology, on the other hand,
support, often in an aggressive form (for example, skinheads).
Nationalist problems in the late 20th - early 21st century in Russia
acquired unprecedented urgency and urgency. What are the reasons
the spread of nationalist ideology at the end of the 20th century in the country,
which fought against nationalism, namely, with its most severe manifestation
- fascism. First of all, it should be noted that Russia is a multinational
country, more than one hundred and thirty peoples and nationalities live in it, and
national problems have always existed here. But in the 90s
national and racial conflicts on the territory of Russia, as well as
the confrontation of individual nationalities reached a record high.
The reasons for this phenomenon are the intensification of migration processes, the war in
Chechnya, the growth of conflicts between cultures and ethnic groups, terrorism,
instability in the country and a low standard of living. The encyclopedia says:
fascism finds support mainly in socially disadvantaged groups in
conditions of national crises and cataclysms of modernization. Is this not
today's Russia?
Chapter 2. Globality of the problem of nationalism in Russia.
2.1 Russian nationalism.
RUSSIAN NATIONALISM - the instinct of self-preservation of the Russian nation, devotion and active protection of its interests. The main task of Russian nationalism as an ideology is the development and prosperity of the Russian people. In this concept, the state and its institutions are a means, a tool for performing this task.
The Russian nation is a state-forming nation throughout Russia, and the fate of not only the Russian nation as a single organism, but also of all other peoples who have connected their historical fate within the Russian state. Russia, from the point of view of the ideology of Russian nationalism, is a mono-national state of the Russian people, which constitutes the absolute majority of its population. Russian nationalists demand recognition and legislative approval of the historical role and actual significance of their people, not only as indigenous and titular, but also as the only state-forming one. The Russians are the only nation in Russia, without which the state could not exist as a single whole, the Russians are the pillar on which the unity of the country rests.
AT modern Russia The Russian people are in the stage of an ethno-demographic catastrophe. Russian nationalism stands for public recognition of this fact and for the introduction of emergency measures against depopulation and decline specific gravity Russians in the state. The most important measure to overcome the crisis among the Russians is the recognition of the genocide of the Russian nation, that is, a targeted policy leading to the extinction of the Russian people. Inextricably linked with this problem is the task of preserving the biological homogeneity of the Russian nation, noted by anthropologists of the pre-revolutionary and Soviet times.
Russian nationalists condemn the policy pursued in the USSR of blurring national identity and turning Russian people into "Soviet" and do not recognize the attempts of modern authorities to introduce the so-called. "civic concept of the nation". Especially considering that such anti-human experiments suffered a crushing defeat in developed countries Europe (France, Germany, Great Britain, etc.), which is more and more confirmed.
Russian nationalism fights against all manifestations of Russophobia, for the protection of the human and civil rights of Russian people in any state.
The Russian nation is the largest divided nation, many regions of compact residence of whose representatives remained outside the state border of the Russian Federation, in the countries former USSR(Kazakhstan, Baltic States, Ukraine, etc.). Therefore, Russian nationalism is fighting for the reunification of the Russian people, which is fully consistent with the provisions of international law.
prosperity of some national groups due to the robbery and displacement of others. The issue of attitude towards national minorities that have their own state formations outside of Russia also seems to be the most important, especially given the lack of any
or a coherent migration policy aimed primarily at protecting the interests of the peoples of Russia.
The ideology of Russian nationalism, like the ideology of another nation, is especially activated during the years of unrest and upheaval, when the nation is threatened real danger degradation and physical extinction. At the beginning of the 20th century, seeing that Russia was plunging into the deepest turmoil, the most prominent Russian nationalists (I. Sikorsky, M. Menshikov, V. Shulgin, etc.) also formulated goals and objectives directed against all-destroying ideas and for the preservation of traditional Russian order. In his speech "In Defense of Russian Nationalism" one of the largest Russian nationalists of Russia said: "To the recent attempt to raise a revolution in Russia - we will respond with our national peaceful revolution - we will proclaim the Declaration of the Historical Rights of the Russian Man to the Russian land, all of it from the White to the Black Seas, let us call it a protected national possession from generation to generation, we will declare the state brotherhood to all the lesser peoples, included in our Russian family, with a sincere heart clothed in the name of the Russian, for a merciless war to everyone who sows malice, treason and deceit within the native walls.
2.2 History of nationalism in Russia.
The press is increasingly touching upon the topic of the manifestation of nationalism in Russia among the Russian population, a number of media outlets are discussing countering nationalism. In most cases, the true concepts of nationalism and xenophobia, extremism and ethnocentrism, the identification of nationalism with fascism and neo-fascism are being replaced, and worst of all, this is done intentionally. In order to discuss such topics, you must first understand the key concepts.
Nationalism is a widespread concept throughout the world, which has a fairly clear definition given in authoritative sources.
In European countries, the USA and a number of Asian countries, the concept of nationalism has a neutral or positive connotation. In Russia, depending on the historical period, this concept changed its meaning.
In the pre-revolutionary period, the concept of nationalism personified the most positive feelings of a person towards his people. The basis and strength of the Russian Empire was in national unity. Secular foundations were not imposed on small peoples, but all kinds of support were provided in development and protection. In The Psychology of the Russian Nation, the professor puts into this concept next meaning: "Nationalism is a manifestation of respect, love and devotion to self-sacrifice in the present, reverence and admiration for the past and the desire for prosperity, glory, greatness, power and success in the future - the nation, the people to which the person belongs."
At the beginning of the 20th century, in the pre-revolutionary period, the concept of nationalism retained positive features. The education and employment of peoples continues, there are no prerequisites for hostility towards other nations. The Russian philosopher and political scientist writes: “Nationalism is a spiritual fire that elevates a person to sacrificial service, and the people to spiritual flowering. Nationalism manifests itself, first of all, in the instinct of national self-preservation, and this instinct is a true and justified state. One should not be ashamed of it, extinguish it or suppress it; it is necessary to comprehend it in the face of God, spiritually substantiate and ennoble its manifestations.
One of the consequences of the Second World War is the change in the ideological justification of the state. National Socialism of the Third Reich reflects the substitution of the concept
nationalism, using it to define the national exclusivity of the Aryan race. In Soviet philosophical dictionaries of the post-war period, nationalism is defined as “the principle of ideology and politics, expressed in ideas and ideas about national exclusivity, the superiority of some peoples over others, national isolation,
hostility and enmity." As we can see, here we have a new, distorted concept of nationalism that exists in the party circles of the USSR. At the same time, for them, bourgeois nationalism is a product of capitalist society, which inevitably gives rise to interethnic antagonisms, racial discrimination and oppression. Bourgeois nationalism is an attempt to substantiate the possibility of class peace within one nation, opposing workers of different nationalities to each other. Such views can only lead to the disunity of a multinational state.
By the 90s of the XX century, the post-war generation of intelligentsia, political leaders, for the sake of the dominant ideology, began to mix the concept of nationalism with fascism. And these are two opposite phenomena. Fascism is a form of political dictatorship characterized by violence against the masses through a comprehensive state-political
car. Accordingly, one of the sides of fascism is the nationalization of all aspects of life, through the creation of a system mass organizations. Why is this happening? There is a point of view that the emergence of fascism and National Socialism in Western Europe is associated with a certain crisis of true nationalism and the intensification of its radical (and terrorist) manifestations. However, fascism found its supporters even in those countries where civic nationalism was not popular or was the dominant ideology.
Modern Russia is almost unfamiliar with the true concept of nationalism. The media often refers to fascism as any real or imaginary manifestation of totalitarianism, combined with the idea of national or racial exclusivity, as well as sympathy for Nazi symbols and aesthetics. Nationalism is often confused with its extreme manifestations such as xenophobia, chauvinism and racism. This leads to the fact that it is the fighters against the ideology of nationalism (in its new understanding in Russia) who share xenophobic views, denying the natural right of any person, regardless of ethnic, religious or social affiliation, to their own point of view. The most dangerous thing is that in various circles they adhere to double standards in the definition of the term "nationalism", accusing the great-power nations of chauvinism, and the ultra-nationalism of small nations is called the "struggle for national independence."
Why is the concept of nationalism in Russia so different from the same concept in Western Europe, the USA and some Asian countries? Who benefits from supporting the negative attitude of the masses towards nationalism? One of the points of view about the causes of this problem is that the "guests" are aggressively asserting themselves in relation to the "hosts" (up to the desire to completely take their place), constantly put forward any demands on them, exalt their rights over the law of the "hosts". ”, deny any duties and responsibilities. This results in an obsessive exaltation of one's national, religious or social superiority over the "hosts", a demonstrative disrespect for the laws and customs of the "hosts", an aggressive imposition of a false sense of guilt on the "hosts" in front of the "guests". Now nationalism in Russia is being activated:
1. World of Islam (base in the Caucasus);
2. Demographic pressure of overpopulated countries (China);
3. NATO expansion and mutual misunderstanding (for example, the Russian Federation and the USA);
4. The weakening of Russia's influence in the post-Soviet space (the growth of nationalism in Ukraine, the Baltic states, etc.)
The Russian problem with the misinterpretation of the concept of nationalism is very deep. A hostile attitude towards nationalism is maintained in society, based on a negative attitude towards the National Socialism of the Third Reich, and fascism. Replacing the true concept
nationalism, it is quite easy to manipulate the consciousness of the public (and especially the intelligentsia) to achieve own well-being in a foreign country.
What is "Russian nationalism"? Russia for most of its history is multinational state. A Russian person initially positions himself as a “brother” to all the peoples of the world, he has no intolerance towards others on a national basis, but this does not mean that his friendliness should harm him. “It is nationalism that is the force that gives the Russian people an unshakable faith in their homeland. On the basis of nationalism, love for the Motherland is combined with faith in its vocation, in the creative power of its spirit, in that coming flowering that will certainly await it... The path of Russia is the recognition of the right to exist and the identity of each nation, but within the framework of a single desire to strengthen their homeland, the protection of its culture and true history. Illegal and uncontrolled immigration is one of the sources of danger to Russia's identity. The preservation and development of true nationalism in Russia is one of the ways for the survival of the Russian nation (including small peoples) in the process of globalization in the world.
So, there are two points of view on the definition of nationalism:
1. Nationalism - a progressive phenomenon that allows you to unite the nation, forms a sense of pride, patriotism, devotion; allows for organization in society.
2. Nationalism - a phenomenon that generates hatred and enmity towards other peoples, creates the basis for conflicts and wars.
Thus, nationalism is a medal that has two sides: one is political, the other is ethnic. Until now, attempts have been made to present it as two different nationalisms, that is, a "good" nationalism and a "bad" nationalism. But these are only ideal models. In fact, nationalism is always both political and ethnic, although at different stages one or another side of it may turn out to be decisive. The idea of belonging to a single nation is always political idea Thus, nationalism is impossible without a political element. But the essence of this concept is obviously ethnic. This can be described through the following metaphor: the political component is the soul that animates the ethnic body.
2.2 The problem of nationalism in Russia, does it exist?
The national and racial components have always been those unpredictable factors that could play a decisive role in the fate major state in the most unpredictable way. Either lead it to collapse, or, having enriched the primary nation with the experience of others, exalt it above the rest of the world. The concepts of "race" and "nation" have always been, but they were defined differently. The whole problem is that since the 20th century, humanity has been forced to perversely perceive these concepts due to specific historical figures and events ...
Representatives of large nationalities live in Russia, which are scattered and mixed throughout the territory of our country. The largest peoples are Russians, Ukrainians, Chuvashs, Tatars, Chechens and Bashkirs. And there are no cities where representatives of only one nationality would be gathered. Such is our history, such are the dimensions of our territory. For centuries, our ancestors created that national wealth in the form of forests, lakes, mountains. It was created by making conquests, conducting research, active colonization, resettlement. And along with the new territory, new nationalities also joined Russia.
So why in a country where side by side, through many wars and events, people with different skin colors, eye shapes or just speech suddenly, in some 15 years, the national card began to be played openly? Where did the attributes of intolerance towards certain
nationalities and respect for the previously defeated ideals of Nazism? How can a state overcome national intolerance on the part of its own people towards itself, and what legal mechanism can it use to solve this problem? Let's try to figure it out.
Majority social phenomena in modern Russia are due to the events of the late 80s and early 90s of the XX century. The severe economic crisis, social and cultural upheavals, the conscious and enforced "sweeping" of the 70-year period of history - all this created a feeling of fear and uncertainty in many people. People with such feelings have a feeling of lack of demand and they become marginalized, that is, simply put, “material” from which you can build what you want, lay new values in place of lost values, occupy the vacuum of habitual belief in something.
And in such a situation it turned out not 5 thousand people, not a million. The whole country felt the same.
Many nations, in such situations, rally around the national idea, that is, the stereotype is set that "we are all together, it is easier for us together." And many countries came out of crises. Thus, after the French Revolution and subsequent interventions by other states, the French were able to resist only because they felt themselves
FRENCH, because it was to them that the French government turned with a cry: "The fatherland is in danger!" And Germany in the period after the First World War began to build up power only thanks to the desire for national revenge for the defeat.
But what are we? What was the result of our idea of national salvation and survival during that difficult period? Where was the cry after which one could feel that the country in this Hard time needs you? This could be the national appeal of the head of the Russian Orthodox Church with a call to comply with the rules of law, which can practically be called reborn and modified commandments. But no such call was made. In general, no one said anything large-scale and worthy at that moment. And then different cries were heard from all sides, but much smaller and more petty in their essence. One of them was the cry of the nationalists. And here there is a great danger of not confusing it with the national one. The outcasts responded to the calls of those who found those responsible for their problems, a sense of revenge leaped up. And it began: persecution based on skin color, intolerance, secret paramilitary organizations, throwing up the right hand in the manner of “from the heart to the sun”, shaved heads, and so on and so forth ...
But what about the state? A state that once defeated fascist Germany with the National Socialist idea at the head? The state pretended that it did not see any outbursts of national intolerance. That everything is still the same, that the people of the former fraternal republics simply cannot suddenly hate each other. And here we are not talking about nations and nationalities that outwardly differ from each other, but about the fact that even Russians began to openly dislike (to say the least) Ukrainians. Yes, before there was no special love between these countries either, but this was not shown so openly and biased.
Yes, in our country there is an article of the Criminal Code that provides for liability for inciting racial hatred, there are additional qualifying signs for other elements of crimes committed on the basis of ethnic hatred. But we can say that there is no judicial practice of applying such articles. Yes, cases are regularly initiated, but in the course of the investigation they turn into “hooligan” articles, since the motive of ethnic hatred in itself is very difficult to prove because of its specificity. After all, shaving your head to zero, wearing military boots and a leather jacket with camouflage trousers in itself is not inciting racial hatred. And talking about the role of nationalism in the life of the state cannot be a crime, since the expression of one's thoughts cannot and should not be punished in any state in the world. There is no doubt that when such thoughts are dressed in the form of an appeal or a slogan, then the reaction of the state must be quick and immediate, since a repetition of the 30s and 40s of the last century is impossible.
allow. But what is important here is the degree of faith of such a state in its democratic values, that is, in freedom of speech, choice, action, and so on ... Prohibiting any phenomenon of reality that is massively expressed in the beliefs of many layers
society, the state runs the risk of sliding towards authoritarianism, and this is hardly better than nationalism from the point of view of the ongoing domestic and foreign policy.
So where is the line between nationalism and patriotism? Is it necessary to artificially limit the manifestations of the thoughts of individuals? How can a multinational country like Russia resist playing national cards in different regions?
It is almost impossible to answer such a question simply and unequivocally, and if you do, it will be just a manifestation of the subjective perception of the problem. However, I would like to note that no one and no one can limit the freedom of expression of thought. Therefore, I would like to give a point of view on the above issues, which can be called the point of view of a lawyer. Human rights end where the rights of another person begin. No one has the right to restrict the rights of another person on the basis of only one national or racial characteristic. And it is impossible to interrupt the expression of any thought, even a national bias, having only one reason for this - a distorted perception of the national idea by specific historical figures of the past.
Chapter 3. The threat of the spread of the ideas of fascism and nationalism in the school environment.
How to teach the history of the Holocaust in school?
Conversation with Valery Sergeevich Ivanov, history teacher at the Derzhavin Lyceum in Petrozavodsk.
I was born in Petrozavodsk and have lived here all my active life. Graduated from our PetrSU. By profession - historian, teacher of history and social science. After graduation, he worked at school number 20, where he taught history. Then I moved to Lyceum No. 1, on Drevlyanka, which was organized by Isaak Samuilovich Fradkov, where he had previously invited me. I worked there for 3 years. Now I have been working at the Municipal Derzhavin Lyceum for more than six years. If we talk about my interests, approaches to our historical discipline, we need to look for some innovative technologies and special programs. Even during my work at the first lyceum, the course "Myths and legends of the peoples of the world" was conceived. I am grateful to Teratsuyants Georgy Ervandovich, who voiced the fragments of myths necessary for the course on the radio. At the Derzhavin Lyceum I am now working on problems related to the history of the Second World War. At that time, I made my first trip to Leningrad for a seminar on teaching the Holocaust in educational institutions. Little is known to the layman about the politics of the Holocaust. This is due to several reasons: firstly, there is little literature. Secondly, insufficient educational work In other words, little is said about this at school, university. There is also a methodological problem - how to teach? There are textbooks: Swedish and Russian. But, nevertheless, this topic needs a serious program: what to give and how to give? What needs to be talked about? First, to show the variability of fascism.
What happened in Germany should be called national socialism. Fascism as a historical phenomenon is multifaceted and multivariate. There was Spanish, Italian, Yugoslav, Bulgarian, Greek, Austrian, Hungarian, Romanian fascism or fascism. Fascist dictatorships in the occupied territories established their own occupation regime, which was also multivariate. The problem of fascism is not a problem of the past. It's more of a real problem. Neo-fascism today is both European and purely Russian problem. Today, fascism in Russia exists as a movement. Organizations of the fascist type today force us to raise the problem of the prevention of extremism in Russian school. The problem of preventing extremism is directly related to the history of fascism and the fascistization of society in crisis situations. Therefore, today the true face of fascism should be shown. In history lessons, one should talk about the occupation regimes in Europe and the USSR, about the policy of the Holocaust, about the history of ghettos, death camps. A teacher in teaching the history of World War 2 should talk about a variety of occupation regimes in Europe and the USSR. One occupation regime was in Belarus, the other - in Ukraine, the third - in the Baltic states, the fourth - in Karelia, in the North-West and even in the Caucasus. All of them are different. The occupation regime is directly related to the policy of the Holocaust (this policy was not totalitarian, but multivariant). For example, in Ukraine there was the largest ghetto. Children, for example, do not know what the Warsaw ghetto, the Smolensk ghetto, the Baltic ghetto are. Few of today's schoolchildren are aware of the events associated with Babi Yar. The Holocaust must be understood as European politics in a general historical context.
Teaching the Holocaust requires a competent program and special methods and means for the implementation of this program. An example is a lesson when the entire lesson is based on a video. The technique of using video films is very rarely used in Russian schools. For example, Chukhrai's film "Children from the Abyss". It's better to show than tell. This subject must be taught very carefully. If the children are not ready for this topic, it is better not to touch it.
Lack of methodological apparatus. We even need a methodology for working with the film, and not just launching it. For example, the events about Khatyn are better shown than told.
- Do the guys themselves show interest in this topic?
- In fact yes. Our publishing houses publish "Commanders of the Third Reich", "Mein Kampf", they like many things that they read there. Learn the alphabet German soldier", right on the fads. They read there that the Aryan race is the best. Superman, superpower. Any other populist, demagogic slogan. It is necessary to correct the views of schoolchildren. A conversation in the classroom is essential.
In the conditions of modern Russia, when many institutions are being dismantled, there is an economic and social crisis, when practically the former values are lost - in fact, the basis for the fascist organizations of the RNE is a fairly young organization and open. In European countries, such organizations are closed, like an order of chivalry: whoever enters there will simply not leave. There are German communities in Latin American countries that promote fascist ideology. The topic of neo-fascism needs special study today.
How is school? The children's lexicon included such words as kike, kiwi, yuda, naturally, with a negative connotation. They draw a fascist swastika on the tables without understanding the meaning. It is impossible to get rid of the centuries-old history of Russia, it has always been totalitarian. And so democracy, which is not characteristic of us, led to the legalization of the fascist movement.
In principle, in our school, children are tolerant. The people who came here brought elements of culture: respect for the teacher, the elder, which, in principle, a Russian schoolchild does not have. I taught children from Grozny. For them, a teacher is sacred.
There is no categoricalness in assessments, which is typical for ours. It would seem that there was a war and so many years have passed, but the prospect is drawn bleak. If we, having entered the 21st century, are engaged in programs for the prevention of fascism and extremism, then what awaits us in the future.
- May I have a personal question? You have such an “exotic” look of an oriental man. Kids don't tease?
- There is such a thing. I have nothing to do with Islam. But for some reason, wherever I go, everyone re-baptizes me into another nationality. According to the passport - Russian. He lived all his life in Karelia, which is simply unique. This is an exceptional place.
Recorded by Max
Karelian regional branch of the interregional youth public charitable organization "Youth Human Rights Group (IPG)"
Petrozavodsk Initiative Group of Amnesty International
Questionnaire for History Teachers of Petrozavodsk Schools
1. Is there, in your opinion, a danger of the spread of nationalism, fascism, extremism in Russian society? What is the reason for your confidence?
2. Do you encounter manifestations of national intolerance at school?
3. What do you think healthy nationalism is?
4. Is it possible to influence the education of tolerance, rejection of fascism and nationalism of any form among students through history lessons?
5. What should teachers do to prevent fascism, nationalism, intolerance among students? What difficulties do you experience doing this kind of work?
6. Would you like lectures on the problem of the spread of fascism and nationalism to be given at your school?
Thanks for the detailed answers!
1. Yes. The reason is well-known problems.
2. Yes, but so far it has not taken on dangerous sizes and shapes.
3. I don't take this term seriously.
4. Yes.
5. Develop the ability for critical thinking.
6. Yes, but such lectures should be exciting in form and content, because the audience -
pupils.
Kalinovskaya Elena, Lyceum No. 38.
1. Yes, economic and social instability.
2. Yes, there are students in the organization.
3. It is very difficult to answer quickly, but, most likely, healthy nationalism is based on the ideas of tolerance.
4. Yes.
5. Work, put education in the first place. There are no particular difficulties.
6. Yes.
Soloukhina Wanda, school number 5.
1. Yes. due to economic instability.
2. Rarely, practically none.
3. It is difficult to define the line between healthy and unhealthy nationalism.
4. Yes.
5. Work and bring to the attention of students information of this kind, sometimes even contradictory. There are no particular difficulties.
6. Of course, and in as much detail as possible at the level of consciousness of school students.
MOUSOSH No. 48.
1. The economic situation in Russia is quite difficult, many social strata of the population do not receive proper support from the state.
A strong political leader, a man who enjoys broad support from the population, has come to the fore at the head of the state.
2. I did not have to deal with the manifestation of nationalism, fascism.
3. There can be no healthy nationalism; there is respect, love for one's people.
4. In the lessons of history and social science, the teacher, of course, can resist the spread of fascist, nationalist ideas. Students cannot remain indifferent after stories about crimes against humanity committed by the ideologists of these movements.
5. The state must have laws that monitor and punish the mass manifestation of national intolerance.
Unsigned, School No. 25.
1. Yes. The reason is not the obligatory implementation of laws, their "multipleness", legal nihilism and the illiteracy of society. Manifestations of social inequality - the search for the guilty.
2. Practically none.
3. An attempt to preserve national cultural values, language, elements of everyday life, etc. (Without ideas of national superiority).
4. Not only possible, but necessary.
5. Difficulties in the presence of nationalist sentiments at the household level, the role of the media (preaching violence, wealth, Western elements of culture without an appropriate level of propaganda of universal human values).
6. School number 34. Petrozavodsk. Yes.
Even those lessons that were given by our students - political scientists who were on our ped. practice and related to these issues in the senior classes had a large political resonance.
, school number 34.
1. Danger, of course, exists. Instability in society, polarization in modern Russia create the prerequisites for this.
2. Almost none.
3. This is pride in one's Fatherland.
4.5. In history lessons, you can influence the upbringing of anything. It is important that the teacher himself realizes that this is necessary. Through the use of works of fiction, the active use of discussions, debates in the classroom, the formation of a tolerant culture is very effective.
6. Yes.
, 37th gymnasium.
1. This danger not only exists - nationalism, fascism, etc. exist as such in our society, and the state is not seriously engaged in the eradication of these terrible phenomena.
2. In our school - very rarely, thank God.
3. Probably, it is directly connected with patriotism, with the upbringing of love for the motherland.
4.5. Yes, you certainly may. It all depends on the conviction of the teacher, in addition - words alone are not enough, there must be the necessary visibility, documentary materials, etc. Unfortunately, there is no way to take the children on excursions (Khatyn, for example, etc.). The Internet is a good resource, but it's still not the same.
6. We are carrying out this work, it is also planned for the future.
Without a signature
1. Is there a danger of the spread of extremism? ... This is due to crisis phenomena, instability in society, the growth of a sharp line between different strata of society (rich and poor).
2. I did not encounter at school.
3. Healthy nationalism is a feeling of pride in the achievements of one's nation, love for one's Fatherland, but not hatred for other nations.
4. You can influence the education of tolerance, rejection of fascism among students, explaining the causes, essence, consequences of these phenomena.
5. Conduct lessons on these phenomena.
6. The help of specialists is needed.
.
1. Yes. Too many people live in poverty. Big gap between the poor and the rich. Are blurred moral values. The manifestation of nationalism at the household level is not condemned.
2. Sometimes. There are statements against immigrants from Transcaucasia.
healthy nationalism. The desire of people to study the culture of their people. Protecting the economic interests of our peoples.
3. Yes.
4. Difficulties in picking up relevant facts when talking to children. Forms of work interesting for children.
5. Yes.
, School № 33.
1. The danger of the spread of nationalism and fascism exists, especially among young people. This danger is connected with the intensification of national and religious strife, primarily in large cities.
2. So far, there have been no bright precedents at school.
3. In the classroom, discussion of these topics is necessary, but best form to raise more seriously the topic of the danger of fascism, probably, is free extracurricular discussions when children are more liberated.
4. The difficulty is that children are not ready for such a conversation or do not take it seriously.
Zharskaya, school number 7.
1. In our opinion, the danger of the spread of nationalism exists in certain regions, which may be associated with migration processes. At the same time, as opposition to nationalism, extremism can also arise.
2. At school, there are no clashes on ethnic grounds, no intolerance is observed.
3. Healthy nationalism is pride in national culture, lack of shame for belonging to a particular nation.
4. Education of tolerance should come from the policy of the state as a whole, through family education and through lessons, but not only history.
5.6. We will gladly accept lecturers on this issue, because meeting with new interesting people always very helpful. It is quite difficult to get through to the child if the connection is one-way, that is, if the relationship at home is different.
, school number 43.
1. There are reasons: socio-economic and political problems in the state, migration processes.
2. There were cases, but so far quite rare.
3. Healthy nationalism: concern for the unity of the nation.
4. You can.
5. First of all: a) be tolerant yourself, that is, education by personal example. b) through lessons, through practical exercises involving concrete examples from the life of a school, a city, our state.
6. Yes, I wanted to. Give me the coordinates of who to contact.
, secondary school №12.
1. Yes, because young people are attracted to the ideas of nationalism, fascism.
2. Yes. Now there are many representatives of southern nationalities in schools and some children react negatively to these children.
3. This is, first of all, pride in belonging to a particular nationality, knowledge of one's roots, pedigree, pride in one's grandfathers, etc.
4. Yes.
5. In the lessons of history, social science, it is necessary not only to explain to children and show examples of the negative facts of these movements, but also to involve children themselves in finding and discussing such examples.
6. Yes.
Without a signature
1. Yes, modern teenagers do not accept children of Caucasian nationality into their team, they become outcasts, (for example, the Klyuchevaya district.) They take away money from the guys, they try to beat them. Many of these Russian teenagers lost their relatives in Chechnya, they transfer their anger, resentment to the children of the "Caucasians".
2. Yes.
3. The ability of the people of a given nation to be proud of it, to know and respect the traditions of their nation.
4. Yes.
5. First, try to convince the guys during the conversations that all people, regardless of the nation, are the same. Second, more visual material, booklets, photographs, video material on this issue.
6. Yes.
, School № 33.
1. Yes, such a danger exists, since fascism, in its essence, is an indestructible, tenacious phenomenon. The slogans of neo-fascists are too popular, attractive, and sometimes it is hard to disagree with them, especially for young people. This is an objective phenomenon.
2. No, there are many people from the Caucasus in our school, but there is no national intolerance. I haven't met personally.
3. Healthy nationalism? This is a big question, I find it difficult to answer it.
4. Of course, yes. This is the work of the teacher through the lessons to influence the education of the student, including the education of tolerance, but whatever.
5. Lead by example.
6. Yes.
, school number 36.
1. Of course, there is a danger of the spread of such phenomena in modern Russian society. These phenomena will not occur in a prosperous society, ours, unfortunately, is not (social insecurity, low wages, etc. give rise to those “humiliated and insulted” who may well become the social base of fascism; nationalism and extremism are also a response to our reality).
2. In our school, I have never encountered a manifestation of national intolerance.
3. "Healthy nationalism"? In my opinion, this is some kind of unnatural combination of words. Nationalism implies not only pride in one's own nation, but also exaltation of it, belittling the dignity of other peoples, etc. In my understanding, nationalism is a negative phenomenon, therefore it cannot be “healthy”.
4. Through the lessons of history, it is not only possible, but also necessary, to instill in students the rejection of fascism and nationalism. A real history teacher should not only give knowledge, but also educate.
6. Lectures on these issues in our school? Of course!
Without a signature
Conclusion.
In conclusion, it should be noted that the manifestation of nationalist
character in the 90s of the 20th century and at the beginning of the 21st century in Russia has reached a large
scope. Nationalism was able to find a place for itself as an aggressive phenomenon and in
the history, goals and types of nationalism, which showed it
various manifestations. Sometimes nationalism appears as a patriotic
feeling, sometimes as aggression against another nation, as its discrimination. On the
in my opinion, the manifestation of nationalism depends on the political
he is united by ideology, in what light he will appear depends on what kind of
policy is carried out by the state.
The emergence of ethnic conflicts and clashes have become frequent
phenomenon for Russia. Having identified in the work the causes of acute national problems
on the territory of our country in the 90s, it is important to conclude that
nationalism, as a rule, arises with a low standard of living, with a strong
contributes to the emergence of aggressive youth and the emergence of
nationalist political parties. In my opinion and
activities of skinheads or skinheads, and political parties
nationalist persuasion are utopian, have no future in our
country, not in any other, at least for the moment.
Nationalism is alien to the mentality of the Russian people, accustomed to living in
multinational country, it is peculiar only to a certain part of the population
The impact that the skin movement has on the public is
negative. It is worth noting at least the fact that Russian neo-Nazis
chose the German state of the Third Reich as their ideal and, naturally,
such an ideology alienated large segments of the population. Despite,
that many sectors of society oppose the wave of emigrants and refugees, they
still support the solution of these problems in a civilized way, rather than fights
and collisions. Beatings and even murders committed by skinheads
solve the problem, but only exacerbate it. It should be noted that the symbols
which is used nationalist organizations, is a swastika.
Borrowed from Hitler, the skinheads represent it as a sign of Russian
nation. But from the meanings of various swastika symbols considered in the work
it is clear that they do not carry aggression and discrimination. They glorify their family
are his guardians. Combining the swastika with a brutal ideology, the German
the Nazis made her a symbol of evil, the skinheads only adopted her. But you can't
associate the swastika only with aggression and fascism, because its meaning is
quite different.
Another bloc representing nationalist ideas are
political parties - RNE, NBP and others - whose main idea is
unification of the Russian nation to fight against foreigners and in the name of revival
Great Russian State. Comparing two communities - skinheads and
nationalist political parties - it is impossible not to notice their obvious
differences. Although they all call themselves nationalist and sometimes
use the same ideological constructions, their nationalism has
different sources and is reflected in a completely different forms political
practices. It is typical for the NBP to arrange public lectures, for the RNE it was
tend to patrol the streets along with the police as folk
vigilantes, for skinheads - arranging pogroms and the practice of racial
By the end of the 1990s, the activity of these parties began to decline. Awareness
their supporters of the impossibility to come to power or, at least, to render
direct influence on this power, led to a reduction in their support and, in
further to the decline of most of them (for example, RNU). Perhaps individual
activists will be able to infiltrate the state apparatus, but it is possible
only by giving its policy a new look, in which
lack any extremist features.
In general, the immediate threat to
democratic freedoms emanating from the radical
nationalist movement seems insignificant. In the same time,
there is a possibility of a gradual shift of the regime towards more
radical forms of nationalist ideology due to some
economic and social reasons.
As a result, it should be noted that the solution of problems associated with
ethnic conflicts, clashes based on national
enmity, is not hopeless, and a way out of these problems is possible with
consistent government policy. It must be emphasized that people
different nationalities may well get along with each other if one
a nation does not put itself above another, or a person's national identity
does not stick out as the main and main characteristic, if the language and
the culture of each nation can develop freely if people of different
nationalities respect each other's customs and traditions.
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