Introduction
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Each state has its own political regime. Political regime means a set of techniques, methods, forms, methods for the implementation of political state power in society, characterizes the degree of political freedom, the legal status of the individual in society and a certain type of political system existing in the country.
The problem of democracy and its role in socio-political life occupies one of the central places in political science. The concept of "democracy" was affected both in the ancient world and in modern society. Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, J. Locke, T. Gobbs, Bryce, Shero, Gyrneshow and other famous scientists. This problem also worries many scientists now, and in the future it will take one of the main places in political science.
Based on this, the main objective of the work is to study the main features of democratic regimes. At the same time, the purpose of the work is disclosed through the solution of the following tasks:
Reflect the concept of democracy, reveal its essence, criteria and principles;
Consider the main varieties of democratic regimes;
Identify the political processes of which type prevail within the framework of democratic regimes and how they proceed;
Make conclusions on the topic.
When writing the work, the monographic, educational and periodic literature on the topic of research was used.
1. Democracy, its essence, criteria and principles
Democracy - (from ancient Greek demos - people and crutos - power) - democracy is one of the main forms of the device of any organization based on the equal participation of its members in managing and making decisions in it for the majority; Ideal of a public device: freedom, equality, respect for human dignity, solidarity, etc.; Social and political movement for democracy. Since the emergence of democracy, the state is associated with the state, and therefore with coercion, and at best it is the power of the majority over the minority, and most often the form of the board of a well-organized privileged minority, to a greater or lesser degree of controlled people.
Democratic regime - is characterized by a high degree of human political freedom, the real exercise of his rights, allowing it to influence the state management of society. The political elite is usually quite narrow, but it relies on a wide social base.
Characteristic features of a democratic regime:
1) the sovereignty of the people: it is the people who choose their representatives of power and can periodically replace them. Elections should be honest, competitive, regularly conducted.
2) Periodic election of the main states of the state. The government is born from elections and for a certain, limited period. For the development of democracy, it is not enough to regularly hold elections, it is necessary that it relies on the elective government.
3) Democracy protects the rights of individuals and minorities. The opinion of the majority, expressed by a democratic way in the elections, is only a necessary condition for democracy, however, not insufficient. Only a combination of the rule of majority and the protection of minority rights is one of the basic principles of a democratic state. If discriminatory measures are applied against the minority, the regime becomes non-democratic, regardless of the frequency and honesty of elections and the change of legally elected government.
4) Equality of the rights of citizens to participate in the management of the state: freedom of creating political parties and other associations to express their will, freedom of opinion, the right to information and participate in the competitive struggle for the occupation of senior positions in the state.
Democratic states are different, but they all have common unifying features: democracy - i.e. recognition of the people the source of power, sovereign; The government is based on the consent of the managed; majority rule; minority rule; guarantees of major human rights; free and fair elections; equality before the law; fair proceedings; constitutional restriction of the government; social, economic, ideological and political pluralism; The values \u200b\u200bof cooperation and compromise.
Modern democracy is a representation of interests, not estates. All citizens in a democratic state as political participants are equal. Equality is a dual kind - equality before the laws and equality of political rights. The modern democratic state is the state of law, in which the three authorities are divided into practice and real mechanisms for the protection of rights and freedoms of citizens have been created.
2. Basic varieties of democratic regimes
There are the following main varieties of democratic regimes.
Liberal democracies proceed from the priority of personal rights over the rights of the state. Therefore, they give paramount attention to the creation of institutional, legal and other guarantees for individual freedom, preventing any personality suppression by the authorities. To this end, liberal democracies seek to create mechanisms that allow the rights of individuals by restricting the power of the majority. The scope of state activities here comes down mainly to the protection of public order, ensuring the safety and legal protection of the rights of citizens. Essential in this form of democracy is attached to the separation of authorities, improving the mechanisms of their mutual deterrence and balancing in order to prevent the abuse of power, creating conditions for the manifestation of the autonomy of the individual.
It should be noted that liberal democracy actually has a very rare phenomenon. To the form of democracy, for example, the United States of America. However, here attempts to implement it in the "pure" form are constantly based on the need to overcome contradictions between individual, group and common interests. The modern state is designed to speak not only by the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms, but also to regulate economic and social processes in order to harmonize the interests of various public groups.
Pluralistic democracies, which are characteristic of most Western European countries, proceed from the fact that the main subjects of politics are not individuals and not the people, but various groups of people. At the same time, it is believed that only with the help of the personality group gets the possibility of political expression and protect its interests. And it is in the group, as well as in the process of intergroup relations, the interests and motives of the political activities of the individual are formed. The people are considered as complex, internally controversial education, and it is therefore cannot act as a major subject of politics. In pluralistic democracies, the focus is on the creation of such a mechanism of political cooperation, which would ensure the possibility of all citizens to open and defend their interests. The dominant role in this mechanism is given to independent political influence groups. There are many groups - parties, public associations and movements, - seeking to participate in the implementation of power or influence the activities of the ruling group. It also is important to ensure the balance of interests of various social groups, the creation of opposition to the usurpation of power by the most powerful public groups or most citizens.
Collectivist democracies are also known as popular democracy, on the contrary, proceed from the fact that it is the people like integrity, and not individual individuals or groups of people who have indivisible and inalienable law to establish laws and determine the activities of the government. Collectivist democracies, one way or another, recognize the priority of the people or a large social subject identified with it in the expression of the total will and the exercise of power. Such democracies actually proceed from the homogeneity of the people as a social subject, the infallibility of his will, and therefore they absolute the principle of minority subordination by the majority, and also deny the autonomy of the individual. Attempts to implement a collectivist democracy in the "pure" form led to the rule on behalf of the "people" a narrow group of persons, to the suppression of political rights and civil liberties, to cruel repression against other dissent. The experience of their implementation in a number of countries shows that the power of the people cannot be real without the simultaneous recognition and institutional and legal consolidation of the individual as the most important subject of politics.
Direct democracies proceed from the fact that the people themselves should make the most important political decisions, and representative bodies should be minimized and to make fully controlled citizens. With the trend of development in the country of direct democracy, as happens, for example, in Switzerland, the range of issues solved directly by citizens is constantly expanding. These are the adoption of the most important legislation and the choice of political decisions of a strategic nature, and the decision-making of local importance. It is easy to see that plebiscitar democracy allows to develop the political activity of citizens, to ensure the solid legitimacy of the authorities, to carry out effective monitoring of the activities of the institutions of the state and officials.
Representative democracies on the contrary, proceed from the fact that the will of the people can be expressed not only directly to them by himself during the voting, but also by its representatives in the authorities.
With this approach, democracy is understood as a competent and responsible representative office. The participation of citizens in making political decisions at the same time is not rejected, but it is limited to a very narrow circle of questions. Relations between the people and its representatives are based on confidence and control in the form of periodically feasible elections, the constitutional restriction of the competences of the authorities and officials in their complete independence within the law.
In assessing in accordance with its first, the most important principle - the sovereignty of the people - democracy is classified depending on how the people are understood and how sovereignty is carried out by them. It seemed to be an obvious and simple concept as a "people" in the history of political thought were far from equally. Unlike the modern understanding of both the entire population of the country, about the middle of the XIX century, the demos, the people were identified either with free adult men, or with owners with real estate or other considerable values, or only with men.
The restriction of the people with certain class or demographic frameworks provides a foundation to characterize states that subjected to political discrimination with certain groups of the population and, which do not provide them with electoral rights, as socially limited democracies and distinguish them from universal democracy - states with equal political rights for the entire adult population.
Up to the beginning of the twentieth century, none of the previously existing democracies presented the country's equal political rights to the entire adult population. These were predominantly class and patriarchal democracies. In the history of political thought, the interpretation of the people as simple people, the poor of the lower layers, and the masses constituting the majority of the population were dominated. Such an understanding of Demos is still found at Aristotle, who considered democracy of the wrong form of the state, interpreted it as the power of Demos, a mobile, which is not capable of management, weighted, rational solutions that take into account the overall benefit. In modern political theory, such a type of government reflects the concept of "coolness", which translated from Greek means "the power of mobile, the crowd."
So, depending on the understanding of the composition of the people, its power can act as universal or socially (classo, ethnically, demographically, etc.) limited democracy, as well as overtrahyra.
3. What type of political processes are dominated within the framework of democratic regimes and how do they proceed?
The political process can be determined as an ordered sequence of actions and interactions of political entities related to the implementation of powerful interests and the fogging and, as a rule, creating and recreating political institutions. The political process is the deployment of policies in time and in space in the form of an ordered sequence of actions and interactions.
In Western political science, there are several system typology systems of political processes. The first of them was created within the framework of comparative political science L. Paha which, comparing the political development of Western and non-unmarried countries, associated their fundamental differences with the cultural "code", which determines the practical orientations of the population and its behavior. These differences are due to the civilizational features of the Western and Unmarried World. Summarizing empirical observations, L. Pai has created a classic ideal type that can express the originality of the West and the uniqueness of non-free societies. The opposition of the Western world is invoicable, based on the difference of cultures, makes it possible to understand why the ideas of democracy developed within the boundaries of the historical West and were alien to the unmarried world.
L. Pai delimited the political processes of Western and non-Western type. In the article "Unregulated political process", it formulates 17 points, which differ in political processes in Western and non-Western societies: 1. There are no clear boundaries between politics and the sphere of social and personal relations. 2. Political parties are inclined to apply for the expression of the worldview and the representation of the lifestyle. 3. The political process is dominated by clicks. 4. The nature of political orientation assumes that the management of political groups belongs to significant freedom in determining strategy and tactics. 5. Opposition Parties and ELITE ELITE ELITE often act as revolutionary movements. 6. The political process is characterized by the lack of integration among participants, which is a consequence of the absence of in. Society of the Unified Communication System. 7. The political process is characterized by a significant scale of recruiting new elements for the execution of political roles. 8. For the political process, a typically sharp difference in political orientations of generations. 9. Unfolded societies are distinguished by the insignificancy of consensus on the legal purposes and tools of political action. 10. The intensity and latitude of political discussion are little related to the adoption of political decisions. 11. A distinctive feature of the political process is a high degree of compatibility and interchangeability of roles. 12. In the political process, the influence of organized groups of interests playing functionally specialized roles. 13. The National Guide is forced to appeal to the people as a single whole, without distinguishing social groups in it. 14. The non-constructive nature of the unmarried political process forces the leaders to adhere to more specific views in the external, and not in domestic politics. 15. Emotional and symbolic aspects of policies are pushing to the second plan for the search for solutions for specific issues and common problems. 16. The role of charismatic leaders is great. 17. The political process is mainly without the participation of "political brokers".
In domestic political science, depending on the sociocultural and socio-economic characteristics of the process, the technocratic, ideological and charismatic political process is distinguished.
The political process of technocratic type is genetically peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon and Roman-German states. It is distinguished by the presence of traditions of evolutionism, continuous and gradual adaptation of political institutions and mechanisms to changing environmental conditions, a priority of a technological (procedural) approach when amending the political system and role-playing functions, an exception to the political practice of radical breakdown of political structures for centuries.
The political process of the ideocratic type is characteristic of most states experiencing the initial stage of modernization. It is distinguished by the domination of one idea, with respect to which there is a national consensus. The dominant idea determines the goals, and the direction of the political process, the type of government, the principles and mechanisms for the formation and renewal of the ruling elite, the form and methods of participation of citizens in politics.
The political process of charismatic Tina is characterized by the All-Russian Harizma Leader, under the political goals of which ideological doctrines and political institutions are adjusted. It largely determines the goals and the direction of the political process.
On the scale of spatio-temporal parameters, political processes can be divided into global and locally regional. The first to have their own impact on the overall course of world politics. The second affect the interests of the local community and the components of its groups. But it should be borne in mind that it is often a result of a local process may have an impact on global policy.
Conclusion
Democratic state regime is the most progressive step in the development of the state-legal regime. In all developed countries of the world, in various forms of the state, the form of the Board has developed democracy.
The experience of history teaches that democracy is good only when it corresponds to political culture and mentality of the people. The presence of its social efficiency is the presence of consensus in the society on fundamental issues of joint living in the state, recognition of the overwhelming majority of citizens-given "democratic rules of the game", the predominance of an individualistic consciousness emanating from the value priority of the person in relation to the team, moral readiness for compromise, self-restriction and self-discipline, from respect for other people, the law, the opinions of the majority.
Democracy is unacceptable in extreme situations during periods of wars, acute crises, etc. The transition to it requires graduality, a long period of time.
Modern social and economic progress in many respects stimulates the development of democracy, feeds democratic mentality and democratic value orientations of citizens, requires social emancipation of the personality, respecting its dignity, fundamental rights and freedoms, and independence of thinking. He needs freedom of information and pluralism of public life in general. And in this sense of those peoples who are ready for individual freedom and responsibility, democracy really creates the best opportunities for individual and social development, the implementation of humanistic values: freedom, equality, justice, social creativity.
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Democratic regime is one of the types of political regime, in which the population participates in the implementation of state power, taking decisions by a majority, taking into account the interests of the minority.1) the population participates in the formation and implementation of state power through direct (when citizens, for example, on the referendum directly make decisions on the most important issues of social life) and representative democracy (when the people implement their power through representative bodies chosen by him);
2) decisions are made by a majority, taking into account the interests of the minority;
3) is based on civil society with its developed structure;
4) implies the existence of a rule of law, the effect of its principles;
5) the election and changeability of central and local government bodies, their accountability to voters;
6) legitimacy of state power;
7) "Power" structures (armed forces, police, security authorities, etc.) are under democratic control of society, used only on direct purpose, their activities are regulated by law;
8) the methods of persuasion, coordination, compromise are dominated, the methods of violence, coercion, suppression are narrowed;
9) In all areas of public life, the law is dominated;
10) proclaimed and actually ensure human rights and freedoms and citizen;
11) With regard to business entities and citizens, the principle is "allowed everything that is not prohibited by law";
12) political pluralism, including multiparty, competition of political parties, existence on legal grounds for political opposition, both in parliament and outside it;
13) publicity, media are free from censorship;
14) the real implementation of the principle of separation of authorities to legislative, executive and judicial.
The concept of "democracy" is multifaceted. It is used to designate the type of political culture, certain political values, political regime. In a narrow understanding of "democracy", it has only political orientation, and in a wide one is the form of an internal device of any public organization.
The classical definition of democracy gave A. Lincoln:
Democracy - the rule of the people chosen by the people, for the people.
The characteristic feature of the democratic political regime is decentralization, the dispersal of the authorities between the citizens of the state in order to provide them with the possibility of uniform influence on the functioning of power bodies.
Democratic regime is a form of organizing social and political life based on the principles of equality of its members, the periodic election of government bodies and decision-making in accordance with the will of the majority.
The main signs of the democratic political regime is:
The presence of a constitution that enshrines the powers of the authorities and management, the mechanism of their formation;
- determined the legal status of the individual based on the principle of equality before the law;
- division of power on legislative, executive and judicial relations with the definition of functional prerogatives of each of them;
- free activities of political and public organizations;
- mandatory election of the authorities;
- delimitation of the state and the sphere of civil society;
- Economic and political, ideological pluralism (prohibition concerns only antichelovic ideologies).
During democracy, political decisions are always alternative, the legislative procedure is clear and balanced, and the power functions are auxiliary. Democracy peculiar change in leaders. Leadership can be both individual and collective, but always has a rational character. Democratic regime characterize a high level of public self-government, the prevailing consensus in relations between the authorities and society. One of the main principles of democracy is multiparty. The political process always takes part and the opposition, which produces alternative political programs and decisions, puts forward its applicants for the role of the leader. The main function of the opposition in a democratic political mode is to determine alternative directions of the development of society and to constitute a permanent competition of the ruling elite. Essential signs of democracy are electoral (lat. Elector - voter) competition, the possibility of dividing interests, focus on consolidation of society. In democracy, the state operates for the sake of citizens, and not vice versa, there are conditions for the subsequent development of civil society. Democracy and political, and in universal understanding is a trunk way, a peculiar ideal of the future development of society and human civilization in general.
In foreign and domestic political science, many theories and models of democratic development. V. Pareto created a model of "elitar" democracy, arguing that the transition of society to the industrial stage of development needs to create a special professional management apparatus, without which democracy is impossible. The relevance of this model was proven by the historical development of society, and was discarded only in the 40s-50s of the XX century, when liberalism reigned in political activities. According to the pluralistic theory of democracy (the theory of interested groups) A. Bentley, any groups that have their own interests affect the power, trying to achieve their goals through political activities. Model A. Bentley was dropped due to the danger of paralysis of power and destabilization. The author of the model of democratic elitarism R. Dal argued that the elites of each other cooperate and determine the correct way to solve specific problems.
The ideal of democracy is not achieved in principle, but it is necessary to find the form of political life that would ensure the competition of political forces, the possibility of political consensus.
A lot of modern scientists connect the content of democracy with elites and prove that democracy thanks to the elections should give the road to the most worthy representatives of the elite, should protect society from people who are long in power to prevent excessive concentration of power. Some of the modern practical politicians actively criticizes the interpretation of democracy as the power of the people, warns against the total politicization of the public organism, not doubting, however, that it is a democracy that constantly supports the state of finding and self-improvement in the ruling top environment. Separate scientists (especially in Russia) justify the danger of democracy to the highest ideal.
In front of countries that have given advantage of democratic development, many not only economic, social, but also political problems appear. First of all, these are the problems of modernizing the political system, to adapt it to functioning under the context of democracy, the creation of democratic political institutions, solutions to humanitarian problems, entry into international political organizations and the like. Modernization - the process is gradual and multifaceted, its task is to search for new paradigms in order to mobilize society. Especially important is modernization for transitional societies, which are characterized by creative constructive lack of ideals; lack of consolidating society of personalities and leaders; A political situation that does not work for the future. Democracy itself, as K. Hajiyev notes, can not be perceived unequivocally, especially in the transition period. It is quite suitable for the warning A. Tokville that the tyranny of the majority can be even more cruel than the tyranny minority, to which should also be paid attention to the construction of a democratic model of social development.
Among the problems of approval of democracy related to economies and politics are the lag of the infrastructure of the market economy from property development. It is democracy should ensure market legitimization. The market and capitalism cannot be self-sufficient conditions for the approval of democracy. An example of this is the Pinochetic regime in Chile. The ratio of the concepts of "liberalism" and "democracy" is also ambiguous. Liberalism gives the advantage of the will of a person before equality, and democracy is equality before the will.
More rationally understand democracy as the form of political self-organization of society, which means a certain distance between the state and society. It is not only a technical aspect of certain reforms, but also the scale of values, the system of life, the main postulates of which is equality and human rights. During democracy, there is no place for stagnation, ideology does not cover democratic values, pluralism is a source of power, the absolute primacy of the sovereignty of the people is provided.
The constitution of the state that has become on the path of democracy is needed to perform three main tasks:
Fix a certain form of government;
- consolidate and express the consent of the people;
- Regulate the powers of government structures.
And the most important thing is to first be aware of democratic values, and already embody them in political activities.
To become a democrat, a person, given the psychology, should grow and socialize in a democratic environment. In post-hundreds of countries, democratic state institutions (organs of different branches and levels of power and management, political parties, etc.) are not integrated into public organism. For example, in Japan, capitalization is combined with corporateness, because the Japanese democracy is sometimes called corporate. It is the preservation of the traditional values \u200b\u200bof the Japanese mentality that Japan's ability to effectively cope with the tasks of modernization, to become one of the most developed democratic countries. That is, the model of modernization must be original for each country. For post-Soviet countries, there is particularly important to find ways of organic combination of the legal state, market economy and historical traditions of statehood. Democracy, in a modern sense, designed to ensure the optimal combination of economic efficiency, social justice, freedom of entrepreneurship, social equality, etc. It is important to stabilize legislation, legitimate division of the functions of power and the formation of a strong center (both political and spiritual), the approval of democratic political consciousness and culture, rethinking their own experience in creating a state.
Democratic political regime
Political regime is a system of methods, methods and means of the implementation of political (state) power.Depending on the features of the set of methods and means of state-owned, two polar modes are distinguished: democratic and antidemocratic (fascist, totalitarian, authoritarian).
Democratic regime. The concept of "democracy" means, as it is known, democracy, the power of the people. However, the situation in which the entire people would have implemented political resources while nowhere is implemented. It is rather an ideal, then what to strive for everyone. Meanwhile, there are a number of states that have made more than others in this direction (United Kingdom, Germany, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden) and for which the public and politics are often focused.
The main characteristics of the democratic regime:
Decision making by a majority, taking into account the interests of the minority;
the existence of a legal state and civil society;
the implementation of civil control over the "force" structures (armed forces, police, security authorities, etc.);
widespread use of conviction methods, compromise;
Proclamation and real enforcement of human rights and freedoms; the existence of political pluralism, including multiparty, the presence of a legal political opposition;
publicity, lack of censorship; Real implementation of the principle of separation of the authorities.
Democracy can be carried out through two forms: straight (immediate) and representative.
Direct democracy allows the authority by the people themselves without political intermediaries. Hence her name - immediate. It is carried out through the following institutions of direct democracy: elections on the basis of universal election law, referendums, gatherings and meetings of citizens, petitions of citizens, rallies and demonstrations, and national discussions.
Some of them are elections, referendums - are clearly governed by the relevant regulatory acts (the constitution, constitutional, organic laws, ordinary laws), are imperative (mandatory) and do not need to sanction state structures, others are counseling. However, regardless of the legal nature of various democratic institutions, their influence on the mechanism of political decisions is difficult to overestimate, as the general will of the people find expression. The referendum is widely used in countries such as USA, Italy, Canada, Switzerland.
To the strengths of direct democracy can be attributed to what she:
Gives more opportunities (compared with representative institutions) to express the interests of citizens and their participation in socio-political life;
- to the greater except for the legitimization of power;
- allows to a certain extent to control the political elite.
It is often attributed to its disadvantages:
The lack of persistent desire in most people to do this management activity;
- the complexity and high cost of the legislative measures of public events;
The low efficiency of the decisions made due to the necrophysionalism of the majority of "rulers".
Representative democracy allows the power to representatives of the people - deputies, elected state authorities, which are designed to express the interests of various classes, social groups, layers, political parties and public organizations.
The advantages of representative democracy usually belong to what it is:
Gives more opportunities for making effective decisions, since in this process participate as a rule, professionals, competent persons specifically dealing with this activity or a specific problem;
- more rationally organizes a political system, allowing everyone to engage in his work, etc.
Its disadvantages are:
The possibility of the development of bureaucracy and corruption;
- separation of elected representatives from the people;
- making decisions in the interests of not the majority of citizens, but nomenclature, large capital, various kinds of lobbyists, etc.
However, democratic regimes themselves may also be heterogeneous. In particular, liberal-democratic and conservative-democratic regimes are special types of their species.
If liberal-democratic regimes are characterized by the fact that the priority is made by the personality, its rights and freedoms, and the role of states are reduced to the protection of these rights and freedoms, the property of citizens, then conservative-democratic regimes are relying not so much on the constitution, as for political traditions that are the basis of these modes. In recent years, in developed countries, they are increasingly talking about the social democracy regime, in which the principle of social justice is being implemented, each person provides free development and a decent life.
Signs of democratic regime
Democratic mode is a regime in which the power is sent by the fluently expressing by the majority. Democracy translated from Greek means literally "the power of the people" or "democracy."Basic principles of democratic power regime:
1. People's sovereignty, i.e. The primary carrier of power is the people. All power from the people and delegate them. This principle does not imply making political decisions directly by the people as, for example, on a referendum. He only assumes that all carriers of state power have their own functions thanks to the people, i.e. directly by elections (deputies of parliament or the president) or indirectly through the representatives chosen by the people (formed and subordinate to parliament);
2. Free elections of government representatives who suggest at least three conditions: the freedom of nomination of candidates as a consequence of freedom of education and the functioning of political parties; Freedom of electoral law, i.e. Universal and equal suffrage on the principle of "one person is one voice"; Freedom of voting, perceived as a means of secret ballot and equality for all in obtaining information and the ability to propaganda during the election campaign;
3. Submission of minority to the majority with the strict observance of the minority rights. The main and natural duty of the majority of democracy is respect for the opposition, its right to free criticism and law to change, following the results of new elections, the former majority in power;
4. Implementation of the principle of separation of the authorities. Three branches of power - legislative, executive and judicial - have such powers and such practices that two "corners" of this kind "triangle" can block the non-democratic, contrary to the interests of the nation of the third "corner". The lack of a monopoly on the power and pluralistic nature of all political institutions is a necessary condition for democracy;
5. Constitutionalism and dominance of the law in all spheres of life. The law is dominant regardless of the person, everything is equal before the law. Hence the "frigidity", "coldness" of democracy, i.e. It is rational. The legal principle of democracy: "All that is not prohibited by law is permitted."
Democratic regimes include:
Presidential Republic;
Parliamentary republics;
Parliamentary monarchies.
Political regime is a way to organize a political system, which reflects the relations of power and society, the level of political freedom and the nature of political life in the country.
In many ways, these characteristics are due to specific traditions, culture, historical conditions of state development, so we can say that in each country there has been his own unique political regime. However, many modes in various countries can detect similar features.
In the scientific literature, two types of political regime are distinguished:
Democratic;
antidemocratic.
Signs of democratic regime:
Domination of the law;
separation of powers;
the presence of real political and social rights and freedoms of citizens;
the election of state authorities;
The existence of opposition and pluralism.
Signs of antidemocratic regime:
The domination of lawlessness and terror;
lack of political pluralism;
Lack of opposition parties.
Antidemocratic regime is divided into totalitarian and authoritarian. Therefore, we will consider the characteristics of three political regimes: totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic.
Democratic regime is based on the principles of equality and freedom; The main source of power is the people here. In an authoritarian regime, political power focuses in the hands of a separate person or group of people, but relative freedom remains outside the sphere of politics. With totalitarian mode, power tightly controls all spheres of society.
Democratic regime of power
The concept of a democratic political regime includes not only the state regime, but also such political forces of society, as the activities of political and public organizations, political worldview, as reflected in the consciousness of citizens of the content of democracy.Democratic regime - a political regime based on the recognition of the people as a source of power, its right to participate in the management of the Company's affairs and the empowerment of citizens with a fairly wide range of rights and freedoms. Democratic regime is based on the principles of democracy, freedom and equality of citizens. In the context of this regime, the people carry out power directly through representative bodies formed by state authorities.
The main features of the democratic regime:
Decisions taken by a majority in the interests of the minority;
- There is a legal state and civil society;
- state bodies and local governments are elected and are responsible to voters;
- security forces (armed forces, police) are under civil control;
- the methods of conviction, compromise are widely used;
- There is political pluralism, including multiparty, legal political opposition;
- publicity is distributed, no censorship;
- In fact, the principle of separation of the authorities.
The experience of developed countries shows the effectiveness of the democratic form of power, which, despite the national identity, however, is characterized by recognized standards that correspond to democracy. Requirements for democracy does not arise spontaneously as a result of the rational choice of the people and the elite.
Nevertheless, the path leading to the construction of a democratic state is long and unpredictable. Democracy itself cannot feed people, ensure a decent standard of living, solve most of the socio-economic problems that are most sensitive to people. It can create only the necessary political institutions, and the practice in the application of which may be the least painful way to society in solving accumulated problems in the interests of broad social layers.
An analysis of the effective establishment of democratic regimes shows that democratic political institutions become truly effective only after the long process of evolution and adaptation to the conditions and traditions of society, as evidenced by the experience of democratic formation in Western countries. Consequently, modern refinement in the development of democratic political institutions in Russia and in other countries cannot be explained by the issue of compatibility of democracy and its institutions with national traditions and norms, as well as the fact that they can be effective, but gradually adapting to political reality.
Democratic regime can be characterized by the following features:
Sovereignty of the people. The recognition of this principle means that the people are a source of government that he chooses its representatives and periodically replaces them.
- Periodic electoral authorities provide a clear mechanism for the legal continuity of power. State power is born from honest and democratic elections, and not through military coups and conspiracies.
Power is chosen for a certain and limited period:
Universal, equal and secret election law. Elections suggest the real competitiveness of various candidates, alternative selection, the implementation of the principle: one citizen is one voice.
- The Constitution, which enshrines the priority of personal rights over the state, as well as providing citizens approved mechanism to resolve disputes between personality and the state.
- The principle of separation of the authorities (legislative, executive and judicial) in the construction of the state apparatus.
- availability of a developed system of representation (parliamentary).
- Guarantee of the fundamental human rights. Three groups of rights are identified that are associated with the growth of citizenship: civilian (equality of all citizens before the law, freedom of speech, religion, freedom to change the place of residence); Political (right to elect and be elected, freedom to vote, the right to organization); Social (human right to the minimum level of welfare, the right to ensure the living conditions and guarantees of social security). Social rights are carried out by the state through social programs. Individual and group freedoms are protected by an independent, impartial judicial system. Given the prospects for the development of democracy, a number of authors indicate updates in the future, requiring guarantees of equality in the field of ecology.
- Political pluralism (from Lat. Pluralie - Multiple), allowing to legally act not only by political and social movements supporting government policies, but also opposition parties and organizations.
- Freedom of expression of political judgments (ideological pluralism) and freedom of associations, movements, complemented by many different sources of information, independent media.
- Democratic decision-making procedure: elections, referendums, parliamentary voting and other decisions made by the majority, with respect for the minority rights to exercise disagreement. The minority (opposition) has the right to criticize the ruling power and promotion of alternative programs. Conflict resolution peacefully.
The characteristic feature of all modern democratic regimes is pluralism (from Lat. Pluralis - Multiple), which means recognition in social and political life a lot of different interconnected and at the same time autonomous, social, political groups, parties, organizations, ideas and installations of which are in constant comparison, competition, competitive struggle. Pluralism as the principle of political democracy acts as an antipode of monopolism in any form.
The essential features of political pluralism include:
Multiplicity of objects and policies in the field of competition, separation of the authorities;
- elimination of a monopoly on the political power of any one party;
- multi-party political system;
- a variety of policies for expression, free access for everyone;
- Free struggle of the political forces of opposing elites, the possibility of change;
- Alternative political views within the law.
Characteristic features of a democratic regime:
Sovereignty of the people: It is the people who choose their representatives and the authorities can periodically replace them. Elections must be fair and competitive, must be held regularly. Under the "competitive" means the presence of various groups or individuals, freely run into elections. Elections will not be competitive if some groups (or individuals) have the opportunity to participate, while others are deprived of it. Elections are considered fair if there is no fraud, and there is a special mechanism for an honest game. Elections are unfair if the bureaucratic machine belongs to one party, even if this party belongs to other parties during the elections of Cashkin S. Yu. Political regime in the modern world: the concept, essence, development trends. Using a monopoly on the media, standing in power of the party can affect public opinion to such an extent that the elections cannot be called honest.
Periodic election of the main bodies of the state. The government is born from elections on a certain, limited period of time. For the development of democracy, it is not enough to hold regular elections, it is necessary that it relies on the elected government. In Latin America, for example, elections are carried out often, but many Latin American countries are outside the democracy, and as the most common method of compensation for the president - a military coup, and not election. Thus, a prerequisite for a democratic state, the persons carrying out the supreme power are elected, and are elected to a certain, limited period of time, the government's change must be the result of the elections, and not at the request of the whole.
Democracy protects the rights of individuals and minorities. The majority opinion is expressed by democratic elections, this is the only necessary condition for democracy, however, not insufficient. Only the combination of the rule of majority and the protection of minority rights is one of the basic principles of a democratic state. When used in a minority of discriminatory measures, the non-democratic mode becomes, regardless of the frequency and honesty of elections and shifts legally chosen by the government.
Equality of citizens' rights to participate in the management of the state: freedom of creating political parties and other associations to express their will, freedom of expression, the right to information and participate in the competition for senior positions in the state.
Democratic regime recognizes the misfidence and multi-party system, the possibility of legal activities of opposition parties, trade unions and other mass organizations. Through mass organizations, the population is trying to take advantage of in participation in the political process and put pressure on the government to satisfy their requirements.
The above characteristic of the democratic regime and its principles seems very attractive. However, it should not be forgotten that this is a collective character of synthesis, which includes the most significant features of this regime, which is not necessarily inherent in specific modes of those or other states.
An important feature of the democratic regime is political pluralism, which assumes the possibility of forming a bipartisan or multi-party system, the competition of political parties and their influence on people, the existence of a legitimate political opposition, both in parliament and outside it.
According to A. Leipyarth, democratic regimes can be described from the point of view of the degree of multiparty government system (the minimum number of parts that make up the ruling coalition of the parliamentary majority). Based on this criterion, the majority will be considered the regime in which the parties are replaced by each other, and the ruling party is formed by the principles of the majority. On the other hand, the consensus of the democratic regime, as the ruling coalition, is formed on the basis of a proportional representation of the parties. Examples of majority and consensual democracy - the United Kingdom, respectively, the United States (Westminster model) and Scandinavian countries.
Experts allocate three features of consensus democracy, compared with the majority:
1) a low level of opposition of existing state rules and conflict resolution methods;
2) a low level of conflict on the existing state policy;
3) a high degree of consistency in conducting public policy. In Leipyart, regimes may vary depending on the level of centralization of state power - for federal and unitary states. Thus, in democratic institutions there may be various ways to organize work.
Democratic regime is characterized by the high importance of the realization of human rights. These include rules, rules and principles of relations between the state and citizens.
World political science has not yet made an exhaustive determination of the essence of the democratic regime as a multifaceted phenomenon of public life. The concept of a democratic regime since the times of ancient Greece is often considered as a state form, opposite authoritarianism in all its manifestations. Meanwhile, the state regime of power is a narrower concept, which includes only the methods of political power of the state apparatus.
Signs of democratic regime:
1. Regular participation of the people in the development and implementation of state power through a referendum and free elections.
2. Decisions are made taking into account the interests of the minority.
3. Procurance of private property.
4. Freedom of the media.
5. We are solemnly proclaim and really enjoy rights and freedoms.
6. The legitimacy of power.
7. The structure of the armed forces, police, security authorities are under the control of the Company, are used only by their direct appointment, their activities are governed by law.
8. The convictions are dominated, negotiations, compromises, narrowed methods of violence, coercion, preventing.
9. The existence of civil society with its developed structure.
10. The actual implementation of the principle of the rule of law.
11. The principle "All is permitted that not prohibited by law."
12. Political pluralism, including multiparty competition of political parties, the existence of a legitimate political opposition, both in parliament and outside it.
13. Freedom of religion.
14. The principle of separation of the authorities.
Democratic regime is characterized by an economic, political and ideological diversity (pluralism), monopolization is not allowed in any of these areas Leiphart A. Democracy in multi-storey societies.
Democratic regime indicates a set of techniques and means of the implementation of state power. They are very different and specify the main indicators of the form of state reign and device in a particular country.
General indicators of democratic regime are:
A) the degree of security and security guarantees of the rights and freedoms of citizens (political and ideological choice, economic freedom) and the degree of accounting for the interests of various social groups (including minorities), etc.;
b) methods of legitimation of state power;
c) the ratio of legal and non-legal ways to implement power functions;
d) methods, intensity and legal validity of the use of force structures, other power resources;
d) the mechanism of ideological pressure.
The study of the prerequisites for the democratization of society is a very important issue. Why, with equal starting capabilities, some countries successfully go along the path of democratization, and in others - all attempts to establish democracy ends with a complete failure? Many scientists tried to find an answer to this question, but it still remains unresolved in the transition from totalitarianism to democracy.
The number of democratic mode prerequisites include:
Modernization, industrialization, urbanization, level of education, elements of capitalism and welfare;
- the corresponding nature of the population of society;
- Democratic political culture, as well as a developed civil society;
- the presence of certain institutional forms, among particularly significant institutional factors, electoral systems, majoritarian or proportional representation, form of government - parliamentary or presidential, strong political parties and a well-established party system;
- the unified state, the boundaries are established, the absence of ethnic or regional conflicts;
- External factors: a peaceful international situation, the growth of the interdependence of all countries and peoples of the world.
Traits of democratic regime
The word "democracy" comes from two Greek words: "Demos" - the people and "Kratein" - respect. In the literal sense, this means the power of the people, democracy.For the first time, this concept is found at Herodotus. Then the democracy was considered as a special form of state power, in which power belongs not to one person or group of persons, but to all citizens who enjoy equal rights to government management. Over time, from Greek, this word passed into all the languages \u200b\u200bof the world and became one of the most consumed, gradually filling everything with new content.
Currently, democracy is considered:
As the form of a device of any organization, as the principle of relationships based on equality, election, decision making by the majority;
As an ideal of a public system of society, based on freedom, human rights, minority rights guarantees, folk sovereignty, political participation, publicity, pluralism, tolerance;
As a type of political regime, characterized by a set of certain signs.
Democratic regime Cherchil has determined as the worse of all systems for the exception of the rest. Of course, democracy is not devoid of flaws, there are elements of violence, and freedom of speech is far from fully carried out. But as sure I noticed K. Popper, "Democracy, we choose not because it is replete with virtues, but only in order to avoid tyranny." Nothing better mankind has not yet invented.
The formation of a modern parliamentary democracy process is long and complex. He began on the squares of ancient Greece, where all the adult population of the policy and suburbs were gathered to solve the general affairs.
But even then, at the time of the heyday of the Polis Democracy, no more than 2% of the population took part in the People's Assembly. Of the 25-30 thousand inhabitants of Athens, 2-3 thousand came to the National Assembly (the peasants were often occupied by agricultural. Works, slaves and women did not have the right to vote). All authorities were elected, including the court. For promotion, a fee for visiting the People's Assembly was even introduced. As we see, even then did not exist in the real participation of the entire people in solving public affairs. Over time, the will of the people was implemented through the People's Representation.
For its history, democracy knew such forms:
Direct, immediate democracy: primitive-free, military-tribal (in the ancient Germans, Slavs). The forms of direct democracy knew the Middle Ages: in the West - Geneva, Venice, Florence; in Russia - Novgorod and Pskov; In Ukraine - Zaporizhia Schish;
Parliamentary, representative, which was established at the end of the XIX century.
The elements of direct democracy exist in our time: referendums, plebiscites, when the country's entire population is surveyed for one or another important issues.
Athenian democracy rejected any representation as a type of oligarchy, but she could afford it to afford it for her small person. In the course of historical development, the mechanism of the will of the people was polished, gradually the will of the people delegated to representatives. Now this institution of intermediaries functions in the form of senior representative institutions - parliaments.
Parliament is the highest representative institution. According to S. Ken, "Parliament is the mother of democracy." In the US and other Latin American countries, parliament is called Congress, in Sweden - Rixdag, in Finland and Poland - Seimas. In Ukraine, this is the Verkhovna Rada, in Russia - the Duma. But the essence of their one is the highest bodies of representative democracy.
The historical roots of representative democracy, or rather parliamentarism, go to the depths of centuries. Parliamentary democracy in England originated. At first it was the collection of the King's vassals (mid-XIII century). For a few centuries, the existence of parliamentarism in England was real power in the hands of parliament and government, and representative functions were left to the king.
In the West countries, parliamentarism as the board system mainly developed in the last third of the XIX century, when universal and equal suffrage was introduced. Prior to that there were selective valuables based on property and high tax. By the way, women were devoid of electoral rights even in England and Germany until the end of the First World War.
In structural relationship there is a unicameral and two-chart parliament. For the first time, the two-bearer was legalized in the US Constitution 1787, although the roots are much deeper. At first, in the two-chance, the principle of "separate representation" was seen. In France at the end of the XVIII century. The general states consisted of three sections - the nobility, clergy and the third estate. Now the estate parliaments almost do not occur, but in the conditions of a federal state, the presence of two chambers allows the subjects of the Federation to influence the policies of the Union State. The very existence of various chambers (and they are in unitary states), causing disagreements between them and disputes, contribute to the birth of political truth.
Current democratic regimes are characterized by the following features:
1. The presence of the Constitution of Direct Action, which means not only the proclamation of political rights and freedoms of citizens, but their warranty. The presence of a constitution, even well written, does not say anything (by the way, the Stalinist constitution was written quite in a democratic spirit). This is that the articles of the Constitution worked "directly", i.e. In order for citizens to have the opportunity in their appeal to the court refer directly to the articles of the Constitution, when there are no registered acts. If a housewife in the United States considers that some kind of her rights are violated, she writes a statement, referring to the article of the Constitution and is confident that the process will benefit. If the submission acts are required to adopt a statement to legal proceedings (which are published by ministries and departments), then this completely can exhaust the democratic essence of the Constitution. The point is not even in the written constitution, there is no such thing in England (everything is based on a precedent), but God forbid and all other countries to reach such a degree of democracy.
2. State power is formed by electionally based on universal, secret, free elections. All citizens under such conditions have eligible rights and real opportunities to take part in the elections. However, democracy does not exclude the presence of a settling cencing, in accordance with the right to choose and be chosen in many countries have only those citizens who live there during a certain time. At the same time, the remaining restrictions in the voting rights (on national, religious, sexual, property, professional and other signs) are unacceptable, as they contradict the nature of democracy.
3. Implementation of the principle of separation of authorities into three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. On the one hand, all three branches of power are separated and quite independent of each other, on the other - they constantly interact with each other in the process of forming and implementing public policy. Each of them is endowed with full-blooded authority. Parliament, being the highest legislative authority, adopts laws and formulates the main directions of the internal and foreign policy of the state. In line with these areas, the executive power in the face of the government exercises its powers. At the same time, the government owns a legislative initiative and is not at all only obedient conductor of the Parliament line. The judiciary is independent of the parliament and from the government. It carries out constitutional supervision and can cancel or suspend the laws adopted by Parliament, as well as government decisions if they contradict the Constitution. There is a certain system of checks and counterweights that do not allow to focus power in one hands and in one body.
4. The presence of political competition, i.e. Opposition. Democracy is the power of the majority with respect for the opinions of the minority, therefore freedom of activity of political parties and other oppositional associations has been proclaimed.
5. Guarantee of the rights and freedoms of citizens, recognition of the participation of the people in the affairs of the state, its influence on the solution of the main issues of society. Society cannot be democratic if his citizens are deprived of such an opportunity. The priority political rights and freedoms include: freedom of speech, belief, religion for all people, regardless of their race, gender, language and religion. In a democratic society, inviolability of personality and housing is guaranteed, restrictions on the choice of the place of residence of citizens and their movement in their state are prohibited, the right to free departure and entry into their country.
Completing the conversation about political modes, we note that the political regime and the political system of society are closely connected with each other. It all depends on the location and relationships of the main elements. Such a ratio of the political system and political regime resembles the principle of a note series or a mosaic, when all of the seven notes or the same small figures can be folded any melody or any pattern. Depending on how the main elements of the society's political system are related, they form one or another type of political regime and, accordingly, the type of political system.
Democratic state regime
The main feature of the democratic state regime is that the formation of a political will underlying the activities of the state is "bottom-up", that is, from individuals and civil society to state institutions that make political decisions. Thus, the democratic state regime implies a wide and indispensable participation of the people in the management of state affairs.The constitution of the absolute majority of foreign countries enshrines the ownership of state power to the people: only the people are recognized by its carrier and owner. So, in Art. 3 of the Constitution of France 1958 states that "national sovereignty belongs to the people." Similar wording is contained in Art. 1 of the Constitution of Italy. The Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany stresses that "all state power comes from the people" (Part 2 of Art. 20). This means that any power must have its source of the will of the people; The illegal, anti-constitutional is any attempt by the usurpation of power - regardless of whether it comes from a certain layer (class, group) or from a separate personality - as well as its illegal deduction.
Actions of any state body, any official should be based on a clear will of the people. This will can manifest directly (straight) on a referendum or via vote in elections. It can manifest itself and indirectly through the control of the executive authorities by representative institutions. The presence of democratic legitimation is a prerequisite condition for the provision of a state or official government with powerful powers. This explains, in particular, why such powers are absent or strongly limited to the heads of state in parliamentary republics and parliamentary monarchies: the reason should be sought in insufficient democratic legitimation.
The ideological foundation of a democratic state regime is the doctrine of political freedom. It underlies the modern interpretation of the public and state treaty. A separate and sovereign individual exists primary, regardless of social and political ties, and the state arises and operates as a result of the will of these individuals, which have the right to independently dispose of its initial freedom and voluntarily agree to its limitation. Democratic state regime is established by those who later obeys him. The task of state power in this mode is to coordinate the principle of individual freedom with the freedom of all the people who speak represented by the state as a single team.
In the legal plan, freedom is understood and implemented as the independence of the individual in its beliefs and actions from pressure from the outside. Here it should be borne in mind that in this case we are talking about specific carriers of such pressure (state bodies, officials), and not about general circumstances (severe economic situation, lack of work, etc.). A citizen in a democratic society independently formulates the motives of its behavior, and does not receive prescriptions or instructions from external power, whether the power of the state, a party or other organization.
The principle of individual freedom is materialized in the right and freedom of citizen's participation in the definition of public and state system. In order to make such participation in real, the state establishes, provides and guarantees the basic rights and freedoms of citizens, including the voting law, the right to access public positions, freedom of opinion and beliefs (including freedom of printing and information), freedom of assembly and associations.
The content of a democratic total will, which is formed by free participation of citizens, is not constant and reflects the search for certain solutions at the state level. Finding such solutions is impossible without the participation of political parties, which are intermediaries between the authorities and the people, contributing to the formation of its political will. Therefore, the most important sign of the democratic state regime is the multi-party, the presence of parties that adhere to various political and ideological orientation, but having equal rights in the struggle for participating in the management of state affairs. Other signs of a democratic state regime include the following: building a state mechanism and its functioning based on the principle of separation of authorities to legislative, executive and judicial: a significant role of representative institutions formed on the basis of general elections and endowed with real powers in the implementation of state power, recognition and The consistent implementation of the state apparatus of the principles of constitutionality and legality subject to the supremacy of the Constitution. Democratic state regime can be combined with various forms of government: a presidential or parliamentary republic, as well as a parliamentary monarchy. So, despite the difference in the forms of government in Germany and in Italy (parliamentary republics), in Mexico and Argentina (presidential republics), in Spain and Japan (parliamentary monarchies), there is a democratic state regime in these countries. At the same time, such a regime is compatible with a dualistic monarchy, not to mention absolute. True, it should be borne in mind that the presence of the republican form of government in itself is not yet a guarantee of the existence of a democratic state regime. Communist states (DPRK, Cuba) are republics, but the current modes existing there can not be called democratic. There is no this mode and in the republics that are based on tough religious principles (Iran).
As for the forms of the state device, the federal form of the state device is preferable from the point of view of the democratic organization.
It is inherent, for example, such democratic states as the United States, Switzerland, Germany. At the same time, the democratic regime may exist in unitary states (France). But it is significant that the process of democratization of public administration leads some states to transformation from unitary in federated (Belgium), while others - to the formation of a regional structure based on the broad autonomy of this state of territorial entities (Italy, Spain). Historically, two types of democratic state regime have developed: the regime of liberal democracy and the regime of social democracy. The differences between them are in the nature of the relationship between the state with society.
Characteristics of democratic regime
The main characteristics of the democratic regime are the following:Proclaimed and really ensured human rights and freedoms and citizen;
decisions are made by a majority, taking into account the interests of the minority;
It is assumed to exist a legal state and civil society;
the election and changeability of the central and local government bodies, their accountability to voters;
Power structures (armed forces, police, security bodies, etc.) are under democratic control of society;
dominate the methods of belief, compromise;
political pluralism, including multiparty, the competition of political parties, existence on legal grounds for political opposition;
publicity; The media is free from censorship;
The real implementation of the principle of separation of the authorities to legislative (designed to accept laws, to form a strategy for the development of society), executive (designed to implement adopted laws, implement them to life, conduct a daily policy of the state) and judicial (designed to act as an arbiter in cases of conflict, various kinds of offenses).
Democracy (democracy) can be carried out by two forms: direct (immediate) and representative.
Direct democracy allows the authority by the people themselves without political intermediaries. Hence her name - immediate, i.e. This, which is carried out through the following institutions of direct democracy: elections on the basis of universal election law, referendums, gatherings and meetings of citizens, petitions of citizens, rallies and demonstrations, and national discussions.
Some of them are elections, referendums - are clearly governed by the relevant regulatory acts (constitution, special laws), are imperative (mandatory) and do not need to sanction state structures, others are advisory. However, regardless of the legal nature of various institutions of the direct form of democracy, their influence on the mechanism of making political decisions is difficult to overestimate, since they find the expression of the will of the people.
To the positive moments of direct democracy include the fact that it: gives more opportunities (compared to representative institutions) to express the interests of citizens and their participation in the political process; more ensures complete legitimization of power; Provides control over the political elite, etc.
The disadvantages of direct democracy are the lack of persistent desire for most people to deal with these managerial activities, the complexity and high cost of democratic measures, the low effectiveness of the decisions made due to the non-professionalism of the majority of "rulers", etc.
Representative democracy allows the power to representatives of the people to the deputies, other elected executive and judicial authorities, which are designed to express the interests of various classes, social groups, layers, political parties and public organizations.
The strong side of the representative democracy is that it gives more opportunities (compared to the institutions of direct democracy) to make effective decisions, since in this process participate, as a rule, professionals, competent persons who are specially involved in this activity; More rationally organizes a political system, etc.
The following features are often related to the disadvantages of representative democracy: an unlimited development of bureaucracy and corruption is possible; gap representatives from their voters; Decisions in the interests of not most citizens, but nomenclature, large capital, various kinds of lobbyists, etc.
These are the essential features of a democratic political regime that distinguish it from authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. Knowledge of the above features is important, it helps to clearly navigate the qualifications of the system of methods, techniques and means of political power.
However, democratic regimes themselves may also be heterogeneous. In particular, the liberal-democratic conservative-democratic modes are special varieties of their species.
If liberal democratic regimes are characterized by the fact that the priority is given to the personality, its rights and freedoms, and the role of the state is reduced to the protection of these rights and freedoms, property of citizens, then conservative-democratic regimes are relying not so much on the constitution, how many political traditions that are The basis of these modes.
Liberal Democratic Mode
The liberal-democratic regime is a kind of democratic type of government management, in which democratic methods, forms and methods for the implementation of state power receives relatively incomplete, limited and inconsistent use.On the one hand, this mode is associated with a fairly high level of political freedom of personality; And on the other hand, real objective and subjective conditions in countries significantly limit the ability to use democratic agents and methods of state-political management. This ensures that the liberal-democratic regime should be attributed to the democratic state type of ruling power and at the same time a special kind of democratic regime differs from actually democratic or developed democracies.
The liberal state-political regime is the embodiment of the socio-political principles and ideals of liberalism (from Latin liberalis - free) - one of the most important and common ideological and socio-political flows, which finally established into a special, independent direction in the 30-40th. XIX century, although the ideological origins of liberalism go to the XVII-XVIII centuries. (J. Locke, Sh. Montesquieu, J.Zh. RUSSO, T. Jefferson, B. Franklin, I. Bentam, etc.). Historically, classic liberalism has developed in the struggle against the feudal challenge of the individual, against the estate privileges, hereditary state power, etc., for freedom and equality of citizens, equal opportunities for all and everyone, democratic forms of socio-political life.
Liberal democratic mode exists in many countries. Its importance is that some scientists consider the liberal-democratic regime, it is not really the implementation of the implementation of the authority, but by contrast - the condition of the existence of civilization itself at a certain stage of its development, even the final result, which the entire evolution of the political organization ends Effective form of such an organization. But with the latest statement, it is difficult to agree, at present the evolution of political regimes is even forms such as the liberal-democratic regime of power.
New trends in the development of civilization, man's desire to escape from the environment, nuclear and other disasters generate new forms of state power, increases the role of the UN, international rapid response forces appear, but at the same time there are contradictions between human rights and nations, peoples and so Further.
In the theory of state, such political methods and methods of carrying out power, which are based on the system of the most democratic and humanistic principles.
These principles are primarily characterized by the relations of the economic sectors between the individual and the state. In a liberal-democratic mode, a person has property, rights and freedoms, economic independence, and on this basis become politically independent. In terms of personality and state priority, reserved for interests, rights, freedoms of personality and others.
The liberal-democratic regime supports the values \u200b\u200bof individualism, opposing its collectivist principles for organizing political and economic life, which, in the opinion of some scientists, leads ultimately to totalitarian forms of government.
The liberal-democratic regime determines primarily the needs of the market economy inventory organization. The market requires equal free, independent partners.
The liberal state proclaims the formal equality of all citizens. The liberal society should have freedom of speech, opinions, ownership, given the space for a private initiative. The rights and freedoms of a person are not only enshrined in the Constitution, but also become possible in practice.
Thus, the economic basis of liberalism is private property. The state frees producers from their guardianship and does not interfere in the economic life of people, but establishes the general framework for free competition between producers, economic life conditions. He also acts as an arbitrator and resolving their disputes.
At the later stages of liberalism, legitimate government intervention in economic and social processes acquires a socially oriented nature, which is associated with many factors: the need to rationally distribute economic resources to solve environmental problems, to participate in the international division of labor, preventing international conflicts, etc. The liberal-democratic regime allows the existence of an opposition, moreover, from the point of view of liberalism, the state takes all measures to exist an opposition representing the interests of a minority creating special procedures to solve these interests.
Pluralism and multipartyness primarily are the necessary attributes of a liberal society. In addition, with a liberal-democratic mode there are many associations, corporations, non-governmental organizations, sections, clubs that unite people who are interested in each other. There are organizations that allow citizens to express their political, professional, religious, social, social, personal, local, national interests and needs. These associations are the basis of civil society and do not leave citizens face to face with a state, which, as a rule, tend to impose their decisions and even abuse their capabilities.
When liberalism form elections, their outcome depends not only on the opinions of the people, but also on the financial capabilities of certain parties necessary for election campaigns.
The implementation of state administration is based on the principle of separation of the authorities. The system of "checks and counterweights" reduces the ability to abuse power. State decisions are taken, as a rule, in legal form.
In state administration, the decentralization of power is used: the central government takes on the decision of only those issues that local authorities cannot solve.
Of course, one should not apologize the liberal-democratic regime, because he has its own problems, the main of which is the social protection of individual categories of citizens, stratification of society, actual unequal starting capabilities, etc.
The use of this regime is most effectively becoming possible only in society with a high level of economic and social development. The population should have a rather high political, intellectual and moral culture.
The liberal-democratic regime is based on the ideas and practices of democracy, the system of separation of the authorities, the protection of the rights and freedoms of the individual, in which the judiciary plays an important role. This generates respect for the court, the Constitution, the rights and freedoms of other persons. The principles of autonomy and self-regulation permeate many aspects of society.
For a liberal-democratic regime, one more type of democracy is adjacent. This is a humanistic mode that, while maintaining the whole value of the liberal-democratic regime, continues and strengthens the tendency by eliminating its shortcomings. True, the humanistic regime, overcoming contradictions, failures, only appears in some countries, speaking the ideal goal of the political development of the modern state.
His legal form is not at all focused on personality, on dividends, and to ensure health, safety, well-being, specific social protection, support for the specific family and personal life of each member of society.
A person is a goal, not a means, this is the main principle of humanistic regime. The state does not create state dependence on social security, and creates all the conditions for the normal creative work of each member of society. High social and legal protection, the meaning of each person's life is obligations in the practical activity of all state bodies.
Humanity for thousands of years in search of the most advanced forms of the state organization of society. These forms change with the development of society. The form of government, the state apparatus, the political regime is the specific areas where the search is most intensively.
Modern democracy is the representation of interests, not classes. All citizens in a democratic state as participants are equal to the state, that is, means equality to the law and equality of political rights and freedoms. The modern democratic state is the legal state and in practice the division of three branches of power is carried out, and real mechanisms are being created to protect the rights and freedoms of citizens.
The liberal-democratic regime supports the values \u200b\u200bof individualism, opposing its collectivist principles in organizing political and economic life, which, according to some scientists, can lead ultimately to totalitarian forms of government.
In liberalism, the state formed by elections is not only from the opinion of people, but also from the financial capabilities of certain parties required for election campaigns.
The implementation of the management is based on the principle of separation of the authorities. The system of "checks and counterweights" allows to reduce the potential for abuse of power. Government solutions are usually accepted in legal form.
The use of a liberal-democratic regime is most effectively in a society with a high level of economic and social development.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that the liberal-democratic regime can only exist on a democratic basis, and is created from the right democratic regime.
Authoritarian-Democratic Political Mode
Authoritarian regime (from lat. Auctoritas - power) is a system of power relations, headed by a dictator and its environment, establishing a minimum of the political participation of the people and limit, except the political, state intervention in the development of public areas.1) The political power is concentrated in the hands of one person or group of persons. Thus, the government expresses the interests of only a separate group of the population, without taking into account the interests of other layers.
2) Authoritarian regimes, in contrast to totalitarian, often use limited political pluralism, which is expressed in the fact that authoritarian authorities resort to the electoral prohibition or temporary suspension of the activities of some parties, public associations, trade unions.
3) Not allowing strong opposition political activities, authoritarian regimes retain the well-known autonomy of the personality and society in the unititudic spheres. With authoritarianism, for example, there may be no strict control from the authorities over the production, education, culture. Intervention in the economy is usually limited, sent to the support of national capital, contributes to economic development.
4) In an authoritarian political mode, there is no mechanism for separating the authorities. For example, the activities of parliament, state and judicial authorities are controlled from one control center.
5) this regime is inherent in the formation of the political elite on the principle of personal dedication, that is, there is no mechanism for the competitive struggle for entry into the ruining elite.
6) The leaders most often declare their desire to bring the country from the crisis condition, the catastrophe and promise to give power in the future to other political forces.
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Who owns power |
Features |
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1) naval dictatorial |
Many countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America Iran, Khomein |
Political activity is limited or prohibited |
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2) Theocratic |
Religious figure |
United Arab Emirates |
Life is devoted to religion |
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3) Monarchical |
There is no or limited elections to the legislative bodies |
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4) oligarchic |
Selected circles from financiers, industrialists, security officials, etc. |
Arab, African, Latin American countries |
The government eliminates the manifestations of political radicalism and the participation of the people in politics |
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Dictatorship of the ruling party |
Democratic regime
The concept of "democracy" (from Greek. Demos - the people and Kratos - power) means democracy, the power of the people. Democratic regime is a way to functioning a political system of society based on the recognition of the people as the main source of government, to participate in its right to participate in solving public and public affairs and exercise citizens with a wide range of rights and freedoms.
Until now, generally accepted representations are not developed in political science, which make it possible to formulate a clear definition of democracy. Various authors focus on individual components of democracy, for example, on the authorities of the majority, on its restriction and control over it, on the fundamental rights of citizens, on legal and social statehood, finally, on the separation of authorities, general elections, publicity, competition of various opinions and positions. , pluralism, equality, complicity, etc.
Accordingly, democracy is interpreted in several senses: first, expansion, as a social system based on the voluntaryness of all forms of the life of the individual; Secondly, more narrowly, as the form of the state, in which all citizens have equal rights to power (as opposed to the monarchy, where the power belongs to one person or aristocracy, where the management is carried out by a group of persons). This is an antique tradition of interpretation of democracy, originating from Herodotus (V c. BC); Thirdly, democracy is understood as the perfect model of a social device, as a certain worldview, based on the values \u200b\u200bof freedom, equality, human rights.
Individuals, groups that confess these values \u200b\u200bform a movement for their implementation. In this meaning, the term "democracy" is interpreted as a social movement as a type of political orientation, embodied in certain parties in programs.
As a political mode of democracy is less suitable for a radical decision of strategic problems, since it requires constant coordination of interests, the study of various public alternatives, tolerance, etc.
Paying attention to the complexity of such procedures, W. Churchill noted: "Democracy is the worst form of government, if not counting all the others, which are subject to checking from time to time."
This mode is characterized by the following features:
Implementation of the principle of separation of authorities to legislative, executive and judicial.
- Election of representative bodies of state power and local self-government through universal equal direct elections during mystery voting.
- high degree of development of civil society; It controls the state, the entire political system.
- In the activities of state power, non-political methods (physical terror) are excluded, the methods of compromise prevail. The state is legal.
- Multi-Parliament, the presence in the party system of political parties, as those who stand in the soil of the existing system, and denying it, but existing within the Constitution.
- Legal opposition is endowed with all political rights and freedoms as the ruling majority. It is an integral element of the political process.
- The media is free from censorship and can criticize the authorities on legal grounds, but it is not entitled to call for their violent overthrow.
- The power structures provide internal and external security, their activities are regulated by laws. They are out of politics.
- Proclaimed rights and freedoms are guaranteed by the entire social system.
- Extensive opportunities and high degree of participation of various social groups and layers in the political life of society.
- Pluralistic political culture.
- Conflicts arising in society are allowed through the mechanism enshrined in the law.
- ideological pluralism, the absence of any official ideology.
Forms of democratic regime
Forms and varieties of democratic regime. Distinguish two forms of democracy.Direct democracy suggests that all citizens directly participate in the adoption and execution of decisions. In public organizations and other teams, direct (immediate) democracy is implemented in general meetings of their members.
In modern states, two institutions of direct democracy are actively functioning: a referendum and election. The referendum is a nationwide vote on any question. Through the referendum, the Constitution may be made, laws, as well as the opinion of the people (for example, the exit of a territory of the state from the state). Referendums are held on the initiative of the head of state, parliament, government, as well as citizens, if the number of signatures established by the Number of signatures will be collected in support of this offer.
Therefore, it is the referendum that allows each citizen to express his attitude to a certain problem. Elections - a form of direct willing of citizens carried out in accordance with the laws, in order to form the state authority, local government or empowering an official. Citizens participate in elections on the basis of universal equal and direct election law during a secret ballot.
At the same time, participation is free and voluntary. Elections should be honest, competitive, regularly conducted. Direct democracy is always complemented by the representative, in which citizens are reputable to the adoption and implementation of solutions to their elected representatives. As a variety of democratic regime, presidential and parliamentary, humanistic and liberal-democratic regimes can be distinguished. Of these, the most modern is a liberal democratic regime.
He defends the value of individualism, opposing his collectivist principal in organizing political and economic life. In the economic sphere, a person has property, rights and freedoms, economically independent. The liberal regime is determined primarily by the needs of commodity-monetary, market organization of the economy. The state proclaims the formal equality of all citizens, freedom of speech, opinions, forms of ownership, is given a private initiative.
The rights and freedoms of individuals are not only enshrined in the Constitution, but also become feasible in practice. Thus, the economic basis of liberalism is private property. The state frees producers from their guardianship and does not interfere in the economic life of people, but only establishes the general framework of free competition between manufacturers. It also acts as an arbitrator in resolving disputes between them. The liberal regime allows the existence of an opposition, moreover, in the conditions of liberalism, the state takes all measures to exist an opposition representing the interests of the minority, given these interests, creates special procedures for taking into account these interests.
In addition, with a liberal political mode, there are many associations, corporations, public organizations, sections, clubs that unite people in interest. There are organizations that allow citizens to express their political, professional, religious, social, domestic, local, national interests and needs.
In liberalism, state power is formed by elections, the outcome of which depends not only on the opinion, the people, but also on the financial capabilities of those or other parties necessary for conducting electoral companies. The implementation of public administration is made on the basis of the principle of separation of the authorities. The system of "checks and counterweights" helps reduce the abuse of power.
State decisions are taken, as a rule, in legal form, and decentralization is used in state administration: the central government takes on the decision of only those issues that local authorities cannot solve. Of course, the liberal regime has its own problems, the main among them is the social protection of some categories of citizens, the separation of society, the actual inequality of opportunities. The use of this regime is most effectively becoming possible only in a society that is distinguished by a high level of economic and social development.
Party of democratic regime
Depending on the degree of loyalty to the actions of the government, two types of opposition should be distinguished: intrasystem (loyal) and antisystem (irreasonable). With the first type between competing social and political forces, there is general consent (consensus) about the nature of the social system, the basic principles of its organization and functioning, about basic values, ideals and public development goals, but there is no consent regarding the choice of specific policies, solutions to that or other nationwide problem. In this case, the ruling party at the moment, and the opposition stand on the basis of one system and the principles are not questioned. In developed Western countries, none of the main parties actually applying to the authorities do not question the essence and principles of the public system in which they function.The struggle goes for the one who better expresses and implements the interests of society, who can promote the specific interests of a social group, regarding the methods of exercising public interests. In the second type, the opposition opposes the indigenous basis of the social system, for its destruction and destruction. Democratic regime involves the free functioning of both types of oppositions in the law and the rules established by him. The struggle against the anti-systemic opposition should be carried out by political and legal and ideological methods, but not organizational and punitive. With the conviction of the majority of the population in the rationality and justice of the existing political regime, the antisystem opposition has no chance of success.
Depending on the distribution sector, parties and parliamentary opposition are isolated. Under the internal registry opposition is understood by groupings opposing any fundamental issues of the policies of the party and its governing bodies. Parliamentary opposition is a group of parliament deputies or a parliamentary faction of any party, speaking on a number of issues against government policy. According to the methods used, the legal and illegal opposition should be highlighted. Legal acts in the framework of the laws adopted in society, constitutionally. Illegal exists outside the law, applies anti-constitutional methods, political struggle.
Often, political pluralism is identified with multiparty, which is not entirely true. Multipalences can be a form of expression of pluralism of political life, in the event that political parties do not have legal advantages and are in this sense in equal terms in the struggle for popular support. Political pluralism Thoughts and in conjunctional conditions, in the event that public associations that have not consolidated for any reasons in political parties are provided with equal rights and opportunities to compete with the only existing party in the conquest of voters, and, accordingly, in participation in the implementation of power. Although the experience of many countries has shown that political parties are the most complete expressives of the interests of classes and other social groups. In the modern world, in the context of a democratic regime without political parties, the state cannot function. This is explained by the fact that the "Party is a group of people organized or having a strict organization, the United States of the conquest, holding or use of state power, expressing the interests of a certain class, social group, nation, religious community, or other generality, acting on the political arena with certain political actions accompanying in the framework of civilized behavior. "
"Parties are extremely important for democracy," says J. Beshler, "since citizens entrust them to put forward various interpretations of a common good, transform these interpretations in the action program ...". It is political parties that formulate the requirements of certain social layers and groups of citizens based on their interests and aspirations. Political parties - mediators between civil society and the state. In the system of relations between the state and society, the party as the institute may belong to either the state or to civil society. Accordingly, two opposite party models are possible: a state party or party of citizens, the first is characteristic of totalitarian, second - for a democratic regime. In the democratic regime, political parties are struggling for power and political influence with legal parliamentary methods. The party in power refuses to apply to other public associations - methods of suppression and violence, provides opposition to unhindered to use all democratic rights and freedoms. In turn, opposition parties refuse extremist methods of struggle for power, obey the will of voters.
Civil society is the scope of interpersonal relations (social, economic, cultural, religious, family and others) and voluntarily formed associations of citizens, which develops in society without direct state intervention and fenced with laws from arbitrary regulation by state authorities.
The concept of civil society indicates the diverse structures of leadership, autonomous in relation to the institutions of state power. Relations within civil society are not based on the authorities of one in relation to others. Power as if carried out beyond civil society and is used only as a guarantee of compliance with all applicable laws. The formation of a full-fledged civil society leads to the fact that the state becomes a mechanism exercising certainly strictly outlined functions on his instructions and under its control.
In civil society, several levels can be distinguished: Economic - Competitive interaction of diverse private interests; Social - various generality and social sections: family, ethnic and religious groups, etc.; Cultural - mentality, value orientations and installations, spiritual and moral development; Religious - religiousness of the population, church organization, etc. In addition, the vertex that completes the creation of a multilayer structure of a modern civil society, its representative and expressive in relation to the state is political or politicized institutions: parties, groups of interest, media, etc. Without them, civil society will not be able to represent himself in relations with the state and control it.
The difference between the democratic regime
Sometime to distinguish the democratic regime from the undemocratic was simple. The state either had a king, which solved all the issues (non-democratic regime), or the one or another form of the republic, where people participated in solving national issues (democratic regime). When some regime ceased to be democratic, it immediately became obvious: people who captured power canceled the elections, prohibited all parties, except the ruling, and sometimes accelerated parliament.Today everything has become more difficult. Almost all states call themselves free, legal and democratic. Everywhere the freedom of speech and multipartyness is proclaimed, elections are held, and numerous rights and freedoms are provided to citizens under the Constitution.
Nevertheless, some of these states we consider democratic, and some are not. How to distinguish the first from the second?
There is no universal answer. It is necessary to study the entire set of signs and decide how implemented they are in the country or not. For example, the sign "democracy" can be recognized as absent if only one candidacy is set in the election, or they do not allow well-known politicians, or the counting of votes occurs with numerous falsifications and violations.
That is, periodic elections are an insufficient condition for democracy. We need to understand how much the election procedure is filled with real content. It is also desirable to explore how the process of registration of political parties and candidates for elections is prescribed, which acts on the law are considered criminal, what are the powers of various authorities, etc.
When there is no time to learn all this information, you can use a simple, but almost trouble-free way to determine the political mode. If one country or a group of people is leading for more than ten years, most likely, it will be authoritarian regime. From this rule, however, there are exceptions. For example, in China, the mode is authoritarian, but capable of self-renewal: every ten years the leadership of this country is completely changing.
It is not always possible to clearly separate democracy from authoritarianism. There is something average. In my opinion, Russia combined the features of both modes. On the one hand, the adopted constitution did not implement the principle of separation of the authorities, so almost all the significant powers were in the hands of President Boris Yeltsin. On the other hand, there was a real multi-party and freedom of speech in the country: various political parties operated, opposition candidates participated in all levels, and the management of the leadership was freely discussed on federal television.
However, since the beginning of the 2000s. Russia gradually got rid of democratic elements. The election laws now allow you to refuse to register any disagreeable candidate, and the laws on political parties - eliminate any party. The Criminal Code has grown rubber norms that allow to punish citizens to express their opinions. Thus, Russia has become a fully authoritarian state with a number of procedures that are formally similar to the election, but in fact do not matter.
A lot of benefits and disadvantages of democracy and authoritarianism are written. I will not delve into this topic, I will list only the most obvious things.
First of all, the more people can influence the adoption of state decisions, the higher the likelihood that these decisions will improve their life, and not worsen. And the leaders of the country will better solve the problems of the state if there is something to stimulate something. Such incentives can be: the probability of playing the following elections; the need to coordinate their actions with independent parliament; the ability to bring to justice by an independent court; Free discussion of policies in the media.
If the country's leaders know that there will be no fair elections, no disputes in parliament or court, nor discussion in the media, then it frees their hands to solve their own problems.
Of course, good people can come to power in undemocratic mode, and in democratic - bad. Just a democratic mode creates a flexible and stable system, in which the bad people are more likely to be removed from power. With an authoritarian mode, there are no levers of influence on bad leaders - and the population remains only humbly asking power to do something good and useful.
Another important advantage of a developed democratic regime is stability and predictability. In the democratic state, not specific individuals, but organizations and procedures rule. There is a separation of the authorities, each government has its own powers and acts independently of others. This gives sustainability to the entire state apparatus. If the head of state will die, sick or go crazy, this will not affect anything: his place will take a new person, and the parliament, judges, the governors and mayors will not wonder the differences at all.
In turn, non-democratic regimes are extremely unstable. They usually do not create any system of separation of authority and transfer of power. The state in them is kept on orders of one particular person. And if something happens to him, everything in the state can collapse.
It is interesting that this thesis is often used by supporters of specific dictators: they say, do not touch him, he must remain in power, otherwise Bardak will begin in the country. At the same time, for some reason, they forget one simple thing: all people are mortals, and dictators - too. Sooner or later, a person will still move away into the world of others. So why postpone the solution to the problem if it will inevitably arise? It will be better if we immediately create a system where everything keeps on one person.
Elections in democratic
Elections to the authorities are practiced in the overwhelming majority of modern states.However, in the conditions of totalitarianism it is "electionless elections." Their role is reduced to a purely ritual procedure that gives the regimen of the law.
With an authoritarian mode, the election (if they are conducted on an alternative basis) play more important, but still not a decisive role, since if their results do not suit the carrier of power, he can not recognize them, if necessary, resorting to force.
Only during democracy their role becomes central, providing people with the right of the final decision of the issue of who (and ideally and how) will rule the state.
Basic election functions:
1) ensuring the legitimacy of the authorities;
2) selection of the political elite (but also in opposition parties leaders are tested for strength);
3) formulation in the election programs of interest of primary policies;
4) legitimate resolution of social conflicts in society;
5) the intensification of political socialization of the individual and political participation.
The democraticness of the elections is ensured by the following principles:
1. Secret vote that ensures complete freedom to expand the will of the voter. For his violation, strict punishment is envisaged;
2. Competition (free competition of parties and candidates delivered in more or less equal conditions by election struggle);
3. Immediateness is direct (without intermediaries) election of government representatives by voters. Indirect (indirect) elections from the practice of democratic states almost disappeared (the most famous exception is the procedure for the election of the US president). They strengthen the possibility of distorting the real ratio of political forces in favor of the most influential ones;
4. Equal representation (each voter has one vote, and each deputy represents an approximately equal number of citizens);
5. Universality is the right of all citizens to active (as voters) and passive (as a deputy) participation in the elections. Exceptions usually make up criminals who are serving punishment, and persons recognized as incapable (insufficient).
From other constraints of election law, preserved:
1) age qualifications usually for active electoral law - 18 years, for passive - from 20 years and up to 40, in different countries at different times;
2) crucial centers (restriction of universal electoral law) - the requirement of the voter or candidate in the country or the electoral district during a certain period;
3) The electoral deposit is a candidate requirement to make a significant amount that returns to him only if he gains a certain percentage of votes. Now this deposit mainly contributes a party from which the candidate is put forward.
However, quite recently, the constraints of the election law was much more. So, women first received the voting right only in some US states in the 80s of the XIX century. The last developed country that granted the election law was Switzerland. Until the end of the 60s of the 20th century, age qualifications in most countries ranged from 21 to 25 years. In some American states there have been an electoral tax for entering voter lists.
In a number of countries - participation in the voting is not only the right of citizens, but also their responsibility, for evading which punishment from public censure is prosecuted (Austria, Greece), that is, in most countries there is a threshold (approximately 50%) attendance ( The voter turnout) without reaching the elections are considered invalid.
Electoral system
The compliance of the election results is ensured by the electoral system adopted in the country - a set of rules and methods for summing up elections enshrined in the law.
There are two main varieties of electoral systems:
1) majoritarian;
2) proportional.
In the majority system, candidates who assemble the established number of votes in their districts are considered.
It has two main forms:
The system of relative majority (originated in the 18th century, before all, and today in most English-speaking countries it is applied). In this system, the candidate wins, ahead of others by the number of votes in his constituency (block). It gives the advantage of large parties over small, which actually do not have a chance of winning.
Its advantages are considered:
A) simplicity and clarity;
b) ensuring full stability by reducing the number of parties represented;
c) the close relationship of deputies with the voters of his district.
The main disadvantages of this system are the loss of all voters filed for inadequate candidates:
A) the absence of parties in the parliament representing the interests of a significant part, and sometimes the majority, citizens who are forced to fight for their interests by non-parliamentary methods (often poured into excesses);
b) the possibility of obtaining most places in parliament by a party who has gained a minority of votes in the scale of the country.
The second main disadvantage is a tendency to protect deputies of local interests to the detriment of national.
The absolute majority system (France). Favorites are considered a candidate who collected more than half of the vote in his district. If this fails to anyone, then the second round of elections (voting) is held, to which candidates that have taken the first two places are allowed. This system makes it possible to win and small parties subject to combining them in the coalition before the second round (system of two blocks). She softens the main lack of a majority system (as less than 50% of the votes is lost), but does not eliminate it completely (much of the votes is still lost) at the same time, such a system is optimal when choosing sole leaders (president, governor, etc.). .
The proportional system is used in most Western European countries and in Israel. Here, voters vote not for specific candidates, but for their lists put forward by parties and party blocks, that is, compete not the person, but the parties and party programs. Places in Parliament are distributed in multi-member districts in proportion to voice acquired. Such a system allows to provide a more equitable ratio between parliamentary mandates and the received votes, especially where the whole country is considered as a single constituency.
At the same time, she has a number of shortcomings:
Completion of calculations in determining the number of mandates received by the parties in the elections;
- a weak link between deputies and voters;
- If the order of surnames in the lists is determined by the party itself, then the dependence of candidates from party-hardware structures is intensified. Therefore, in most countries, voters have the right to rank candidates within one or more lists or identify the leader of the relevant list;
- Government instability due to the great influence of small parties to the government's policies.
To reduce this shortage in a number of countries, mandates receive only batchs that collected no less than a certain percentage of votes (the so-called electoral threshold). We have in the elections to the State Duma threshold - 7%. However, the voices submitted for the rest of the parties still disappear.
Thus, both systems have their drawbacks, so there are mixed electoral systems in a number of countries. So, in Australia, the Lower Chamber of Parliament is elected by the majority system of the absolute majority, and the upper one is proportional.
And in Germany, half of the lower chamber is chosen according to the majority system of the relative majority, and the other half is proportional.
In Russia, approximately the same as in Germany.
The procedure for holding elections and referendums
The democracy mechanism is based on the procedure for direct willing of citizens who have the power of the law.
There are two varieties of such a procedure:
1) elections when citizens define the personal composition of power structures on a national, regional and local level;
2) a referendum when citizens take a direct decision on important political issues.
The combination of measures for the organization and conduct of elections is called the election campaign.
It is usually assigned to the specially created state bodies - election commissions (as a rule, there are representatives of all leading parties to ensure the control and honesty of elections).
Elections at any level begin with nominations of candidates for elected positions. The right of such nomination can be provided exclusively to political parties or parties and other groups, and more often to individual citizens and their groups. The self-nomination of candidates in some countries is allowed.
The next stage is official registration. All candidates must submit to the decisions of the party bodies, and non-partisan candidates - signatures of a certain number of voters.
With a proportional electoral signature system, it is necessary to register party lists. In a number of countries from candidates, a deposit is also required, which is refunded only when a candidate has been received by a certain% of votes of voters - from 5% to 20% in different countries. Usually, the pledge makes the party in which the candidate consists.
The special procedure for nominating candidates exists in the United States. There are two main parties - democratic and republican. They are carried out in most states the so-called "Primaries" - primary elections in which the supporters of these parties are most often involved.
I have the greatest meaning of the presidential "Praimariz", which it turns out what their candidates for the presidential post is most preferable and popular in this state, and delegates to the national party congresses are elected, which will nominate official presidential candidates. By tradition, most delegates, at least in the first round, vote for the applicant who won the "Praimariz" in their states. For victory at the Congress, a candidate needs to gain the absolute majority of the votes of delegates. In addition, the congresses elect a new composition of the National Party Committees and approve the election platform of the party, which, but the presidential candidate is not obliged to be guided, that is, there is no party discipline.
Unlike elections, referendums are organized not in all countries of the West, and for example, in the US, they are held only in some states, but not at the national level. Many specialists point out that most ordinary citizens are not competent in solving state issues, and do not seek this. Nevertheless, in some countries, referendums are carried out quite often.
Popular leaders, for example, de Gol in France, sometimes used frequent referendums as a nationwide "vote confidence" in order to strengthen power. But the referendums most often make issues of adoption, revision or cancellation of legislation (except laws on taxes and budget), geographically administrative occupancy, entry into international organizations, suspension from the post of senior officials, as well as the state affiliation of a territory, so-called plebiscite.
The referendum can usually be carried out at the request of a certain number of voters, parliament deputies or regional legislative assemblies. The decision to hold a national referendum accepts the government or head of state with the consent of the government. Further preparation and referendum is not fundamentally different from the preparation and holding of elections.
They pass the following stages (along with the above):
1) the pre-election struggle between candidates or between the political forces speakers for the answer "yes" and "no" on the referendum; Elections Democratic electoral referendum;
2) voting;
3) summarizing the voting results;
4) Entry of selected persons to position or entry into decisions to legal force.
The key point is the pre-election struggle. This is the least legally regulated stage of the election campaign, since it is carried out mainly by non-state bodies and political parties that themselves choose the form of impact on voters. However, two aspects of the pre-election struggle due to their importance are regulated sufficiently strictly. These are issues of its financing, as well as using the media.
The struggle for voting votes requires enormous financial resources. The cost of election and referendums continuously increases. Party with large financial resources are in a more winning position (especially considering that the main effect gives the media).
The search for additional sources of financing leads to abuse and corruption.
To combat these phenomena and ensure equality of rivals, special rules for financing election campaigns have been established. A number of countries have a financial limit. It is often limited to the amount of donations to the candidate electoral fund from individuals or organizations. Exceeding the cost of expenses gives grounds to recognize the results of elections by invalid and large fine. The exposure of such facts often leads to political scandals and even crisis. Nevertheless, the most influential buses with the help of various, including legal tricks, easily bypass these restrictions, often exceeding them at 10 or more times. A greater equality of opportunities is provided in those countries where government subsidies are provided to candidates and parties to reimbursement of electoral expenses. However, here funds are distributed proportional to the collected mandates, which creates an advantage for leading parties. Outsiders are cut off by the requirement to collect the necessary minimum vote or nominate the candidate in a certain number of districts. At the same time, the parties that have not passed to the parliament, in most countries can not even count on partial state compensation for pre-election expenses.
A huge, sometimes a decisive role in the pre-election struggle plays the so-called 4th power - media. So, in France, in order to familiarize themselves with the programs of parties and candidates, on television, they follow the course of the electional struggle of 64%, on newspapers - 15%, on radio - 11%, and only 7% prefers personal communication with the candidate.
The special role of the media is played in the struggle for fluctuating voters who are not constant adherents of any one party and components in Western countries from 20% to 30%. Support for certain parties with newspapers and magazines to legal regulation is almost no one to give up, in addition to the official print authorities, many printed publications are expressed in some parties. Among the leading newspapers of the British Empire "Daily Telegraph" adheres to the views of the Conservative Party, Mirror - Laborist, Observer - Liberal.
The order of use in the election race of electronic media is usually strictly regulated on the basis of Western principles:
1) state non-interference in the election struggle;
2) the requirement to avoid insults, falsifications and other forms of incorrect behavior in relation to competitors;
3) providing all parties and candidates of equal time on radio and television.
However, in practice, the sign remains a declaration. In the United States, where radio and television are mostly private, the airtime is paid and actually available only to candidates from the Republican or Democratic Party. In most other countries, the main part of the electronic media is controlled by a state that allocates free airtime to political parties for election gears. Paid advertising of candidates in some of these countries is prohibited. But free air is usually distributed in proportion to the number of mandates in the previous composition of the parliament. The parties not presented in it receive only a few minutes of airtime, subject to the establishment of a certain minimum of candidates, or are completely deprived of such a right.
Thus, the equality of the possibilities of financial and information support of the election campaign of the Western countries is largely formal, actually depending on the extent of the political influence already achieved in a particular party, and at the worst of its financial base.
Democratic regime of law and freedom
The concept of "democracy" in the modern political language is one of the most common. Its use comes far beyond the initial meaning (Demos - people, Kratos - power). This concept is first found at Herodotus. Then the democracy was considered as a special form of state power, a particular type of state organization, in which power belongs not to one person and not a group of persons, but to all citizens who enjoy equal rights to government management. Pericles in the V century BC. So I wrote about democracy: "This system is called democratic because it is not based on a minority of citizens, but on most of them. In relation to the private interests, our laws are equally equality for everyone." Since then, the content of this term has expanded significantly, and in modern conditions it has different meanings. Recently, a very widely popular definition of democracy, given by A. Lincoln: "Government of the People, by The People, for the People" (the reign of the people, for the people, through the people).Consider democracy as a type of political regime based on the same criteria as other political regimes.
Character and measure of power.
The limits of power are established by society in accordance with the laws. Economic, cultural, spiritual life of society, the activities of the political opposition are out of direct control by the authorities. The latter provides compliance with existing legislation in various spheres.
Formation of power.
Power is chosen by citizens based on the principles of continuity defined in the laws.
The attitude of people to power.
Society chooses specific carriers of power and controls power.
The role of ideology in society.
Official ideology exists, but preserved pluralism in the ideological sphere.
The nature of leadership:
The nature of political leadership depends on the type of political system and the traditions of society.
- sphere of allowable and forbidden.
- All that is not prohibited by law is allowed.
- The situation of the media.
- The media is free and independent. The society refers to them as a "fourth" power.
- The presence of democratic rights and freedoms.
- Rights and freedoms of citizens are guaranteed by law. The law determines the mechanism of their implementation.
- Changes in the social structure of society.
- The social structure of society corresponds to the socio-economic processes occurring in society.
- Changes in the political system of society.
For a democratic political regime, the presence of a multi-party system, freedom of activity of public organizations and movements, universal eligible law and system of free elections, the principle of separation of the authorities, a developed system of parliamentarism.
This regime is characterized by the principle of mutual responsibility of citizens and the state. The law protects not only citizens from power, but also power from citizens. As a rule, the Constitution establishes attitude towards the people as a sovereign source of power. From a formal point of view of democracy is the power of the procedure. At the same time, the regime is especially attached to the personal and business qualities of representatives of power. Democracy as a type of political regime is impossible without a developed democratic consciousness.
As a special type of political regime in the literature, there is still a liberal-democratic regime. This is a transitional type that is established in society at the stage of its transformation from totalitarian and authoritarian regimes to democratic. In this mode, the alienation from power is relative. The authorities are usually ready to discuss its decisions with society, but it itself determines the measure, degree and nature of the participation of the masses in the political life of society. The role of society is still very limited. It can affect the decision-making process, but can not choose, can advise, but cannot require, can think, but cannot solve. With a liberal-democratic mode, a special role is attached to publicity, education, morality, but often the role of formal authorities, legal and democratic procedures is underestimated. From the point of view of the permissible and forbidden, the principle is "allowed everything that does not lead to the change of power." The art of liberal politics is that, by force, protecting power from totalitarian nostalgia and the claims of totalitarianism, to encourage democracy sprouts, not to be mistaken in assessing the state of power and society, gradually and voluntarily give power.
Considering political regimes, attention should be paid to the following factor. The less democratic nature is regime, the greater the similarity in its manifestations in various countries, and vice versa, the more democraticness, the greater the differences. Especially similar to the totalitarian regimes, regardless of which the soil they are born: socialism or fascism.
Tirands are the regime of personal power aimed at satisfying the egoistic desires of Tirana. It dies, as a rule, together with the death of the dictator.
Absolutist dictatorships (or dynastic regimes) differ from the tyranny by the fact that power is organized and is carried out on the basis of strict rules and procedures. Usually the power is divided between the members of the monarch family, is inherited and is legitimate by the Traditions (Saudi Arabia, Sultanat Brunei, United Arab Emirates).
Military regimes are a fairly common form of authoritarian dictators. According to some data, these are two thirds of young states. Military can manage the state as directly by taking on all the functions of the government and indirectly, carrying out control over the civil government.
Authoritarian single-party modes use the only political party as a means for mobilizing mass support to the government. However, the party does not turn into self-sufficient power, as with totalitarianism, and competes for influence with other power centers (army, church, corporations).
All forms of authoritarianism, with the exception of dynastic rule, do not have legal mechanisms for the continuity of power. Therefore, its transfer from one hands to others is carried out by a bureaucratic way, often by coups using violence.
Democratic regimes also have significant differences depending on the characteristics of the socio-economic and political development of the country, national traditions, religious beliefs, and so on.
Historical forms and models of democracy.
The problem of the classification of democracy is quite complex. The main thing is the question of criteria, on the basis of which attempts are being taken to classify it.
Depending on who has a priority - personality, social group or people, stand out models:
1) individualistic;
2) pluralistic;
3) collectivist.
The idea of \u200b\u200bthe autonomy of the individual, its primaryness towards the people is determined in individualistic theories and models. This approach allocates the identity of society and the state. The main task for such democracy is the creation of institutional and legal guarantees for individual freedom. Personality is recognized as the main source of government, its rights are always prioritized to the rights of the state. The state is given the role of "night guard".
Pluralistic models come from the fact that the real Creator of politics is not a person, not the people, but the interested group, for the group, approve of supporters of this approach, as well as in intergroup relations, the interests, value orientations and motives of political activities are formed. With the help of a group, a person can express and politically protect their interests. The people, from the point of view of this approach, cannot be a subject of policies, as it is a complex, internally controversial education, consisting of a variety of competing in the struggle for the power of groups. The appointment of democracy, in their opinion, is to provide all citizens the opportunity to openly express their interests, to ensure the possibility of achieving the balance of interests, their equilibrium, conflict prevention.
The theories of pluralistic democracy are very much, however, you can identify a number of common features that are combined. First of all, it is a recognition of the interested group by the central element of the political system of society. The social basis of the democratic authority of supporters of these theories see in rivalry and balance sheet of group interests. The idea of \u200b\u200bchecks and counterweights they distribute from the sphere of institutional relations on social. The state is discussed in these concepts as an arbitrator, preserving equilibrium of rival interests and providing self-regulation of the entire society. Of particular importance is given by democratic culture, in which the condition of the civilized nature of the struggle of interests and the relatively painless solution of conflicts in the political sphere is seen. Supporters of such democracy believe that the state must support socially infringed groups and individuals in order to increase their life chances and strengthening social justice. Pluralistic concepts retain all the values \u200b\u200bof liberal democracy, but in many respects go on.
Ultimately, democracy looks like a form of government that provides a balance between conflicting economic, religious, professional, ethnic, demographic and other groups, which eliminates the monopoly of any one group to make decisions and prevents the power to act in the interests of any single layer.
Collectivist democracy models have a number of such common features as the denial of the autonomy of the personality, the initiality of the people in the implementation of power, the attitude towards it as a single holistic body, the absoluteness of the majority of power, its priority before the minority and a separate person.
These models of democracy in modern society are good, because the company is aware that the power of the people, even the majority, cannot be implemented without guarantees of individual freedom, without recognizing and institutional consolidation of fundamental personal rights.
Democracy theories are divided into groups also depending on which form of democracy prevails - direct or representative.
Direct democracy is the direct participation of the population in political life and in the process of making political decisions (events, referendums, plebiscites, universal discussion of certain political issues).
Representative democracy is not based on the principle of direct will of the people, but on delegation of powers through free elections to those or other representatives (parliaments and other elected bodies and institutions).
Plebissionar theories emphasize on direct democracy, representative theories - for representative institutions.
The plebiscitar forms of democracy are characteristic of ancient democracy, for the cities-states of the Middle Ages. In modern society, the theory of participation (partitioning democracy) includes plebiscitarian theories. They substantiate the need to participate wide sections of society in the political process, that is, not only in elections, referendums, control of society for political decisions, but also more active participation in the management of society, in political life.
The main thing in these theories is the direct participation of the masses in management. Supporters of this approach are convinced that it is this form of democracy that provides strong legitimacy of power, develops the political activity of citizens, promotes identity self-identification.
In the concepts of representative democracy, the principle of responsible government is the principle of responsible government, at all levels of government and government. The principle of participation is moved to the background. This direction in the theories of democracy is also called a traditionally liberal understanding of democracy, where the most valuable is constitutionality and restriction of political domination. The will of the people is not expressed directly, not directly, it delegates. Representatives of the people express this will on their own and under their responsibility. Between the people and its representatives establish relations based on authority and trust.
Finishing the analysis of various theories and models of democracy, it should be noted that there are still historical forms of democracy: antique democracy, feudal democracy, bourgeois democracy, differences between which are due primarily, the peculiarities of the development of society at various stages of its existence. So, collectivist models were characteristic of antique democracy with a preventive democracy. In the conditions of feudalism in the political structure of the Company, the overall anti-democratic tendency prevailed, but many medieval cities, states managed to achieve liberation from the power of the feudalists, there were certain forms of self-government, in which a significant role belonged to elements of direct democracy. In the era of feudalism, in the late stages of its development, the first parliaments became emerging as forms of representative democracy. Bourgeois democracy has become a significant step forward compared to feudal. It is characterized by universal eligible law, a developed system of representation, a constitutional guarantee of the rights and freedoms of the individual. Depending on the characteristics and traditions in individual countries, within the framework of the bourgeois democracy, there are various models.
In countries where the socialist system has been established, they allocated socialist democracy as the highest form of a democratic device of the Company, which was based on the advice as a special form of the organization of democracy. However, it was not possible to implement the idea of \u200b\u200badvice in fact, the functions of them were exhausted, and the socialist democracy turned into cruel forms of totalitarianism.
Currently, the Company is aware that modern forms of democracy are not ideal. It was not by chance that the wing was the phrase, once said by W. Churchill: "Democracy is a very bad form of government, but humanity, unfortunately, did not invent anything better yet."
Types of democratic regime
Democratic regime - is characterized by a high degree of human political freedom, the real exercise of his rights, allowing it to influence the state management of society. The political elite is usually quite narrow, but it relies on a wide social base.Characterized by the following features:
1. The source of power in the state is the people. He chooses power and gives it the right to solve any question, relying on his own opinion. The country's laws protect the people from the arbitrariness of power and power from the arbitrariness of individual people.
2. Political power is legitimate and performs its functions in accordance with adopted laws. The basic principle of the political life of a democratic society - "citizens are allowed everything that is not prohibited by law, and the authorities of the authorities are only the activity that is provided for by the relevant subtitle acts."
3. The democratic regime is characterized by the separation of the authorities (separation from each other by legislative, executive and judiciary). Parliament is endowed with an exceptional right to issue laws. The highest executive authority (president, government) has the right to legislative, budgetary, personnel initiative. The highest judicial body is endowed with the right to determine the compliance of the laws of the country's constitution. In a democracy, three branches of the authorities balance each other.
4. Democratic regime is characterized by the right of the people to influence the development of political decisions (by approval or criticism in the means of mass investment, demonstrations or lobbying activities, participation in election campaigns). The political participation of the people in the development of decisions is guaranteed by the Constitution of the country, as well as international legal norms.
5. An important characteristic of the democratic political regime is political pluralism, which assumes the possibility of education of a two-or multi-party system, competition of political parties and their influence on the people, the existence on the legal grounds for political opposition as in parliament and outside it.
6. Democratic political regime is characterized by a high degree of human rights. These include rules, rules and principles of the relationship between the state and citizens.
Democratic regime implies recognition for citizens of wide rights and freedoms, legally existing opposition parties, the formation of the government of the buses that won the relevant elections, etc.
Main features of a democratic political regime:
1. Sovereignty of the people: It is the people who choose their representatives of power and can periodically replace them. Elections should be honest, competitive, regularly conducted. Under the "competitive" means the presence of various groups or individuals, free to expose your candidacy. Elections will not be competitive if some groups (or individuals) have the opportunity to participate, while others are deprived. Elections are considered honest if there are no fraud and there is a special mechanism for an honest game. Elections are dishonest if the bureaucratic machine belongs to one party, even if this batch belongs to the other parties during the elections. Using a monopoly on the media, standing in power of the party can affect public opinion to such an extent that the elections cannot be called honest.
2. Periodic election of the main bodies of the state. The government is born from elections and for a certain, limited period. For the development of democracy, it is not enough to regularly hold elections, it is necessary that it relies on the elective government. In Latin America, for example, elections are carried out often, but many Latin American countries are out of democracy, because The most common way to displace the president is a military coup, and not election. Therefore, the necessary condition for the democratic state - persons carrying out the supreme power are elected, and elected to a certain, limited period, the government's change should occur as a result of elections, and not at the request of a certain general.
3. Democracy protects the rights of individuals and minorities. The opinion of the majority, expressed by a democratic way in the elections, is only a necessary condition for democracy, however, not insufficient. Only a combination of the rule of majority and the protection of minority rights is one of the basic principles of a democratic state. If discriminatory measures are applied against the minority, the regime becomes non-democratic, regardless of the frequency and honesty of elections and the change of legally elected government.
4. Equality of the rights of citizens to participate in the management of the state: freedom of creating political parties and other associations to express their will, freedom of opinion, the right to information and participate in the competition for the occupation of senior positions in the state.
Types of democratic political regimes, types of democracy
Depending on how the people are involved in management, who and how directly performs power functions, democracy is divided into direct, plebiscitar and representative.
With direct democracy, all citizens themselves directly participate in the preparation, discussion and decision-making. Such a system can have practical meaning only with a relatively small number of people, for example, in community or tribal councils or in local trade union bodies, where all members can gather in one room to discuss issues and deciding through consensus or by a majority vote.
The first democracy in the world in ancient Athens carried out direct democracy through meetings in which 5-6 thousand people participated.
An important channel of citizen participation in the implementation of power is plebiscitar democracy. The difference between it and direct democracy is that direct democracy involves the participation of citizens at all the most important stages of the process of reproaching (in the preparation, making of political decisions and in control over their implementation), and in the plebiscitar democracy, the possibility of political influence of citizens is relatively limited, for example, referendums. Citizens through the vote are given to approve or reject one or another draft law of illustr a different decision, which is usually prepared by the president, government, party or initiative group. The ability to participate in the majority of the population in the preparation of such projects is very small.
The third, most common form of political participation in modern society is representative democracy. Its essence - citizens elect their representatives to the authorities who are designed to express their interests in making political decisions, in making laws and implement social and other programs. Election procedures can be the most diverse, but they would not be, elected persons in representative democracy occupy their posts on behalf of the people and accountable to the people in all their actions.
Which reflects the relationship of power and society, the level of political freedom and the nature of political life in the country.
In many ways, these characteristics are due to specific traditions, culture, historical conditions of state development, so we can say that in each country there has been his own unique political regime. However, many modes in various countries can detect similar features.
In the scientific literature allocate two types of political regime:
- democratic;
- antidemocratic.
Signs of democratic regime:
- domination of the law;
- separation of powers;
- the presence of real political and social rights and freedoms of citizens;
- the election of state authorities;
- the existence of opposition and pluralism.
Signs of antidemocratic regime:
- the domination of lawlessness and terror;
- lack of political pluralism;
- lack of opposition parties;
Antidemocratic regime is divided into totalitarian and authoritarian. Therefore, we will consider the characteristics of three political regimes: totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic.
Democratic regime based on the principles of equality and freedom; The main source of power is the people here. For authoritarian mode Political power focuses in the hands of a separate person or group of people, but relative freedom remains outside the sphere of politics. For totalitarian mode Power strongly controls all spheres of society.
Typology of political regimes:Characteristics of political regimes
Democratic regime (from Greek. Demokratia - democracy) is based on the recognition of the people the main source of government, on the principles of equality and freedom. Signs of democracy are as follows:
- selection - There are election of citizens to state authorities through universal equal and direct elections;
- separation of powers - The power is divided into legislative, executive and judicial branches, independent of each other;
- civil society - Citizens can affect power with the developed network of volunteer public organizations;
- equality - all have equal civil and political
- rights and freedoms, as well as guarantees of their sewn;
- pluralism - dominates respect for other people's opinions and ideologies, including opposition, the full publicity and freedom of the press from censorship are provided;
- consent - Political and other social relations are aimed at finding a compromise, and not a violent solution to the problem; All conflicts are resolved by the legal way.
Democracy is direct and representative. For direct democracy Decisions are accepted directly by all citizens who have the right to vote. Direct democracy was, for example, in Athens, in the Novgorod Republic, where people, gathering on the square, took a general solution for each problem. Now direct democracy is implemented, as a rule, in the form of a referendum - a nationwide vote on draft laws and important issues of state importance. For example, the current Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted on a referendum on December 12, 1993.
In a large territory, direct democracy is too difficult to implement. Therefore, state decisions are made by special elected institutions. Such democracy is called RepresentativeSince the elected body (for example, the State Duma) presents his people.
Authoritarian regime (from Greek. Autocritas - power) arises when the government focuses in the hands of a separate person or group of people. Usually authoritarianism is combined with dictatorship. Political opposition in authoritarianism is impossible, but in the non-political spheres, for example in economics, culture or private life, the autonomy of personality and relative freedom are preserved.
Totalitarian regime (from Lat. Totalis - all, whole) arises when all spheres of society are controlled by the authorities. The power with totalitarian mode is monopolized (a party, chief, dictator), a single ideology is obligatory for all citizens. The absence of any dissent is provided by a powerful apparatus of supervision and control, police repressions, increasing acts. Totalitarian regime forms a misintermetative person, prone to submission.
Totalitarian political regime
Totalitarian political regime - This is the regime of "all-absorbing dominance", which is impossible to interfere with citizens, including all their activities in the amount of their management and forced regulation.
Signs of totalitarian political regime:
1. Availability Single Mass Party Head with the charismatic leader, as well as the actual merger of party and state structures. This is a kind of "-", where in the first place in the authority hierarchy is the central party office, and the state acts as a means of implementing the party program;
2. Monopolization and centralization of powerWhen such political values, as submission and loyalty, in relation to the "party-state", are primary compared with the values \u200b\u200bof material, religious, aesthetic in motivation and evaluation of human actions. As part of this mode, the line disappears between the political and non-political spheres of life ("Country as a single camp"). All vital activity, including the level of private, personal life, is strictly regulated. The formation of the authorities at all levels is carried out through closed channels, a bureaucratic way;
3. "Unifiedness" Official ideologywhich, through massive and targeted indosttrination (media, training, propaganda), is imposed by society as the only true, true way of thinking. At the same time, the emphasis is not on the individual, but on the "cathedral" values \u200b\u200b(state, race, nation, class, clan). The spiritual atmosphere of society is distinguished by fanatical intolerance to dissent and "Inaccessibility" on the principle of "who is not with us is against us";
4. System physical and psychological terror, the regime of a police state, where the principle is dominated as the basic "legal" principle: "Only what the authorities are allowed, everything else is prohibited."
Totalitarian regimes traditionally include communist and fascist.
Authoritarian political regime
The main signs of an authoritarian regime:
1. INthe lass is unlimited, uncomplicated citizens characterand concentrates in the hands of one person or group of persons. It may be tyrant, military junta, monarch, etc.;
2. Support (potential or real) for strength. Authoritarian regime may not resort to mass repression and even enjoy popular among the wide segments of the population. However, in principle, it can afford any actions towards citizens in order to force them to obedience;
3. M.onopolyization of power and politics, preventing political opposition, independent legal political activities. This circumstance does not exclude the existence of a limited number of parties, trade unions and some other organizations, but their activities are strictly regulated and controlled by the authorities;
4. Pexecution of managing personnel is carried out by co-optation, and not election competitive struggle; There are no constitutional mechanisms for continuity and transfer of power. The power change often occurs through the coup using the armed forces and violence;
5. ABOUTtCs from total control over society, non-interference or limited interference in outpolitical spheres, and, above all, in the economy. The government is primarily engaged in the issues of ensuring their own security, social order, defense and foreign policy, although it can affect the strategy of economic development, to conduct an active social policy that does not destroy the mechanisms of market self-regulation.
Authoritarian modes can be divided into hard authoritarian, moderate and liberal. These types are allocated as "Populist authoritarianism"based on equalizedly oriented masses as well "National Patriotic"in which the national idea is used by the authorities to create either a totalitarian or democratic society, etc.
The authoritarian regimes include:- absolute and dualistic monarchies;
- military dictatorships, or regimes with the military board;
- theocracy;
- personal tyranny.
Democratic political regime
Democratic regime - This is a mode in which the power is sent by the fluently expressing by the majority. Democracy translated from Greek means literally "the power of the people" or "democracy."
Basic principles of democratic power regime:
1. People sovereignty. The primary carrier of power is the people. All power from the people and delegate them. This principle does not imply making political decisions directly by the people as, for example, on a referendum. He only assumes that all carriers of state power have their own functions thanks to the people, i.e. directly by elections (deputies of parliament or the president) or indirectly through the representatives chosen by the people (formed and subordinate to parliament);
2. Free elections Representatives of the authorities who suggest the presence of at least three conditions: the freedom of nomination of candidates as a consequence of freedom of education and operation; Freedom of electoral law, i.e. Universal and equal suffrage on the principle of "one person is one voice"; Freedom of voting, perceived as a means of secret ballot and equality for all in obtaining information and the ability to propaganda during the election campaign;
3. Subordination of the minority to the majority with the strict observance of the minority rights. The main and natural duty of the majority of democracy is respect for the opposition, its right to free criticism and law to change, following the results of new elections, the former majority in power;
4. Sales The principle of separation of the authorities. Three branches of power - legislative, executive and judicial - have such powers and such practices that two "corners" of this kind "triangle" can block the non-democratic, contrary to the interests of the nation of the third "corner". The lack of a monopoly on the power and pluralistic nature of all political institutions is a necessary condition for democracy;
5. Constitutionalism and domination of the law in all spheres of life. The law is dominant regardless of the person, everything is equal before the law. Hence the "frigidity", "coldness" of democracy, i.e. It is rational. Legal principle of democracy: "All that is not prohibited by law,- allowed. "
Democratic regimes include:- presidential Republic;
- parliamentary republics;
- parliamentary monarchies.
In the XX century, the word "democracy" became perhaps the most popular among the peoples and politicians around the world. Today there is not a single political movement that would not claim to implement democracy, did not use this term in its often distant from the genuine democracy of the goals. What is democracy and what is the cause of its popularity? What should be understood under the term "democracy"? To what extent it gives landmarks to solve the problems of peoples with the inconsistent historical and cultural traditions? What is democracy - one of the alternatives to the development of mankind or main through the development of society?
The simplest determination of democracy is the power of the people. According to the American enlighteners, democracy is the power of the people, carried out by the people themselves and for the people. In the history of politics, we will find a lot of democratic forms of the organization of public life (Athenian democracy in ancient Greece, Republican Rome, city democracy of the Middle Ages, including the Novgorod Republic, parliamentary forms of democracy in England, Democracy of the North American states, etc.). Modern democracies, inheriting many traditions of historical democracies, at the same time differ from them.
Modern theoretical models of democracy are based mainly at the political ideas of the New Time (J. Locke, Sh. De Montesquieu, Rousseau, I. Kant, A. De Tokville, etc.). All variety of theoretical models of modern democracy, if we talk about their ideological foundations, one way or another, to two theoretical paradigms, formulated by the classics of the political thought of the HY-XIX centuries. We are talking about liberal-democratic and radical-democratic theories.
Both theories arise as an attempt to resolve the so-called "Gobbs problem", the essence of which can be briefly defined as follows: a person, moving from the state of the "war of all against all" (natural state) to the state-public life agreement (social condition), entrusts itself The state itself, since only it can guarantee compliance with the contract. How to preserve human freedom in a social condition? In this matter, the node "Hobbs Problems". Consequently, the theoretical task was to substantiate the borders of the state of the state, thanks to which the preservation of human freedom would be ensured.
Representatives of the liberal-democratic and radical-democratic directions considered man a reasonable being, but this anthropological prerequisite of a democratic theory was interpreted differently. They were united in the interpretation of the state of the state from the contract adopted by reasonable individuals, but differed in the source of this contract. They defended the freedom of man, but understood it in different ways and in different ways interpreted its foundations (see Table).
|
Liberal Democratictheory |
Radical-democratic theory |
| Moral autonomous individual | Social man |
| Personal sovereignty | Sovereignty of people |
| Society as the amount of individuals | Organic Society |
| All interest | General interest |
| Pluralism of interest | Championship of the common benefit |
| Freedom of man | Freedom of a citizen |
| Championship of human rights | Unity of Rights and Responsibilities |
| Representative democracy, elections | Direct democracy |
| Free mandate | Imperative mandate |
| Separation of powers | Separation of functions |
| Subordination of minority to the majority with the defense of the rights of the minority | Submission of minority Most |
In liberal-democratic concepts, human freedom meant its moral autonomy, the ability to rationally determine his life and the rules of communication with other people who should not violate its individual rights. The state arising from a contract between people as morally autonomous individuals is limited to the right, i.e. equal to the external measure of freedom for each individual. Thus, this democratic paradigm was based on the premise of an autonomous individual, the society was interpreted as the amount of free individuals, and public interest - as the interest of all. Private life is valued here more than social life, and the right higher than the public benefit. The pluralism of individual interests and interests of the emerging associations of individuals (civil society) was accompanied by a conflict between them, the permission of which was possible on the path of compromise.
In principle, the state could not and should not have interfere in the process of communication of autonomous individuals and their voluntary associations. It was called only when the arbitration judge was required. The concept of a liberal-democratic sense admits only a "limited state", the state is "night watchman". Such a state is impossible without a contract between people, and state representatives are elected by the population. Freedom of the individual is limited only by law, and the state itself (in order for the usurpation of state authorities with individuals or persons) should be based on the principle of separation of the authorities. The challenge, when voting, the principle of solutions for most votes is complemented by the principle of the protection of minority rights.
In accordance with the radical-democratic concepts, a reasonable person could exist autonomously in a natural state, and as it becomes a social creature, i.e. rationally host values \u200b\u200bof society. The state that arises on the basis of the contract is guided by the values \u200b\u200bof the Company, whose carrier is the people, it is limited to the "sovereignty of the people". Freedom of a person can be ensured only when the people are free, having the will to give laws to the state. The despotism of the state is preserved if it is guided by non-private, but the common interests of the people who are not a simple amount of private interests, but possess organic unity.
The unity of the people acts as the most important principle of organizing political life, and the form of democratic participation here is direct democracy. Persons who carry out management in the state are endowed with a folk mandate and are responsible for him. The unity of power is ensured by the sovereignty of the people, and therefore the principle of separation of the authorities is not essential; Here, rather, we can talk about the separation of functions, not the authorities. Submission of the minority to the majority is an external expression of a single will, fundamentally requiring general consent.
Despite the variety of models of democracy, it is possible to allocate general characteristic features inherent in this regime:
- The existence of many interests and a wide range of opportunities for their expression and implementation in society.
- Guaranteed access groups to political institutions.
- Universal eligible law, allowing citizens to participate in the formation of representative institutions.
- Control of representative institutions for government activities.
- The consent of the majority of society regarding political standards and procedures.
- Resolution of emerging conflicts peacefully.
- Recognition of the decisive role of the majority when taking into account the interests of the minority.
Democracy arises and persists with certain conditions.
First, it is a high level of economic development. In studies conducted by S. Lipseet, V.Jekmen, D. Kurt, etc., convincingly proved that stable economic growth in the end leads to democracy. According to statistics, among 24 countries with a high level of income only 3 are non-democratic. Among the mid-developed countries there are 23 democracy, 25 dictatorships and 5 countries are in a state of transition to democracy. Of the 42 countries with a low economic level of development and low income, only 2 can be called democratic.
Secondly, this is the presence of tolerance in society, respect for the rights of a political minority.
Third, this is the consent of society regarding such basic values \u200b\u200bas human rights, ownership, respect for honor and dignity of personality, etc.
Fourth, this is the orientation of a significant part of the population to political participation (primarily in the form of elections) or, in other words, the dominance of activist political culture.
Democracy is not the power of a stable majority, since it itself is changeable, not monolithically, since it consists on the basis of compromises from a variety of individuals, groups and associations. None of the groups of modern Western society is not able to monopolize power and make decisions without relying on the support of other public associations. United, disgruntled groups can block non-profit decisions, thereby performing the most important social counterbalance that deteriorates the trends towards the monopolization of power.
Infringement in political decisions of interests of certain groups usually increases the involvement in the policies of their members and thereby strengthens their impact on the subsequent policy. As a result of complex competitive interaction on the basis of political blocks and compromises in state decisions, a dynamic balance is established, balance of group interests. Democracy, thus, is the form of government that allows diverse public groups to freely express their interests and find compromise solutions in competition.
Democracy is not universal, best for all times and peoples of the form of the Board. "Bad", ineffective democracy may be worse for society and citizens than some authoritarian and even totalitarian regimes. History shows that many monarchies, military junta and other authoritarian governments have been made for economic prosperity, improving the welfare, strengthening the safety of citizens and guaranteeing their individual freedom, as well as the fair distribution of labor results much more than weak or corrupt democratic modes.
And yet the growing desire of the population of the modern world to the democratic forms of government is not accidental. With certain social prerequisites, democracy has several advantages over other forms of government. The overall drawback of all non-democratic political systems is that they are not controlled by the people and the nature of their relationship with citizens depends primarily from the will of the rulers. Therefore, only the democratic form of government can guarantee the protection of citizens from state arrangement.
In post-socialist countries, joined the path of reforms in the 80s. XX century, two main pathways of public and political transformations have been clear enough.
The first one implies the rapid political and economic liberalization of the Western sample, the so-called shock therapy. On this path, almost all Eastern European countries went, including the USSR. In those of them that were closer to the West in their political culture, economic mistakes, democratization and the transformation of the Company were more or less successful, although they were accompanied by a drop in production and a number of other serious negative phenomena. The failures of reforming in the Soviet Union strongly compromised democracy and liberal values \u200b\u200bin the mass consciousness.
In other countries, primarily in China, Vietnam, has developed its own model of modernization and reforming totalitarian political structures, called "new authoritarianism". The essence of this model is to maintain the strong power of the center and its active use to maintain political stability and conducting radical economic reforms involving the development of a market economy, open to the outside world.
Sovereignty of people. The people choose their representatives to the authorities and can periodically change them. Elections should be honest, competitive, regularly conducted. Under the "competitiveness" means the presence of various groups or individuals, free to exhibit their candidates. Elections are not competitive if some groups (or individuals) have the opportunity to participate, while others are deprived.
Periodic election of the main state bodies. The government is "born" from the elections for a certain, limited period. For the development of democracy, it is not enough to regularly hold elections, it is necessary that it relies on the elective government. In Latin America, for example, elections are carried out often, but many Latin American countries are outside the democracy, since the most common way to displace the president in them is a military coup, and not election.
Democracy protects the rights of individuals and minorities. The opinion of the majority, expressed by a democratic way in elections, is a necessary condition for democracy, but not sufficient. The combination of the rule of majority and the protection of the rights of the minority is one of the basic principles of a democratic state. If discriminatory measures are applied against the minority, the regime becomes non-democratic, regardless of the frequency and honesty of elections and the change of legally elected government.
Equality of the rights of citizens to participate in government management: Freedom of creating political parties and other associations to express their will, freedom of opinion, the right of every citizen on information and to participate in the competitive struggle for leading posts in the state.
Depending on how the people are involved in management, who and how directly performs power functions, democracy is divided into straight, plebiscitar and representative.
With direct democracy All citizens themselves directly participate in the preparation, discussion and decision-making. Such a system may have practical meaning only with a relatively small number of people, for example, in community or tribal councils or in local trade union bodies, where all members can gather in the same room to discuss issues and making decisions by consensus or by a majority vote. So, in ancient Athens, the very first democratic state in the world - direct democracy was carried out with the help of meetings in which 5-6 thousand people participated.
An important channel of the participation of citizens in the implementation of power is plebisitarian democracy. The difference between it and direct democracy is that direct democracy involves the participation of citizens at all the most important stages of the process of reproach (in the preparation, making political decisions and in control over their implementation), and when plebiscitar democracy, the possibility of political influence of citizens is relatively limited. For example, during a referendum, citizens through voting are provided with the right to approve or reject one or another draft law, which is usually prepared by the president, government, party or initiative group. The ability to participate in the majority of the population in the preparation of such projects is very small.
The third, most common form of political participation in modern society is representative democracy. Its essence is that citizens elect their representatives who are intended to express their interests when making political decisions, making laws and implementing social and other programs. Election procedures may be the most diverse, but they would have been, election faces in representative democracy occupy their posts on behalf of the people and accountable to the people in all their actions.
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