The humanities industry has always been attractive to many people. She is still popular today. Today, professions in the humanities are increasingly competing with the exact sciences. After all, they allow a person to delve into the social development of the state and society, to learn human nature and laws of organizational processes of social life.
Social science professions help shed light on these broad topics. People who have this type of thinking are especially attracted to activities in life that deal with these issues. But the humanitarian sphere has different directions. So which profession should you choose? Before answering this question, you should study the most common humanitarian specialties in demand in our country.
Humanitarian professions: list
We will begin our review with one of the popular areas of human activity - psychology. A very exciting, but also difficult profession. People who love to help others, who know how to patiently listen to their neighbors and provide wise support with their advice (not to be confused with instruction!) can work in this area.
In our technological age, more and more people, finding themselves in difficult emotional situations, find themselves in a depressed state. A highly qualified specialist can get them out of it, and therefore psychologists will always be in demand on the labor market.
In this direction, you can choose such humanitarian professions as a child psychologist, psychotherapist, family psychologist, and so on. However, it should be borne in mind that in this field you will not only have to listen to various unpleasant stories, but also try to help the person who wants to change the world and people without changing yourself. Such clients require a certain approach. But if there is great desire get to know yourself, the world around you and your neighbor, then you can safely begin to study psychology.
Philosophy as the meaning of life
The next direction of humanitarian activity is the work of a philosopher. It would seem, what can this ancient profession have in common with our modern world? But there are common points, because philosophers work not with specific things or images, not with an emotional state, but with ideas. People capable of this way of life often become workers in the fields of culture, politics and religion. Some, with a philosophical mindset, prefer humanitarian specialties and professions such as psychological analysis or political technology.
Historical science
The profession of a historian has always been in demand, because the past of humanity is as interesting as its future. People who have found themselves in this activity have great knowledge in the field of domestic and foreign history, international relations, jurisprudence. They can work in archives, museums, teach history in schools and universities, be journalists in the media, and so on. However, for this profession you should have good developed memory and perseverance.
Philologist
There are professions of social and humanitarian profile, the scope of which falls on the study of foreign and ancient languages. Some experts study ancient dialects native language. We are talking about the profession of a philologist. To become a professional in this field, you need to study vast layers of knowledge and have talent and diligence.
Those who study philology can master such humanitarian professions as translator and teacher. And some devote themselves entirely to the science of learning languages, become specialists in world literature and thanks to this can engage in scientific or teaching activities in schools or higher education institutions. educational institutions. Many people with a philological education become writers.
Politician
Among the prestigious professions in the humanitarian field is politics. This direction attracts many young people, as it is associated with money and power. The work of a politician is based on the ability to communicate with people, carry out a variety of complex events, organize parties, participate in election campaigns, and also perform in the stands. In addition, a politician must be a good diplomat and manager.
Journalism
There are in-demand humanitarian professions related to the field of mass media. The list of such professions is quite extensive. A person can work as a journalist on television, in print and online publications, or become a paparazzi. You can get a job as a columnist for a magazine.
All these activities are related to creativity specific person and provides great opportunities for self-expression.
Those people who don’t want to travel on business trips can be a proofreader, layout designer or editor.
Advertising
If a person is active and has a broad outlook on seemingly unattractive things, he can find himself in advertising. Humanitarian professions in this area allow you to create the image of various companies and firms, successfully advertise almost any product or service, focusing on useful qualities advertised product.
Every company will be happy to hire an advertising employee who is good at conducting PR campaigns.
Lawyer
When talking about the humanities, one cannot help but pay attention to legal matters. There are many people who love to study laws and regulations and apply them in their work. A person trained as a lawyer can work as a legal consultant, lawyer, judge, notary or prosecutor. Each of these professions calls on its owner to carefully and responsibly comply with the laws, while not allowing them to forget their obligations to society. However, nowadays you can meet a lawyer or a notary at every step, so this profession is currently the least in demand on the labor market.
Highly paid humanities professions
Talking about professional activity in the humanitarian field, most people want to know about the most prestigious and well-paid jobs. As an example, we have identified several types of human professions in this area.
Tour Operator
With increasing levels of well-being, people are increasingly turning to travel agencies, wanting to travel and relax in different points our globe. In order to help the client choose a country and place, tourism managers are needed. They also help you choose a tour route, obtain a visa, book tickets and hotel rooms. Therefore, with flourishing tourism business people who have a passion for such work will always be in demand. And their income will also be quite large.
Designer
This type of activity is much broader than many people think. Society does not stand still; it is constantly developing and expanding. Therefore, the work of a modern designer is not only how to arrange furniture in an apartment or suggest what repairs to make. Now such specialists are involved in the arrangement of offices, plots of land (landscape design), designing various works via the Internet, clothing design, and so on. In order to successfully work in this area of humanitarian work, you must have a well-developed imagination and be able to communicate with people.
Brand Product Manager
Many people are surprised that when they enter any store or supermarket, they buy exactly the same products that they often see on their TV screens, hear about on the radio or read about in newspapers. All this is the work of brand managers, whose task is to promote this or that product so that people choose it more often when shopping. Here, in principle, there is nothing complicated, ordinary knowledge of human psychology, but people who know how to present correct information about products are invariably valuable. Such a specialist always has good income, and companies value such an employee.
Bottom line
There are other humanitarian professions, the list of which can be continued for a long time. All of them are important and necessary for the development of our society. If a person wants to devote himself to the humanities, then he must consider everything existing options, imagine yourself in the role of one or another employee, and then choose an activity that suits your personal qualities and to which your soul lies.
After all, technical and humanitarian professions allow people to realize themselves to the fullest in this world, unlock their potential and work for the benefit of society, adequately providing for themselves and their families. There are no better or worse professions, there is only demand for certain types of activities. Therefore, before choosing a profession, you should carefully review the labor market, which vacancies are currently in demand. But in any case, it is advisable to look for a job you like, then it will bring pleasure and joy, and then money.
A very significant and equally unique area of scientific knowledge is the social and human sciences, often united by the concept of social and human sciences, and even more broadly, social and humanitarian knowledge. The content of such knowledge is society (society) and man in various aspects. Social sciences in the narrow sense - sociology, economics, legal science, political science. But these areas cannot be considered outside the general cultural context, outside the world of culture created by society - entire generations of people, each of whom makes their own contribution, and individual individuals. Social sciences include a whole range of sciences that are commonly called humanities: anthropology, art sciences, history, cultural history, cultural studies. If we separate these two types of sciences, then the most important features will be: Subject: social sciences study the structure of society and general social patterns, humanitarian sciences study man and his world. Method: Social sciences rely on explanation, humanities on understanding. Subject and method at the same time. We can also talk about division into research programs, which includes a number of components: general characteristics of the subject, general prerequisites scientific theory, research methods, methods of transition from general premises (including general cultural, philosophical, etc.) to scientific constructs. Scientific program , unlike a theory, claims to universally cover all phenomena and is conceptual in nature73. In social and humanitarian knowledge, naturalistic and cultural-centric programs stand out most clearly. The first, stating the difference between the subjects of the sciences of society and nature, at the same time believes that the social sciences can and should apply the methods of natural science. The second, making culture logically and axially the first object of research, is built on an individualizing approach and special research methods. Often both programs are intertwined with each other; there is a conscious or not fully reflected “grafting” of their methods onto each other, especially when discussing practical problems. One program explores the goals and values of the subject, the other - the patterns and mechanisms that could lead to their implementation. One could say that one explores phenomena at the macro level, the other at the micro level, one focuses on “reification”, the other on “humanization”. There is reason to assert that any knowledge is social, since it is socioculturally conditioned (we see this in the example of natural science); moreover, any knowledge is humanitarian, since it is directly or indirectly connected with man. The concept of social and humanitarian knowledge itself does not raise objections; there is a serious difference of opinion on the question of whether this area of knowledge can claim scientific status? Is it possible to talk not only about social and humanitarian knowledge, but also about social and human sciences? The most skeptical attitude is shown here by people of a scientistic mindset, representatives of the natural, and especially technical sciences. They believe that only knowledge built on the classical model of natural science is scientific - the most rigorous, objective, free from the imprint of the knowing subject, although even natural science (non-classical, and especially post-non-classical) was forced to abandon the illusions of such knowledge. On the other hand, representatives of the humanities often believe that history (be it socio-economic, political, cultural history) is an irrational process that involves millions of efforts, aspirations, wills, and unpredictable accidents. Each event in history is isolated, each spiritual action is individual and therefore inaccessible to generalization. In history, experiments are impossible (how can I say it!), not a single historical event or act of spiritual activity can be repeated, there are no laws similar to the laws of nature, unless only patterns can be identified. And yet this is an area of true knowledge, since it includes aspects that are inexpressible in scientistic models, requiring adaptation and empathy on the part of the subject, the inclusion of his worldview - in all the richness of their colors and contradictions. These disputes between “physicists” and “lyricists,” which flared up especially brightly in the 60s of the last century and quietly faded away, are, as we see, not new. The confrontation between humanitarian and scientistic knowledge even led to a peculiar division of the “sciences of nature” and “sciences of culture” in late XIX V. (more on this below). Of course, it should be borne in mind that social and humanitarian knowledge includes not only the description and explanation of phenomena from a scientific position, but also such areas as art criticism, journalism, and essays. It includes everyday common sense, based on life experience, on centuries-old traditions of culture and social life. Thus, we come to a broad and very interesting problem of the difference between science and non-scientific (extra-scientific, pre-scientific) knowledge. If their influence and interpenetration is observed even in natural science, then it is all the more inevitable in the social and humanitarian sphere. In highlighting the general things that make science a science, one should first of all name the cognitive attitudes that underlie scientific activity, namely, science is defined by the fact that it studies everything as an object. The state of affairs here does not change and the recognition of the subjective component of scientific activity - after all, it can and should also be studied using the methods of science - like any object of research. Further, recognizing that knowledge about the world - nature, society, spiritual activity - is also present at the level of ordinary consciousness (penetrating into scientific thinking, whether we like it or not), it should be taken into account that ordinary knowledge does not go beyond the framework of existing historical experience, i.e. i.e. today's practice. Science, by increasing scientific knowledge, goes beyond this framework. To do this, she has to create theoretical constructs, new concepts, often abstract. Are these attitudes also inherent in social and humanitarian knowledge? In any case, it cannot be denied that it has its own object and its own conceptual apparatus, which makes it possible to create its own special “worlds”, predict or anticipate various phenomena in your area. And this area, one way or another, is the whole world.
More on the topic The concept of social and human sciences and social and humanitarian knowledge:
- SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY, ITS SUBJECT, MEANING, FUNCTIONS AND PLACE IN THE SYSTEM OF SOCIAL AND HUMANITIES KNOWLEDGE
- Formation of the disciplinary structure of social and humanitarian knowledge
Nadezhda ILYINOVA
SOCIAL AND HUMANITARIAN KNOWLEDGE AS A KEY TO THE SUCCESSFUL FORMATION OF A NEW TYPE OF SOCIETY
In the article the author gives brief description social and humanitarian knowledge, considers the specifics of social and humanitarian knowledge, substantiates the need to reassess the attitude towards social and humanitarian disciplines in the conditions of formation Russian society new type.
The author of the article presents his own brief characteristic of social and humanitarian knowledge. Specificity of social and humanitarian cognition is considered; necessity of revaluation of the relation to social and human sciences in conditions of forming a new type of Russian society is substantiated.
Keywords:
social and humanitarian knowledge, cognition, truth, values, society, science; social and humanitarian knowledge, cognition, truth, values, society, science.
The dominant technogenic civilization is experiencing a deep spiritual and intellectual crisis. The end of the XX - the beginning of the XXI century. were characterized by a serious revaluation of all human capabilities to actively transform both nature and society. In the context of a change in scientific paradigms serving the needs of the modern techno-innovative market, problems of social and humanitarian knowledge are of particular interest. A new society requires a search for new methods of understanding society.
Without taking into account the hierarchy of values, today it is impossible to operate in any scientific field. The very understanding of truth also changes under new conditions, which ensures the legitimacy of the existence of alternative models of true knowledge in the scientific world1.
Values perform regulatory and normative functions, defining guidelines for human behavior and activity. In the sphere of cognition of social existence, objects that have vital, practical value and for this reason are of educational interest. In this sense, we can talk about the unity and complementarity of the three main orientations of social and humanitarian knowledge: 1) to achieve objective -true knowledge(cognitive orientation); 2) to obtain a practically significant result (praxeological orientation); 3) to obtain knowledge that corresponds to the system of sociocultural values and norms accepted in society (axiological orientation).
The influence of values on socio-humanitarian knowledge varies depending on the type cognitive activity. Sociocultural values play a special role in extra-scientific socio-humanitarian knowledge, which, in contrast to scientific (theoretical), is sometimes characterized as spiritual and practical knowledge, emphasizing its service role in relation to the spheres of practical life of society. Among the main forms of extra-scientific knowledge are mythological and religious, artistic and moral, legal and economic-practical and other forms of knowledge. This type of knowledge correlates with the corresponding forms of social consciousness and is determined by the needs of the solution
1 Novolodskaya T.A., Sadovnikov V.N. Philosophical problems social and humanitarian knowledge: tutorial. - St. Petersburg, 2008, p. 4.
ILYINOVA Nadezhda Aleksandrovna - candidate of social sciences, associate professor; and about. Head of the Department of Philosophy and Sociology of Adygei state university [email protected]
tasks in specific areas of social life. In economic or political practice, despite the importance of scientific and theoretical developments, they still prefer to rely on functional economic and political knowledge, which takes into account the system of values, traditions, etc. accepted in a given society.
For scientific knowledge, the main value orientation is the achievement of truth, and its results have intrinsic value. Extrascientific and everyday socio-humanitarian knowledge are directly included in solving problems of practical activity and, having a service role in this sense, directly correlate with the values of existence and social ideals recognized by society1.
The entire set scientific knowledge traditionally divided into two groups:
1) sciences that study inorganic natural processes And alive organisms,
Natural Sciences, natural science;
2) sciences that consider the living conditions of people, social relations, legal and government forms organization of people's activities. This block combines the humanities and social sciences; their content is knowledge about man and his activities.
It is quite difficult to imagine a complete separation of the social and human sciences, because One of the objects of these sciences is the individual, who is a member of society and, to a certain extent, dependent on it. Society, in turn, consists of individuals, and studying society without taking into account individual specifics will not lead to the construction of an objective social picture.
Let's give specific features, characterizing social and humanitarian knowledge:
The phenomena studied by the humanities are unique in their historical and cultural uniqueness, therefore natural scientific methods are not applicable to them or must be modified;
Society, any of its subsystems, a person as a member of society are not static, unchanging objects;
1 Zelenkov A.I. and others. Philosophy and methodology of science: a textbook for graduate students / ed. A.I. Zelenkova. - Minsk, 2007.
Social and humanitarian knowledge is always value-laden; the influence of this knowledge on the solution of moral, political and ideological problems is obvious;
The results of knowledge of society and man are in one way or another affected by the goal and ideological attitudes of the researcher;
The researcher of problems of society and man is himself a part or representative of the object being studied; the subject and object of research coincide or may be involved in a communicative process;
In humanitarian knowledge, hermeneutic research methods are widely used, because one of the leading methods of increasing knowledge is the interpretation of texts in a broad (semiotic) sense;
The study of objects related to society and man is complicated by their fundamental unobservability2.
In social and humanitarian knowledge, the researcher introduces his “I” into the knowledge gained, leaving his “worldview-portrait”3 in the form of social guidelines and value systems. This is explained by the sociocultural determinism of social and humanitarian knowledge and the close connection between science and culture as forms of human activity. IN in a broad sense social and cultural coincide in content4, because denote the same area of phenomena - society.
Some ways in which society influences science should be outlined:
Direct, open, immediate, which is expressed in a social order, in a certain organization of scientific activity;
Implicit, hidden, implicit, manifested through a number of mediating elements: categorical apparatus, picture of the world, scientific language, thinking style, etc.
Sociocultural conditionality of socio-humanitarian knowledge WHO
2 Makarikhina O.A. Analysis and modeling of the conceptual structure of terms in the social and human sciences: using the example of the term “ethnos”: dis. ... Ph.D. - N. Novgorod, 2007, p. 39-41.
3 Filatov V.P. Scientific knowledge and the human world. - M., 1989, p. 8-9.
4 Zinchenko V.P. Science is an integral part of culture // Questions of Philosophy, 1990, No. 1, p. 34.
disappears due to the fact that the level of development of science is determined by the level of development of society, i.e. we're talking about about the economic base, culture, accumulated knowledge, experience, technologies used, etc. History knows the facts of society’s rejection of a certain type of knowledge due to “immaturity”, a low level of development of society, oblivion of this knowledge and a return to it after a certain period of time in a new, more high level development of society. The genesis of all forms of socio-humanitarian knowledge presupposes continuity and connection between the previous and subsequent stages of its development. Social and humanitarian knowledge, subject to the criteria of scientificity, truth, rationality, characteristic of such forms of science, to the extent that it is capable of adequately reconstructing the social and spiritual components of human life, cannot but depend on the social environment and time. The worldview interpretation of social and humanitarian constructs is facilitated by the sociocultural experience of humanity, the inclusion of social ideas created in the past into the value and semantic characteristics of modern culture.
Sociocultural conditioning is understood as a complex relationship between external social and internal cognitive factors in the formation of knowledge as a system of cognitive and ideological statements and principles. In social and humanitarian knowledge, to a greater extent than in other branches of science, a social and organizational influence on scientific activity. The latter causes a complex of contradictions:
Between today's needs of society for social research, conclusions and forecasts of social sciences and the existing system of organizing science, which cannot satisfy them;
Between the form of organization of social science, the mechanism for managing science and content, and the tasks of social research.
One more specific feature The socio-cultural conditionality of socio-humanitarian knowledge is an irreducible connection with ordinary,
non-scientific forms of knowledge. Social cognition is carried out not only in a scientific form, not only with the help of rational and conceptual means of research.
Scientists starting research already have some knowledge about society, its history, culture, political and economic life. A social object - be it a social event or a spiritual phenomenon - evokes all sorts of emotions and feelings of the researcher, who cannot be indifferent to human activity filled with dramatic facts. Therefore, the process of its cognition to a large extent bears the imprint of the life world and life position of the scientist, and depends on his upbringing, education and even emotionality. Ordinary knowledge usually includes the entire set of unsystematized, fragmentary, partial knowledge, including ideas about law, morality, ideological attitudes, beliefs, spontaneous social consciousness, etc.
Social cognition in non-scientific forms is carried out through certain evaluative norms, principles, ideological stereotypes, rules or through artistic images. The cognitive moment is present in all forms of social consciousness, in the content of everyday non-scientific knowledge and thereby emphasizes the human and ideological contexts within which the cognitive activity of the researcher is realized. The study of the interaction of scientifically theoretical and non-scientific, everyday knowledge in the process of cognition requires taking into account their differences in the nature of the reflection of the object in them, the ways of its functioning in the social environment.
Currently, there is a growing interest in the problems of social and humanitarian knowledge. This phenomenon is explained by various theoretical, philosophical and social nature. “Modern science is at the forefront of its search
Placed unique, historically developing systems, in which man himself is included as a special component... Technogenic civilization is now entering
into a period of a special type of progress, when humanistic guidelines become the initial ones in determining the strategies of scientific research”1. The results of social and humanitarian knowledge are increasingly influencing civilizational processes.
However, in the field of education, the attitude towards this area of knowledge today is ambiguous. IN beginning of XXI V. it was about the humanitarization of education: “The central idea of the philosophy of education is to strengthen the humanitarian training of a specialist in any field... The humanities introduce people to the riches of world and domestic culture, contribute to the establishment of mutual understanding and harmony between peoples. Humanitarianization of education protects people from technocratic myopia and primitive pragmatism, helps relieve psychological stress, increases creativity and resilience
1 Ruzavin G.I. Philosophy of science: textbook. - M., 2011.
personality"2. Today, due to the transition to a two-level education system, bachelors “receive less” of the social and humanitarian component of knowledge. A bachelor's degree should be largely practical-oriented. And this is only possible by reducing either the humanitarian social or natural science block. This is connected, first of all, with the optimization of Russian education, the results of which, in our opinion, will be ambiguous. The cycle of social and humanitarian disciplines shapes a person of this company and for this society. Therefore, the policy of reducing the humanitarian block leads to general decline professionalism and professional responsibility. A balanced presence of social sciences and optimization of methods of teaching them in the system of professional education at a university is the key to training highly qualified, competitive, competent specialists and responsible members of society.
2 Ikonnikova S.N. History of cultural theories. - St. Petersburg, 2003, p. 10-11.
Social and humanitarian knowledge are interpenetrated. Without a person there is no society. But a person cannot exist without society.
Features of humanitarian knowledge: understanding; access to texts of letters and public speaking, diaries and policy statements, works of fiction and critical reviews, etc.; the impossibility of reducing knowledge to unambiguous, universally accepted definitions.
Humanitarian knowledge is designed to influence a person, spiritualize, transform his moral, ideological, ideological guidelines, and contribute to the development of his human qualities.
Social and humanitarian knowledge is the result of social cognition.
Social cognition is the process of acquiring and developing knowledge about a person and society.
The knowledge of society and the processes occurring in it, along with features common to all cognitive activity, also has significant differences from the knowledge of nature.
Peculiarities social cognition
1. The subject and object of knowledge coincide. Social life is permeated by the consciousness and will of man; it is essentially subject-objective, representing a generally subjective reality. It turns out that the subject here cognizes the subject (cognition turns out to be self-knowledge).
2. The resulting social knowledge is always associated with interests of individual subjects of knowledge. Social cognition directly affects people's interests.
3. Social knowledge is always loaded with evaluation; it is value knowledge. Natural science is instrumental through and through, while social science is the service of truth as a value, as truth; natural science - “truths of the mind”, social science - “truths of the heart”.
4. The complexity of the object of knowledge is society, which has a variety of different structures and is in constant development. Therefore, the establishment of social patterns is difficult, and open social laws are probabilistic in nature. Unlike natural science, social science makes predictions impossible (or very limited).
5. Since social life changes very quickly, in the process of social cognition we can talk about establishing only relative truths.
6. The possibility of using such a method of scientific knowledge as experiment is limited. The most common method of social research is scientific abstraction; in social cognition the role of thinking is extremely important.
Describe and understand social phenomena allows the correct approach to them. This means that social cognition must be based on the following principles:
Consider social reality in development;
Study social phenomena in their diverse connections and interdependence;
Identify the general (historical patterns) and the specific in social phenomena.
Any knowledge of society by a person begins with the perception of real facts of economic, social, political, spiritual life - the basis of knowledge about society and people’s activities.
For a fact to become scientific, it must be interpreted (Latin interpretatio - interpretation, explanation). First of all, the fact is brought under some scientific concept. Next, all the essential facts that make up the event are studied, as well as the situation (setting) in which it occurred, and the diverse connections of the fact being studied with other facts are traced.
Thus, the interpretation of a social fact is a complex multi-stage procedure for its interpretation, generalization, and explanation. Only an interpreted fact is a truly scientific fact. A fact presented only in the description of its characteristics is just raw material
The scientific explanation of a fact is also associated with its assessment, which depends on the following factors:
Properties of the object being studied (event, fact);
Correlating the object being studied with others of the same order, or with an ideal;
The cognitive tasks set by the researcher
Personal position of the researcher (or just a person);
The interests of the social group that is being studied
Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4.
"Specificity of cognition social phenomena, the specifics of social science are determined by many factors. And, perhaps, the main one among them is society itself (man) as an object of knowledge. Strictly speaking, this is not an object (in the natural scientific sense of the word). The fact is that social life is thoroughly permeated with the consciousness and will of man; it is, in essence, subject-objective, representing a generally subjective reality. It turns out that the subject here cognizes the subject (cognition turns out to be self-knowledge). However, this cannot be done using natural scientific methods. Natural science embraces and can master the world only in an objective (as an object-thing) way. It really deals with situations where the object and the subject are, as it were, on opposite sides of the barricades and therefore so distinguishable. Natural science turns the subject into an object. But what does it mean to turn a subject (a person, after all, in the final analysis) into an object? This means killing the most important thing in him - his soul, making him into some kind of lifeless scheme, a lifeless structure.<...>The subject cannot become an object without ceasing to be itself. The subject can only be known in a subjective way - through understanding (and not an abstract general explanation), feeling, survival, empathy, as if from the inside (and not detachment, from the outside, as in the case of an object),
What is specific in social science is not only the object ( subject-object), but also a subject. Everywhere, in any science, passions are in full swing; without passions, emotions and feelings there is no and cannot be a human search for truth. But in social science their intensity is perhaps the highest” (Grechko P.K. Society about knowledge: for those entering universities. Part I. Society. History. Civilization. M., 1997. P. 80-81.).
[C1. | Based on the text, indicate main factor, which determines the specifics of cognition of social phenomena. What, according to the author, are the features of this factor? Answer: The main factor that determines the specifics of knowledge of social phenomena is its object - society itself. The characteristics of the object of cognition are associated with the uniqueness of society, which is permeated with the consciousness and will of the individual, which makes it a subjective reality: the subject cognizes the subject, i.e. cognition turns out to be self-knowledge.
Answer: According to the aptor, the difference between social science and natural science lies in the difference in the objects of knowledge and its methods. Thus, in social science, the object and subject of knowledge coincide, but in natural science they are either divorced or significantly different; natural science is a monological form of knowledge: the intellect contemplates a thing and speaks out about it; social science is a dialogical form of knowledge: the subject as such cannot be perceived and be studied as a thing, because as a subject it cannot, while remaining a subject, become voiceless; in social science, knowledge is carried out as if from within, in natural science - from the outside, detached, with the help of abstract general explanations.
passions, emotions and feelings is the highest? Give your explanation and, based on knowledge of the social science course and the facts of social life, give three examples of the “emotionality” of cognition of social phenomena. Answer: The author believes that in social science the intensity of passions, emotions and feelings is the highest, since here there is always a personal attitude of the subject to the object, a vital interest in what is being learned. As examples of the emotionality of knowledge of social phenomena, the following can be cited: supporters of the republic, studying the forms of the state, will seek confirmation of the advantages of the republican system over the monarchical one; monarchists will pay special attention to proving the shortcomings of the republican form of government and the merits of the monarchical one; The world-historical process has been considered in our country for a long time from the point of view of the class approach, etc.
| C4. | The specificity of social cognition, as the author notes, is characterized by a number of features, two of which are revealed in the text. Based on your knowledge of the social science course, indicate any three features of social cognition that are not reflected in the fragment.
Answer: The following can be cited as examples of the features of social cognition: the object of cognition, which is society, is complex in its structure and is in constant development, which makes it difficult to establish social laws, and open social laws are probabilistic in nature; in social cognition the possibility of using such a method of scientific research as experiment is limited; in social cognition the role of thinking, its principles and methods (for example, scientific abstraction) is extremely important; Since social life changes quite quickly, in the process of social cognition we can talk about establishing only relative truths, etc.
Section 5. Policy
Social sciences, their classification
Society is such a complex object that science alone cannot study it. Only by combining the efforts of many sciences can we fully and consistently describe and study the most complex formation that exists in this world, human society. The totality of all sciences that study society as a whole is called social studies. These include philosophy, history, sociology, economics, political science, psychology and social psychology, anthropology and cultural studies. These are fundamental sciences, consisting of many subdisciplines, sections, directions, and scientific schools.
Social science, having emerged later than many other sciences, incorporates their concepts and specific results, statistics, tabular data, graphs and conceptual diagrams, and theoretical categories.
The entire set of sciences related to social science is divided into two types - social And humanitarian.
If the social sciences are the sciences of human behavior, then the humanities are the sciences of the spirit. It can be said differently, the subject of social sciences is society, the subject of humanities is culture. The main subject of social sciences is study of human behavior.
Sociology, psychology, social psychology, economics, political science, as well as anthropology and ethnography (the science of peoples) belong to social sciences . They have a lot in common, they are closely related and form a kind of scientific union. Adjacent to it is a group of other related disciplines: philosophy, history, art history, cultural studies, literary studies. They are classified as humanitarian knowledge.
Since representatives of neighboring sciences constantly communicate and enrich each other with new knowledge, the boundaries between social philosophy, social psychology, economics, sociology and anthropology can be considered very conditional. At their intersection, interdisciplinary sciences are constantly emerging, for example, social anthropology appeared at the intersection of sociology and anthropology, and economic psychology appeared at the intersection of economics and psychology. In addition, there are such integrative disciplines as legal anthropology, sociology of law, economic sociology, cultural anthropology, psychological and economic anthropology, historical sociology.
Let's get acquainted more thoroughly with the specifics of the leading social sciences:
Economy– a science that studies the principles of organization economic activity people, relations of production, exchange, distribution and consumption that are formed in every society, formulates the basis for the rational behavior of the producer and consumer of goods. Economics also studies the behavior of large masses of people in a market situation. In small and large - in public and privacy- people cannot take a single step without affecting economic relations . When negotiating a job, buying goods on the market, counting our income and expenses, demanding payment of wages, and even going on a visit, we - directly or indirectly - take into account the principles of economy.
Sociology– a science that studies the relationships that arise between groups and communities of people, the nature of the structure of society, problems of social inequality and the principles of resolving social conflicts.
Political science– a science that studies the phenomenon of power, the specifics of social management, and the relationships that arise in the process of carrying out government activities.
Psychology- the science of the laws, mechanisms and facts of the mental life of humans and animals. The main theme of psychological thought in antiquity and the Middle Ages is the problem of the soul. Psychologists study stable and repetitive behavior in individual behavior. The focus is on problems of perception, memory, thinking, learning and development of the human personality. There are many branches of knowledge in modern psychology, including psychophysiology, zoopsychology and comparative psychology, social psychology, child psychology and educational psychology, developmental psychology, occupational psychology, creativity psychology, medical psychology, etc.
Anthropology - science of human origin and evolution, education human races and about normal variations physical structure person. She studies primitive tribes that have survived today from primitive times in the lost corners of the planet: their customs, traditions, culture, behavior patterns.
Social Psychology studies small group (family, group of friends, sports team). Social psychology is a frontier discipline. She was formed at the intersection of sociology and psychology, taking on tasks that her parents were unable to solve. It turned out that a large society does not directly influence the individual, but through an intermediary - small groups. This world of friends, acquaintances and relatives closest to a person plays an exceptional role in our lives. We generally live in small, not big worlds- in a specific house, in a specific family, in a specific company, etc. The small world sometimes influences us even more than the big one. That is why science appeared, which took it closely and very seriously.
Story- one of the most important sciences in the system of social and humanitarian knowledge. The object of its study is man and his activities throughout the existence of human civilization. The word "history" Greek origin and means “research”, “search”. Some scholars believed that the object of studying history is the past. The famous French historian M. Blok categorically objected to this. “The very idea that the past as such can be an object of science is absurd.”
Emergence historical science dates back to the times of ancient civilizations. The “father of history” is considered to be the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who compiled a work dedicated to the Greco-Persian wars. However, this is hardly fair, since Herodotus used not so much historical data as legends, legends and myths. And his work cannot be considered completely reliable. There are much more reasons to consider Thucydides, Polybius, Arrian, Publius Cornelius Tacitus, and Ammianus Marcellinus to be considered the fathers of history. These ancient historians used documents to describe events, own observations, eyewitness accounts. All ancient peoples considered themselves historiographers and revered history as a teacher of life. Polybius wrote: “lessons drawn from history most surely lead to enlightenment and prepare us for engaging in public affairs; the story of the trials of other people is the most intelligible or the only teacher that teaches us to courageously endure the vicissitudes of fate.”
And although, over time, people began to doubt that history could teach subsequent generations not to repeat the mistakes of previous ones, the importance of studying history was not disputed. The most famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote in his reflections on history: “History teaches nothing, but only punishes for ignorance of the lessons.”
Culturology I am primarily interested in the world of art - painting, architecture, sculpture, dance, forms of entertainment and mass spectacles, institutions of education and science. The subjects of cultural creativity are a) individuals, b) small groups, c) large groups. In this sense, cultural studies covers all types of associations of people, but only to the extent that it concerns the creation of cultural values.
Demography studies population - the entire multitude of people who make up human society. Demography is primarily interested in how they reproduce, how long they live, why and in what numbers they die, and where large masses of people move. She looks at man partly as a natural, partly as a social being. All living things are born, die and reproduce. These processes are influenced primarily by biological laws. For example, science has proven that a person cannot live more than 110-115 years. That's his way biological resource. However, the vast majority of people live to be 60-70 years old. But this is today, and two hundred years ago average duration life did not exceed 30-40 years. Even today, people in poor and underdeveloped countries live less than in rich and highly developed countries. In humans, life expectancy is determined both by biological, hereditary characteristics, and social conditions(life, work, rest, food).
Social cognition- this is knowledge of society. Understanding society is a very complex process for a number of reasons.
1. Society is the most complex of the objects of knowledge. In social life, all events and phenomena are so complex and diverse, so different from each other and so intricately intertwined that it is very difficult to detect certain patterns in it.
2. In social cognition, not only material (as in natural science), but also ideal, spiritual relationships are studied. These relationships are much more complex, diverse and contradictory than connections in nature.
3. In social cognition, society acts both as an object and as a subject of cognition: people create their own history, and they also know it.
When talking about the specifics of social cognition, extremes should be avoided. On the one hand, it is impossible to explain the reasons for Russia’s historical lag using Einstein’s theory of relativity. On the other hand, one cannot assert that all the methods by which nature is studied are unsuitable for social science.
The primary and elementary method of cognition is observation. But it differs from the observation that is used in natural science when observing the stars. In social science, cognition concerns animate objects endowed with consciousness. And if, for example, the stars, even after many years of observation of them, remain completely unperturbed in relation to the observer and his intentions, then in public life everything is different. As a rule, it is found backlash on the part of the object being studied, something makes observation impossible from the very beginning, or interrupts it somewhere in the middle, or introduces interference into it that significantly distorts the results of the study. Therefore, non-participant observation in social science does not provide sufficiently reliable results. Another method is needed, which is called participant observation. It is carried out not from the outside, not from the outside in relation to the object being studied (social group), but from within it.
For all its significance and necessity, observation in social science demonstrates the same fundamental shortcomings as in other sciences. While observing, we cannot change the object in the direction that interests us, regulate the conditions and course of the process being studied, or reproduce it as many times as required to complete the observation. Significant shortcomings of observation are largely overcome in experiment.
The experiment is active and transformative. In an experiment we interfere with the natural course of events. According to V.A. Stoff, an experiment can be defined as a type of activity undertaken for the purpose of scientific knowledge, the discovery of objective laws and consisting of influencing the object (process) under study using special tools and devices. Thanks to the experiment, it is possible to: 1) isolate the object under study from the influence of side, insignificant phenomena that obscure its essence and study it in its “pure” form; 2) repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under strictly fixed, controllable and accountable conditions; 3) systematically change, vary, combine various conditions in order to obtain the desired result.
Social experiment has a number of significant features.
1. The social experiment is of a concrete historical nature. Experiments in the field of physics, chemistry, biology can be repeated in different eras, in various countries, because the laws of natural development do not depend either on the form and type of production relations, or on national and historical features. Social experiments aimed at transforming the economy, the national-state structure, the system of upbringing and education, etc., can give not only different, but also directly opposite results in different historical eras, in different countries.
2. The object of a social experiment has a much lesser degree of isolation from similar objects remaining outside the experiment and from all the influences of a given society as a whole. Here, such reliable isolating devices as vacuum pumps, protective screens, etc., used in the process of a physical experiment, are impossible. This means that a social experiment cannot be carried out with a sufficient degree of approximation to “pure conditions”.
3. A social experiment places increased demands on compliance with “safety precautions” during its implementation compared to natural science experiments, where even experiments carried out by trial and error are acceptable. A social experiment at any point in its course constantly has a direct impact on the well-being, well-being, physical and mental health of the people involved in the “experimental” group. Underestimation of any detail, any failure during the experiment can have a detrimental effect on people and in no way good intentions it is impossible to justify this to its organizers.
4. A social experiment may not be conducted for the purpose of obtaining direct theoretical knowledge. Conducting experiments (experiments) on people is inhumane in the name of any theory. A social experiment is an ascertaining, confirming experiment.
One of the theoretical methods of cognition is historical method research, i.e. a method that identifies significant historical facts and stages of development, which ultimately makes it possible to create a theory of the object and reveal the logic and patterns of its development.
Another method is modeling. Modeling is understood as a method of scientific knowledge in which research is carried out not on the object of interest to us (the original), but on its substitute (analogue), similar to it in certain respects. As in other branches of scientific knowledge, modeling in social science is used when the subject itself is not available for direct study (say, does not yet exist at all, for example, in predictive studies), or this direct study requires enormous costs, or it is impossible due to ethical considerations.
In his goal-setting activities, from which history is formed, man has always strived to comprehend the future. Interest in the future has especially intensified in modern era in connection with the formation of the information and computer society, in connection with those global problems that call into question the very existence of humanity. Foresight came out on top.
Scientific foresight represents such knowledge about the unknown, which is based on already known knowledge about the essence of the phenomena and processes that interest us and about the trends in their further development. Scientific foresight does not claim absolutely accurate and complete knowledge of the future, or its mandatory reliability: even carefully verified and balanced forecasts are justified only with a certain degree of reliability.
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