2.Unormal, intrazonal and extrazonial communities
3. Herd (polar) desert
4.Thundra
5.Lotandra
6. High forests of moderate belt (Taiga)
7. Prosicobolic forests
8.Lesostep
9.Tep
10.Polpusty
11.Pusting
12. From subtropical dry forests and shrubs
13. Sannery
14. List Padded Tropical Forests
15. Seasonal semi-estate forests
16. Valuable (rain) tropical forests
17. The community of Mangrove
1. Whether. Vegetation. Flora. Fauna. Animal world
Biome – This is a set of communities of any zone or subzone.
Vegetation - A combination of plant communities (phytocenoses) inhabiting any territory. The distribution of vegetation is determined mainly by generally climatic conditions and is subject to the laws of latitudinal zone on the plains and high-altitude lowering in the mountains. At the same time, in the geographical distribution of vegetation, there are certain features of abonality and intraonsomality. The main classification units of vegetation are: "Type of vegetation", "formation" and "Association". The most important environmental groups of plants - trees, shrubs, shrubs, semi-shops and herbs.
Trees- Perennial plants with a weird main stem (barrel), which remained throughout the life (from tens to hundreds of years), and branches forming the crown. The height of modern trees ranges from 2 to 100 m, occasionally more. Trees belong mainly to coniferous and dysdootilic plants. Life form - plywood.
Shrub - Perennial rigid plants with a height of 0.6 - 6 m, which are not in adult state of the main trunk. The life expectancy of most shrubs is 10 to 20 years. Shrubs are widespread along the border of forests (shrub steppe, forestandra). In the forests, they usually form undercomes. I have important currant, gooseberry other. Life form - plywood.
Polukstarniki - Perennial plants, whose renewal kidneys are saved for several years, and the upper parts of the escape are replaced annually. The height of most semi-stares is no more than 80 cm. Harvesters grow mainly in arid areas. Their typical representatives are tereskin, Types of wormwood, Astragala, Solyanka and others. Life form - Hamfitis.
Shrub - low perennial plants with decisive shoots; Height 5-60 cm, live 5-10 years. Common in tundra ( types of willows, many heather), in coniferous forests, on sphagnous swamps ( cranberries, Cassandra, Bag), in highlands, etc. Life form - Hamfitis.
Polukstarty - Perennial small semi-stabilics, such as thyme.
Grass - annual and perennial plants for which there is a lack of space-standing overhead stems that are experiencing an unfavorable season. All herbs have renewal kidneys at the soil level or in the soil (on rhizomes, tubers, bulbs).
The flora should be distinguished from vegetation, that is, a combination of systematic units (species, childbirth, families) in this area.
Flora It can be defined as a historically established combustion of plant species, mushrooms and microorganisms inhabiting any territory or ingoing geological epochs.
Fauna - A combination of species of animals living in a certain territory. The fauna consists in the process of evolution from animals of different origin: Avtochthonov (here arising), Allohtonov (arising in another place, but for a long time of the united), immigrants (penetrated here relatively recently). The term "fauna" is applicable to the aggregate of animals of any systematic category (for example, the fauna of birds - ornithofauna, the fauna of fish - ichthyofauna, etc.).
Animal world - A combination of individuals of different types of animals characteristic of this territory.
Under the influence of climatic factors, zonal features of biomes were developing. Despite the similarity of climates of various meridional sectors of the same zone, the communities of different sectors differ in the set of species of plants and animals within their composition. All this leads to differences in the structure and dynamics of biomes (4,5,16,23,35,40,46,52)
Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus
Establishment of education
Gomel State University named after Francis Skorne
Geological and Geographical Faculty
Department of Ecology
Course work
Basic Biomas Sushi
Artist: V.V. Kovalkova
Student GE-22 Group
Scientific leader K. B.N.,
associate Professor O.V. Kovaleva
Gomel 2013.
Introduction
Rain tropical forests
1Spread 1.2Climate 3Relief 1.4Vegetation 1.5Animal world 6Ecological problems 2. Desert 1 Distribution 5 vegetation 6 animal world 7 Thermal adaptation of animal and vegetable world 8 Environmental problems Intrazonal biomes 1 Pointed meadows 3 Solonchaki Conclusion Introduction
Biome - aggregate ecosystems<#"justify">Biom is a combination of specific ecosystems. Zonal types of biomes are formed with a certain ratio of heat and moisture, include plant communities and an animal population, inextricably linked with each other. As large environmental units of the biosphere, they, in turn, can be divided into smaller types. Zonal types of biomes - a set of natural ecosystems with a similar structure and appearance of communities that have formed in the process of historical development and reflecting the hydrothermal potential of the territory. Their borders are the frontiers outside which the ecosystems of this zone type cannot exist due to the inconsistency of the environmental conditions. There are a number of major beomes of sushi, the names of most of them are determined by the type of vegetation. For example, coniferous or deciduous forests, desert, tropical forest and so on. However, ultimately, the factor determining the type of biome is climate, since the nature of the medium is set mainly by the temperature, the amount of precipitation, as well as the direction and strength of the winds. For example, both in the northern and southern hemisphere in areas lying in the equatorial belt, the winds are mainly blowing towards the equator. They carry moisture with them, which falls out of rich rains in the tropical belt; As a result, rainforests arise. However, to the north and south of the tropics, the same winds are the cause of the formation of savannas and deserts. Even further from the equator alternating winds from subtropical and polar zones, create a complex sequence of precipitation in different areas, which leads to the formation of steppes and forests of a moderate belt. The proximity to the ocean affects the distribution of precipitation, therefore, on the distribution of vegetation types. The purpose of the study is the consolidation of the material in the course "General Ecology", which provided for the solution of the following tasks: disclosure of concepts of biome, rain tropical forests, deserts, intrazonal biomes, swamps, marches, mangars, meadows; study of rain tropical forests; Study of desert; study by intrazonal biome; detailed consideration of the main biomes of land; detailed consideration by intrazonal biome, such as swamps, salt marshes, mangers, marches and meadows. 1. Rain Tropical Forests
The root belt of the Earth extends to the north and south of the equator in tropical latitudes; In each hemisphere, it limits the annual isotherm 20 ° C. The most important factor in zonal differentiation in a hot belt is moisture. In accordance with the patterns of atmospheric circulation and the regimen of atmospheric precipitation, a zonal row of biomes is formed: rain tropical forests, tropical deciduous forests, savannah and desert. The transitional position between the biomes of hot and moderate belts occupy the biomes of subtropical zones. Biomes of rain tropical forests are one of the most ancient and rich on Earth. Their area covers several kingdoms: neophesky, Ethiopian, Indo-Malay, Australian. The number of species of plants and animals is more here than in all other biomes combined. Tropical rain forests are rain forests located in the equatorial zone between the tropical of cancer and the tropic of Capricorn. 1.1 Distribution
Tropical rain forests are located in Southeast Asia (in Myanmar, in Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea), Sri Lanka, in Northeast Australia, South Sahara in Africa (from Cameroon to Congo), South America ( Rainforest Amazonia), Central America and on many of the Pacific Islands. Tropical forests call "light planets", although it is now known that they are little help filling the atmosphere with oxygen by means of photosynthesis. The main factor determining the formation of evergreen rainy rainforests, which remains a favorable warm and wet climate for millions of years. The abundance of heat and moisture provide year-round vegetation of plants. Seasonal rhythm is fuzzy. Features of tropical rain forests: complex spatial structure of the ecosystem; lack of tier shrubs; very high biodiversity level; rapid decomposition of organic residues; low power of soil cover - 5-10 cm, the overwhelming majority of carbon and nitrogen is in the living part of the forest; the concentration of iron and aluminum oxides through the lacyal process (decrease in the silica content and an increase in iron and aluminum oxides) soils have bright red or red-colored colors. Figure 1 shows the spread of rain tropical forests on the globe. Figure 1 - Distribution of rain tropical forests Currently, the actual equatorial forests have been preserved only in South America, Central Africa, in the Malay Archipelago, which Wallace explored 150 years ago, and on some Oceania islands. More than half of them focuses within the limits of only three countries: 33% - in Brazil and 10% in Indonesia and in the Congo - the state that constantly changes its name (even recently it was Zaire). 1.2 climate
Annual precipitation in most of the rainforest belts is 1500-4000 mm, but in some localities it is twice as much. For the existence of evergreen rain forests, however, it is more important not the total amount of precipitation, but the distribution of them in the year. The average monthly temperature is about 27 ° C. The maximum temperature of the air does not rise above 30 ° C. Night minima fall below 20 ° C. The average daily temperatures lie mostly between 24 and 30 ° C; The average amplitude of temperatures is 7 ° C. Changing the weather during the day, not to mention the differences in the amount of precipitation, is quite monotonous throughout the year. 1.3 relief
Despite the turbulent vegetation, the quality of the soil in tropical rain forests often leaves much to be desired. Fast rotting caused by bacteria prevents gumus accumulation. A large concentration of iron and aluminum oxides due to the lathery process gives the soil a bright red color and sometimes forms deposits of minerals (for example, bauxite). In most trees, roots are located near the surface, because at the depth of not nutrients and most of the minerals, trees are obtained from the upper layer of decaying leaves and animals. On young formations, especially volcanic origin, the soil can be rather fertile. In the absence of trees on the naked soil surfaces, rainwater can accumulate, creating erosion of the soil and the launching process of erosion. Plants in the transpiration process, i.e. evaporation, saturate the ambient atmosphere with water. Each tree with a developed crown "produces" about 760 liters of moisture per year. As a result of the forest, there are always tuberous clouds, so, even when there is no rain, it is still wet and warm. 1.4 vegetation
Externally, the rain forest plants are often not like the medium stripes familiar to us. His shape of the trees resemble palm trees or umbrellas: a high straight trunk begins to branch up only at the very top, pulling out all the leaves to the sun. But the crown of such trees has a large area. In particular large copies, it can achieve the magnitudes of the football field, or even two. The trunks themselves are smooth or in cracks and thighs. Their color is different - from white and light brown to almost black. One of the most remarkable features of the tropical forests is numerous lianas. They lie on the ground, shook the trunks of the trees, form the impassive debris, branches and throwing their screens from a tree on a tree. Liana is extra-rivar plants, grassy or woody. They can rise to a large height, reaching the crowns of trees, but their roots are in the ground. Numerous and diverse here epiphytes. Their trunks are usually small, and the roots are in the air. Epiphyts will settle on the trunks and branches of trees, on the rocks, in the most unexpected places. Their goal is the same as other plants - catch the meager rays of the sun, penetrating through the closing crowns of trees of the upper tiers. Epiphyts, like Lianov, give a very characteristic appearance of a tropical forest (Figure 2). Figure 2 - The vegetation of rain tropical forests The leaves of tropical plants appear. Their form is often unusual. Increased humidity, constant rains force leaves to protect against water flows and get rid of excess moisture. This caused, for example, the rugged shape of the sheet plate of many large leaves or the sharp (drip) end of other leaves, thanks to which the water drops roll off the sheet and dries faster. The smooth wax surface also helps leaves get rid of excess water. Other plants, on the contrary, have devices in order to accumulate water, such as bromelic leaf outlets. It is impossible not to say about the amazing, bizarre, roots of the inhabitants of the rainforest. They are unusually diverse: air, respiratory wreck, discoid. Nutrients here are in the upper layer of land. The root plants are located here. Superficial roots are difficult to hold huge plants with powerful crowns, so a variety of supporting devices are formed. To them, for example, do disco-shaped roots. They are formed as vertical roots grows, resting in the barrel and supporting it. First, such roots have a rounded shape, then their one-sided growth occurs, as a result of which they are applied in the vertical plane and become similar to the boards. The height of the shell roots can reach 9 m (Figure 3). Figure 3 - Discoidal roots of plants Huge importance in the rainforest has a phenomenon like mikoriz. Due to daily rains, nutrients from the soil are quickly washed out. At the same time, fresh organics are a lot, but it is not available to higher plants, so they come into close contact with saprotrophic mushrooms. Thus, mineral substances come to the root directly from the GIF - mycorrhis mushrooms. It is the effectiveness of mycorrhiza that is obliged to be the vegetation of tropical forests. 1.5 Animal Mir
The diary of the rainforest determines the features of his fauna. The top tier of the rainforest consisting of crowns of trees is rather resolved - the crowns are at large distances from each other, and through the gaps between them there is a lot of light. In this tier, there are a variety of animals that never go down to Earth. Of course, this is mainly insects and other small animals, but there are also large vertebrates, such as Orangutan. According to scientists, in such a forest, like an Amazonian, can dwell up to 10 million species of animals, most of which are not yet described. In wet tropical forests there are incomplete (families of the lazens, musicals and armaduses), wide monkeys, a number of rodent families, manochable, lamas, a short, several bird detachments, as well as some reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates. Many animals with tenacious tails live on trees - cloth monkeys, dwarf and four-pailed amusements, opossums, cloth-minded dickerys, sloths. A lot of insects, especially butterflies (one of the richest faun in the world) and beetles; Many fish (whole 2000 species are approximately one third of the freshwater fauna of the world). 1.6 Environmental problems
Scientists believe that tropical forests are the most ancient ecosystem of the planet, which preserved in almost the same form as it had 70 million years ago. In those days, even the British Islands were covered with rainforests, as evidenced by the remnants of pollen found by English paleobotanis. In 1950, the rainforests occupied 14% of the land of land, now they have been preserved only by 6% of sushi. The speed of tropical forests, despite various protective events, remains very high - 1.5 acres (0.6 hectares) of raindrops disappears every second. This corresponds to the loss of 137 species of plants and animals per day, which puts this unique ecosystem at risk of disappearance. In addition, it is impossible to forget that tropical rain forests are inhabited by the tribes of people who are usually poorly adapted to environmental change and die shortly after the disappearance of their native forest. People destroy the rainforest for various reasons and in different ways. In countries where rain forests have survived, the population increases very quickly. People are trying to settle the territory engaged in forest. They are lying trees, and then ignite them. Cultural plants are planted on the ashes, but after one or two harvesters of the soil loses fertility, because All of her and without that meager stock turns out to be exhausted. Another reason for the information of forests is intelligence minerals. And finally, one of the main reasons: mahagony, tick, black, white, brown, red and green eben, many species are extremely beautiful in the drawing and color of wood come from the tropics to the global market. Palm Championship in the information of the tropical forests hold Japanese firms. In three decades, 450 million hectares - the fifth of the world stock of tropical forests was cut down. During the same time, even millions of forest hectares have been degradation. In general, according to scientists' estimates, while maintaining the current rates of forests, 85% of wet rainforests will be destroyed by 2020. From the coastal forests of Brazil, only 2% remains. There are many different organizations involved in the problem of preserving rainforests, and one of their tasks, they consider informing the greatest number of people about the consequences of deforestation, because knowledge of the existence of problems is the first step towards its solution. Tropical forest areas should be protected, forest cover should be restored on damaged lands around protected forests. 2. Desert
The desert is a natural zone characterized by a flat surface, affection or absence of flora and a specific fauna. Split sand, stony, clay, salt marsh desert. Separately identify snow deserts (in Antarctica and Arctic - the Arctic desert). The most famous sandy desert is sugar (the largest sandy desert in the area), which occupies the entire Northern part of the African continent. Close to semi-desert deserts (desert steppes), also related to extreme landscapes. All deserts occupy more than 16.5 million km ² (excluding Antarctica), or about 11% of the sushi surface. 2.1 Distribution
The deserts are common in a moderate belt of the northern hemisphere, subtropical and tropical belts of the northern and southern hemispheres. Figure 4 shows the propagation of the desert on the globe. Figure 4 - Spread desert The basis of the formation, existence and development of the desert is the unevenness of heat distribution and moisture, as well as the geographical zonality of the planet. 2.2 climates
The zonal distribution of temperatures and atmospheric pressure causes the specifics of the circulation of air masses of the atmosphere and the formation of winds. Passats, prevailing in equatorial-tropical latitudes, determine the sustainable stratification of the atmosphere, prevent the vertical movements of air flow and the associated formation of clouds and precipitation. Cloudy is extremely insignificant, while the influx of solar radiation is the greatest, which leads to extreme dryness of air (relative humidity in the summer months is about 30%) and exclusively high summer temperatures. In the subtropical belt, the magnitude of total solar radiation decreases, but low-propelled depressions of thermal origin develop on the continent, causing sharp dryness. The average temperature in the summer months is + 30 ° C, the maximum + 50 ° C. Multi-drying in this belt are interligious depressions, where the annual precipitation does not exceed 100-200 mm. In a moderate belt, the conditions for the formation of deserts occur in intra-projectal districts, such as Central Asia, where the amount of precipitation does not exceed 200 mm / year. Central Asia is fenced off from cyclones and monsoons by mountain raising, which entails education in the summer months of the Baric depression. The air is highly dry, high temperatures (up to + 40 ° C or more) and strong dusting. Occasionally penetrating air masses with cyclones from the oceans and the Arctic quickly warm and drained. It is the nature of the total circulation of the atmosphere together with local geographical conditions, create a climate situation forming to the north and south of the equator, between 15 ° and 45 ° latitude, the desert zone. 2.3 relief
The formation of the relief of the desert occurs under the influence of wind and aquatic erosion. The deserts are peculiar to a number of similar natural processes that are prerequisites for their morphogenesis: erosion, water accumulation, blowing and eoliac accumulation of sandy masses. Watercourses in the desert are two types: permanent and temporary. The constant relate to some rivers, such as Colorado, Neil, who originated outside the desert and being fully filled completely. Temporary, or episodic, watercourses occur after intense showers and quickly dry. Most watercoulations brings il, sand, gravel and pebbles, and it is them that many parts of the relief of the desert areas have been created. During the flow of watercourses from steep slopes to the flat terrain, there is a deposition of nanos at the foot of the slopes and the formation of the cones of the removal - fan-shaped clusters of nanos with the vertex facing up the valley of the watercourse. Such formations are widespread in the deserts of the south-west of the United States. Closely located cones can merge among themselves, forming an inclined subhorough plain, which wears the local name "Bahada". Rapidly flowing through the slopes, water blurs surface sediments and creates wins and ravines, sometimes they are formed by the monastery. Such forms formed on steep slopes of mountains and table hills are characteristic of the desert areas of the whole world. Wind erosion (eolic processes) creates a variety of relief forms, most typical precisely for desert regions. The wind, capturing dust particles, tolerates them both by the desert itself, and far beyond its limits. The sand carried by the wind acts on the protrusions of rocks, revealing differences in their density and hardness. So there are bizarre forms, resembling spiers, towers, arches and windows. Often the wind from the surface is removed all finely, and only a mosaic polished, places of multi-colored, pebbles, so-called. "Desert bridge." Such surfaces, purely "revolved" wind, are widespread in Sugar and the Arabian desert. In other areas of the desert there is an accumulation of sand and dust from the winds. Thus, the formation of sand dunes. Sand forms such dunes, mainly consists of quartz particles, but sand dunes in the natural National Monument White Sands ("White Sands") in New Mexico in the US are formed by white plaster. The formation of the Dunes occurs in places where the air flow meets the obstacle on its path. Sand accumulation begins with a leeward side of the barrier. The height of most dunes is from meters to several tens of meters, also known dunes, reaching a height of 300 m. If the dunes are not fixed with vegetation, then over time they are shifted in the direction of dominant winds. When the dune moves, the sand is transferred to the wind up the canopy imaginary slope and crept on the crest of the leeward slope. The speed of the Dunes on average is about 8 meters per year. The special kind of dunes is called the Barhans. They have a sickle shape, with a steep and high lever slope and stretched in the direction of the wind ascended by "horns". In all areas of the distribution of the Dune Relief, there is a set of incorrect shape. Some of them are created by vortex air flows, others were formed simply as a result of uneven sand deposits. Classification Desert: By the nature of soils and soils: - sandy - on loose sediments of ancient alleavial plains; - Lossy - on the lessisal sediments of underfloor plains; - Suglinist - on weak-robbonate coating sling lines; - clay tactics - in Podgorny plains and in the ancient deltas of rivers; - clay - on lowlands, composed of solenous markers and clays; - pebble and sandy-pebble - on groomed plateaus and subgroune plains; - Rubberized glowing - on boards and young subgrogany plains; - stony - at lowlands and small-scale; - Solonchakoy - in saline decreases of relief and sea coasts. According to the dynamics of precipitation: - Coast - develop there, where cold sea currents (Namib, Atakam) are approached by hot coasts: almost no precipitation; life, respectively, too; - Central Asian type (Gobi, Betpak Dala): The rate of precipitation is approximately constant during the year, so life here is the whole year, but it is barely warm; - Mediterranean type (sugar, Kara-Kuma, Big Sand Desert in Australia): Here are the precipitation as much as in the previous type, but only they are completely poured once, in two or three weeks; There is a brief and rapid flowering of life (a variety of ephemers), which then goes into a latent state until next year. 2.4 vegetation
The species composition of vegetation desert is very peculiar. Often there is a frequent change of plant groups, their complexity, which is due to the structure of the desert surface, a variety of soil soils, often changing moisturizing conditions. Along with this, in the nature of the distribution and ecology of the desert vegetation of different continents, many common features occurring in plants in similar habitats: a strong affability, a poor species composition, sometimes traced sometimes on large spaces. For intramaterial deserts of temperate belts typical of plant plants of sclerophilic type, including light-free shrubs and semi-stabiliques (Saksaul, Jusguong, ephedra, solar, wormwood, etc.). An important place in the phytocenoses of the southern subzone deserts of this type occupy herbaceous plants - ephemers and ephemeraids. In the subtropical and tropical intramatic deserts of Africa and Arabia, xerophilic shrubs and perennial herbs prevail, but succulents appear here. Very devoid of vegetation arrays of barhanes sands and squares covered with salt crusts. The richer vegetation cover of the subtropical deserts of North America and Australia (according to the abundance of the plant mass they are closer to the deserts of Central Asia) - sites, deprived of vegetation, there is almost no. On clay slides between the sands of the sands, low-speed acacia and eucalyptus are dominated; For pebble-rubble deserts, semi-staples Solyanki are characterized by a swan, prucunion, etc. in subtropical and tropical prophetic deserts (Western sugar, Namib, Atakam, California, Mexico) are dominated by a succulent plant plants (Figure 5). In salt marsh, the deserts of moderate, subtropical and tropical belts have a lot of common species. These are halophilic and succulent semi-stabiliques and shrubs (Tamarix, Selitryanka, etc.) and annual Solyanka (Solyanka, Choke, etc.). Figure 5 - Acacia Significantly different from the main vegetation the deserts of phytocenoses of oasisov, Tugaev, major river valleys and a delt. For the valleys of the desert-moderate belt of Asia, the leaf falls trees are characterized - Turanny Topol, Jee, Iva, Karagach; For the valleys of the rivers of subtropical and tropical belts - evergreen plants (palm, oleander). 2.5 Animal Mir For the deserts are characterized by fast moving animals, which is associated with the search for water (waterproofs removed) and feed (the herbal cover is rare), and also with persecution of predators (there are no shelters). Due to the need to shelter from enemies and harsh climatic conditions in a number of animals, devices for digging in the sand (brushes made of extended elastic hair, spines and bristles on the legs, which are serving and discarding sand; Cutters, and also sharp claws on the front legs in rodents). They build underground shelters (holes), often very large, deep and complex (large gerbil), or capable of quickly burned in loose sand (roundhead lizards, some insects). There are fast running forms (especially hoofs). Many desert reptiles (lizards and snakes) are also capable of moving very quickly (Figure 6). Figure 6 - Required deserts Fauna desert inherent patronizing "deserted" painting - yellow, light brown and gray tones, which makes many animals with littleness. Most desert fauna in the summer leads a nightlife. Some fall into the hibernation, and in some kind of kinds, for example, Suslikov, it begins in the height of the heat (summer hibernation, directly turning into the winter) and is associated with the burnout of plants and disadvantage of moisture. The deficit of moisture, especially drinking water, is one of the main difficulties in the life of the inhabitants of the desert. Some of them drink regularly and much and in connection with this move in search of water at considerable distances (sinks) or for dry season they move closer to water (hoofs). Others enjoyed by a rarely or do not drink at all, limited to moisture obtained from food. A significant role in the water balance of many representatives of the desert fauna plays the metabolic water formed during the metabolism process (large stocks of accumulated fat). The deserted fauna is characterized by a relatively large number of mammalian species (mainly rodents, hoofs), reptiles (especially lizards, Agam and Varanov), insects (twisted, refluenced, straight flowered) and sponctual. 2.6 Heat adaptation
Membranes permeable for oxygen and carbon dioxide are also missed by water vapor. Air saturated with water vapor in contact with any photosynthetic or respiratory surface, inevitably loses some moisture. Thus, one of the appointments of transpiration is a decrease in thermal stress, which is in contradiction with the need to maintain water. In sugar, where the lack of water is acute, contradictions between these two incompatible requirements are almost always solved in favor of conservation of water. Accordingly, all small animals avoid excessive overheating due to the peculiarities of their behavior, and large mammals - camels, gazelles, cannes, the origins and antelope-mendes, as well as ostriches that their excess heat accumulated during the day spend at night. On the contrary, xerophilic plants that are not able to avoid excessive insolation, survive due to a powerful root system, allowing to increase water extraction. Succulents have such a surface root system usually at a depth of 3-4 cm from the soil surface, which allows plants to maximize each drop of rain, even if the water does not penetrate into the ground to the larger depth. On the other hand, unsucculent desert perennials often have extraordinarily powerful rod roots, which, for example, in acacia, go to a depth of more than 15 m and reach groundwater mirrors under the desert surface. Just like the roots of plants are able to absorb water from a wet soil, so many spiderman deserts can remove moisture from raw sand. Some arthropods also demonstrate their natural superiority, removing moisture from unsaturated air. These include different types of ticks, bristles, sindes, flea and some other outless insects. Adult beetles (in contrast to their larvae) and termites, apparently, are not endowed with this useful ability. But neither of these animals can neglect the effect of cooling from evaporation for thermoregulation purposes. Most animals are active during the daytime, hide from the midday heat into the shadow or orient their body so that under the sunny rays there is as little part of it. In this regard, the locust, lizards and camels, the reaction on thermal stress is similar to the reaction of fading plants, in which the leaves are reduced so that the rays of the sun fall on their surface is no longer at a right angle. Just like many desert plants and animals are able to endure extreme dehydration, exactly how they can withstand unusually high temperatures that would be fatal for their kinds of species from more wet areas. Hyperthermia is transferred, as already mentioned, not only large warm-blooded animals, but also many arthropods, withstanding extremely high temperatures during the day and more at a very low humidity. For example, can be called a row, which carries the temperature of 50 ° C, scorpion - 47 ° C and numerous black-powder beetles, withstanding temperatures up to 45 ° C. Smaller animals cannot afford to spend cooling water by evaporation, but we usually do not need it, because they are saved from the midday heat, hiding into shady places or cool holes. The desert rodents are not capable of sweating, but have an "emergency" thermostat mechanism and in response to heat stress allocate a rich saliva. It wets the fur on the lower jaw and throat, bringing temporary relief when the body temperature approaches the critical one. Some reptiles, especially the turtles, also distinguish saliva for thermoregulation. In addition, when the body temperature becomes too high, the turtles make the urine that flows into the hind legs. Naturalists could not long understand the appointment of a huge bladder in desert turtles. Now the answer is known: urine is reserved not only in order to protect against enemies, but also for emergency cooling of the body. 2.7 Environmental problems
One of the most serious environmental problems today is the global problem of desertification. The main cause of desertification becomes agricultural activities of a person. When plowing the fields, a huge number of particles of the fertile soil layer rises into the air, dissipated, to be demolished with fields of water flows and deposited in other places in huge quantities. The destruction of the upper fertile soil layer under the action of wind and the water process is natural, however, it is repeatedly accelerated and enhanced when the large territories are rejected and in cases where the farmers leave the fields "under the pair", that is, they do not give the earth to rest. Natural deserts and semi-deserts occupy about one third of the entire surface of the earth. About 15% of the entire population of the planet live in these territories. In the deserts there is an extremely dry continental climate, usually no more than 165 mm precipitation falls there, and evaporation is much higher than natural moisturizing. The most extensive deserts are located on both sides of the equator, as well as in Central Asia and Kazakhstan. Deserts are natural formations that have a certain value for the general environmental balance of the planet. However, as a result of intensive anthropogenic activities in the last quarter of the 20th century, there was more than 9 million km. 2 The deserts, their territory covered about 43% of the total surface of the earth sushi. When deserting the territories, the entire natural life support system is degradation. People living in these territories are needed to survive either external assistance or resettlement to other more prosperous districts. For this reason, every year the number of environmental refugees increases in the world. The desertification process is usually caused by cumulative actions of man and nature. Especially detrimental desertification in the arid areas, because the ecosystem of these regions and so quite fragile and easily destroyed. Without the meager vegetation, it is destroyed due to mass grazing of livestock, intense cutting of trees, shrubs, unpacking for agriculture of soils and other economic activities that violates the refinery natural equilibrium. All this enhances the effect of wind erosion. At the same time, the water balance is significantly disturbed, the level of groundwater decreases, the wells dried. In the process of desertification, the structure of the soil is destroyed, soil saturation with mineral salts is enhanced. Land desertification and depletion may occur in any climatic zone as a result of the destruction of the natural system. In arid areas, drought becomes an additional reason for desertification. Due to the remoteness from civilizational progress and sustainable climatic, the desert has retained unique ecological systems. In some countries, the desert areas are included in the national reserves. On the other hand, human activity near the desert (cutting down of the forest, overlapping rivers) led to their expansion. Desertification is one of the most terrible, global and fleeting processes of modernity. In the 1990s, desertification began to threaten 3.6 million hectares of the most arid lands. Desertification can occur in different climatic conditions, but it is especially violent in hot, arid areas. In the 20th century, attempts began to stop the desertification by the method of landscaping, the construction of water pipes and canals. Nevertheless, desertification remains one of the most acute environmental problems in the world. biome vegetable animal ecosystem 3. Intrazonal biomes
There are various conditions that differ from the placory, primarily in the plains of rivers and lakes, on the slopes. Such conditions are called intrason. Intrazonal groups in one zone do not form zonal (placar) biocenoses. Intrazonal biocenoses are not peculiar to one, but a few, and even all zones of the globe (swamps, meadows, mangrove thickets and so on). Examples of intrazonal communities can serve as the communities of horse marshes and pinewhacks on sandy soils in the forest area, salt marshes and solonts in steppe and desert zones, meadow communities. Consequently, the intraconalous communities are understood by communities in one or several zones in certain sections. 3.1 Pointed meadows
The caught meadow - meadow, located in the floodplain of the river, annually flooded with spring hollow waters. Poaming meadows florally poorer other types of meadows due to semitting exposure to flood, widespread in the forest-steppe zone. There are floodplain meadows in all zones and occupy 25 million hectares, of which 14 million hectares are under haynesses and under the pastures of 11 million hectares. In favorable conditions of the floodplain mode with periodic humidifiers and as a result of the narnation of the list on floodplain meadows, good conditions are usually created for the development of herbal vegetation. The soil though is distinguished by a variety depending on the natural zone, as well as from the location in the scene itself (the killer, the central floodplain, the estimated part), but all of them are more fertile, have good aeration, loose. By the duration of flooding, the floodplain meadows are divided into briefly floodplain, medium floodplain and long floodplain. Briefly floodplain meadows are filled with water for up to 15 days. There are almost all zones of Russia in the valleys of small rivers and large rivers with a high level. Average floodplain (moderately floodplain) meadows are filled with water for a period of 15 to 25 days. They meet in all zones and take predominantly floodplain of large rivers. Long floodplain meadows are filled with water for a period of 25 or more days. Distributed in all zones of the CIS and usually occupy the floodplains of large rivers. Most of the long passing pastures are used to a small extent, since they are in the tundra, in the lower reaches of large Siberian rivers - Pechoras, Obi, Yenisei, Lena, etc. The duration of flooding is a very important factor in the formation of grasshopies. There are plants small-resistant, medium-resistant and long-resistant to flooding. They can serve as examples of plants found on floodplain meadows with different flood durations, i.e. Accordingly, briefly flooded, medium floodplain and long floodplain. It should be noted that most valuable herbs rarely withstand long-term flooding and only very few of them (bonfireless, powder creep, cane canary, Bolotnaya, mannick) withstand the flooding more than 40-50 days. The killy part of the floodplain occupies a narrow strip along the acting or old river bed. It is characterized by more powerful sandy nans, with the mane (increase) alternate with stocks (sludge). Here develops the grass mainly from the rhizable cereals, the most demanding moisture and aerations of the soil. The meadow of the rival floodplains are divided into the following main types: High-level meadows, whose healing in the forest zone consists of a coarse spreading (Borshevik, Corrosive and other umbrella) and generally plants with a highly developed root system, and in the steppe zone - from a mixture of steppe plants (Tipper, Sitnik, Tonkonog) with meadow cereals and dispersion; Medium-level meadow (often wet) with varnoped-cereal vegetation, with valuable meadow wide-sized cereals, bean and dissemination; Low-level meadows (often raw) with diverse-cereal vegetation, which includes drinking, bonfireless, meadow, white, whites, beumb, canary, etc. The central part of the floodplain, located directly behind the rival part, in the area is the most extensive, with aligned terrain and sandy-clay sediments. The meadow of central floodplains is also divided into high, medium and low meadows with various hormone. High-level meadows, weakly fused and often lack of moisture in the summer, differ in relatively low grass. It is dominated by Rykhlocustal cereals (Timofeevka, Oatman Red), as well as dissemination with admixture of legumes. Meadows of medium level are best for yields and feed virtues compared to high-level meadows. Here are dominated by cereal and cereal-diverse grasshicles, which include: from cereals - Timofeevka, Flashes, Matlik, Meadow and Red, from bean - alfalfa yellow, clover (red and white), mouse peas; From the dispersion - Vasilek meadow, geranium meadow, podmarniki, buttercups, etc. Low-level meadows of the central floodplain, annually flooded, with excessively moistened soils, especially in the first half of summer, are distinguished by a large, smooth grass, in which the moisture-loving cereals predominate (woodwoman whites, beekmania, canary, etc.), major dispensing, etc. , adjacent to the indigenous shore, on the relief of the lowest part of the floodplain, has clay alluvial deposits. Soils of pruderilation contain a significant supply of nutrients for plants, are characterized by a steady water regime and very often excessive moisture The meadow of the processed floors are located on the humus, sometimes saline soils. Among them are a meadow with abundant moisture, key waters, with vegetation, in which the meadow and red oatman prevail, meadow and ordinary, dunny, Lugovik and others dominate. The floodplain meadows are common in various zones and in each zone they have their own specific features. 3.2 swamps
The swamp is a plot of sushi (or landscape), characterized by excessive moisture, increased acidity and low soil fertility, yielding to the surface of standing or flowing groundwater, but without a constant layer of water on the surface. For the swamp, the deposition on the surface of the soil is incompletely decomposed organic matter that turns into a peat further into peat. The peat layer in the swamps is at least 30 cm, if less, then these are wetlands. The swamps are an integral part of the hydrosphere. The first swamps on Earth were formed at the junction of silica and Devon 350-400 million years ago. More often found in the northern hemisphere, in the forests. In Russia, swamps are common in the north of the European part, in Western Siberia, in Kamchatka. In Belarus and Ukraine, swamps are concentrated in Polesie (the so-called Pin swamps). The swamps occur in two main ways: due to the soil of soil or due to the overvaluation of the reservoirs. Wildarting can occur due to human fault, for example, when erecting dams and dams for ponds and reservoirs. Wildarting sometimes causes Bobrov's activities. An indispensable condition for the formation of the marshes is permanent excess humidity. One of the reasons for excess moisturizes and the formation of the swamp is the features of the relief - the presence of low-rise, where the water of precipitation and groundwater flows; In the flat territories, no drain. All these conditions lead to the formation of peat. The swamps prevent the development of the greenhouse effect. They, beyond to a lesser extent than forests, can be called "light planets". The fact is that the reaction of the formation of organic substances from carbon dioxide and water with photosynthesis in its total equation is the opposite of the oxidation reaction of organic substances during breathing, and therefore, with the decomposition of the organic acids, carbon dioxide associated to this by plants is highlighted back into the atmosphere (mainly due to Breathing bacteria). One of the main processes capable of reduced carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere is the burial of indecompirable organic matter, which happens in the marshes forming the peat deposits transforming then into the stone coal. Therefore, the practice of draining the marshes carried out in the XIX-XX centuries, from the point of view of ecology is destructive. The swamps grow valuable plants (blueberries, cranberries, cloudberry). Peat swamps serve as a source of finds for paleobiology and archeology in them find well-preserved remnants of plants, pollen, seeds, body of ancient people. Previously, swamp was considered a disastrous place for a person. In the swamps died by a cattle flip. Because of the bites of malaria mosquitoes, whole villages died. The vegetation on the swamps is scant: light green moss, small shrubs of the richness, the SC, heather. Trees on the swamps are low. Correct lonely pines, birches yes thickets of alder. People sought to dry out "wicked places" and use the ground under the fields and pastures. Depending on the conditions of water-mineral nutrition, the marshes are divided into: Milnovy (eutrophic) is the type of wetlands with rich water-mineral nutrition, mainly due to groundwater. Located in the floodplains of rivers, on the shores of the lakes, in the locations of the keys, low places. Characteristic vegetation - alder, Birosis, Source, Reed, Rogoz, Green Mossi. In areas with a temperate climate, it is often forest (with birch and alder) or herbal (with seeds, cane, rogo) of the swamp. Herbal swamps in Volga delta, Kuban, Don, Danube, Dnieper are called smooth, combined with ducts, lakes, limans, rods, etc. Microlooms of the primary and secondary delta. In the lower reaches of the rivers of the desert and semi-desert regions (or, syrdarya, amamarya, tarim, etc.) Wetlands and their vegetation are called Tugai; Transitional (mesotrophic) - by the nature of vegetation and moderate mineral nutrition are between lowraight and rollers. From trees ordinary birch, pine, larch. Herbs are the same as on low swamps, but not as abundant; Characteristic shrubs; Mossi meet both sphagnum and green; High (oligotrophic) - are usually located on flat watersheds, it is powered only at the expense of atmospheric precipitation, where very few mineral substances, the water in them sharply acidic, the vegetation is different, the sphagnum moss, a lot of shisters: heather, a row, kassandra, blueberries, cranberries; Puffice is growing, sheikhzeria; There are swamp forms of larch and pine ́, Dwarf birks. Due to the accumulation of peat, the swamps surface can become convex over time. In turn, they are divided into two types: Forest - covered with low pine, heather shrubs, sphagnum; Grocery-mortar - similar to forests, but covered with peat bumps, and the trees are practically not found on them. In general, type of prevailing vegetation Break: forest, shrub, herbal and moss swamps. By type of microrelief: Bug, flat, convex, etc. By type of macroleum: Valley, floodplain, slope, waters and the like. By type climate: subarctic (in the regions of permafrost), moderate (most of the marshes of the Russian Federation, the Baltic States, the CIS and the EU); Tropical and subtropical. Tropical swamps include, for example, Okwango swamps in South Africa and marsh swamps in South America. The climate determines the flora and fauna of the marshes (Figure 7). Figure 7 - swamp 3.3 Solonchaki
Solonchak - the type of soil, characterized by the presence in the upper horizons of anti-soluble salts in quantities that prevent the development of most plants, with the exception of which also do not form closed vegetation cover. They are formed in arid or semi-cride conditions during paying aqueous mode, characteristic of the soil cover of the steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. Common in Central Africa, Asia, Australia, North America; In Russia - in the Caspian lowland, steppe Crimea, Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Salon profile is usually weakly infertable. From the surface, the salt sliced \u200b\u200b(salt) horizon, containing from 1 to 15% of easily soluble salts (according to water exhaust). When drying on the surface of the soil, salt fades and crusts appear. Secondary soloncals formed during the rise of mineralized groundwater as a result of an artificial change in water regime (most often due to improper irrigation), can have any profile on which the salt sliced \u200b\u200bhorizon is superimposed. The reaction of the soil solution is neutral or slightly alkaline, the soil absorbing complex is saturated with bases. The humus content in the upper horizon from zero (sulphide or sofa salts) to 4 and even 12% (dark salt chains), most often 1.5%. It is often found flunk both in the lower horizons and all over the profile. Depending on the chemical system of salinization, the solonchard horizon acquires certain properties. With a large number of hygroscopic soil salts, the soil is always wet to the touch, has a dark color. In this case, they talk about wet Solonchak. The plump solonchak is bursting due to the accumulation of the glauble salt, increasing in the amount of crystallization. With soda saline, the sodium increases the mobility of the organic substance of the soil, which accumulates on the surface in the form of black films, forming a black salt chamber. The taxi-shaped Solonchak has partially washed with slices into the surface, broken by cracks, cortical - salt crust. In the classification, the morphology of the salt horizon is taken into account at different levels - from the type (wet, chubby) to the subtype (taking). Separated subtypes: 1.Typical - the properties of salt marshes are determined most fully; 2. Lugovoy - formed during saline of meadow soils and retain a number of their signs, such as the high content of humus, the presence of fluffing; Groundwater spawn at a depth of 2 m, their degree, and sometimes salinity chemistry, are susceptible to seasonal variability. Soils can be periodically suspended, then humus accumulation occurs in them, after which they are piled again; Swamp - are formed during the salinization of swamp soils, characterized by partial preservation of swamp vegetation, flunk throughout the profile, may have peat horizons; Society - formed at the bottom of Kotlovin periodically drying salon lakes. Flowing throughout the profile, the smell of hydrogen sulfide is observed. The surface is deprived of vegetation, covered with a peel of salt. With a thickness of the crust, more than 10 cm such salt marsh are not as soil formations; Mud-volcanic - formed when the outpouring of salted mud or mineralized water on the surface; Bugger (chocolacks) - hillights up to 2 m highly fatal material of eoliac origin, hiding the bushes of Tamariks or Black Saksaul. Figure 8 - Solonchaki When amelioration of Solonchakov, it is necessary to solve two problems: maintenance of groundwater at the level that does not allow secondary salinization, and the removal of salts already accumulated in the soil. The first is solved by creating a drainage system, the second with the help of various techniques, the expediency of using each of which depends on the properties of the salt chamber (Figure 8). With a weak and shallow salinization, a limited near-surface soil layer is allowed to spare salts, evenly distributing them over arable horizon. It is necessary that the obtained salts concentrations have been below the growth of cultivated plants. If there is a surface salt crust, it must be mechanically removed first. Surface flushing is carried out on the soils of a heavy granulometric composition - the multiple flooding of the site, dissolving the salts in the washing waters and their reset. On weakly-mounted automorphic soils, salts can be broken in the lower horizons, but it is possible to exclude the possibility of secondary salinization, only with through rinsing - washing the salts from the entire soil stratum into the soil flow and removing it with drainage. .4 mangra
Mangra (or mangrove) - evergreen deciduous forests, widespread in the tidal and tump strip of sea coasts in tropical and equatorial latitudes, as well as in zones with a temperate climate, where warm currents are favorable. They occupy a strip between the lowest water level during the low tide and the highest during the tide. These are trees or shrubs growing in mangroves, or mangrove swamps. Mangra plants live in a sedimentary coastal environment, where in places protected from the energy of the waves, fine-disperse sediments accumulate, often with a high content of organics. Mangra has an exceptional ability to exist and develop in a salt mine on soils, expedient access of oxygen. Mangri plants - a group of various plants that have adapted to habitat in liters, having developed a set of physiological adaptations to solve the problems of poor oxygen, salting and frequent flooding with tides. Each type has its own opportunities and ways to solve these problems; This may cause the main reason why on some coasts types of mangrove vegetation show a clear zoning due to differences in the range of environmental conditions in the tidal zone. By virtue of this, the species composition, at any point within the tidal-taming zone, is partially determined by the stability of certain types of such physical conditions as the tidal flooding and the saltness of the water, although other factors such as the extermination of their seedlings can also affect it. Effective, roots of plant-mangroves create a habitat for oysters and contribute to the slowdown in the flow of water, thereby increasing the deposition of precipitation in the zones where it is already happening. Typically, finely dispersed, the poor deposit oxygen under the mangers play the role of drives for a wide variety of heavy metals (traces of metals), which are trampled from seawater by colloid particles in sediments. In those areas of the world, where Mangars were destroyed during the development of the territory, the integrity of these sedimentary rocks generates the problem of pollution with heavy metal water and local flora and fauna. It is often argued that Mangra represent a significant value in the coastal zone, acting in the role of buffer against erosion, storms and tsunami. Although there is a certain decrease in the height of waves and their energy as the sea water passes through the mangroves, it is necessary to recognize that mangrove trees usually grow in those zones of the coastline, where the norm is the low energy of the waves. Therefore, their ability to restrain the powerful onset of storms and tsunami is limited. Most likely, their long-term impact on erosion paces is also limited. Many river ducts, windy passing through the mangroves, actively blur the mangroves on the outside of all bends of the river, just as new mangroves appear on the inside of the same bends where precipitation occurs. Also, they form the habitat of wild animals, including a number of fishing species and crustaceans, at the same time, at least, in some cases, the export of carbon monitored carbon is important in the coastal food network. Mangrove thickets are the type of mangroves habitat. It is exclusively subtropics and tropics, where there are tides and lowers, and therefore - soil or sedimentation, oversaturated with water and salt solution or water variable saline. The distribution areas of mangrove include estustaries of rivers and sections of sea coasts. In the habitat of Mangrove there are many different types of plants, but the "true" mangram is about 54 species of 20 genera belonging to 16 families. The evolutionary convergence led to the fact that many species of these plants found similar ways to solve the problems of changing the saltness of water, the level of tide (flooding), anaerobic soils and strong sunlight, which is a consequence of finding in the tropics. Due to the lack of fresh water in saline soils of the littoral zone, Mangra have developed ways to limit moisture loss through the leaves. They can limit the opening of the dust (small pores on the surface of the leaves, through which the exchange of carbon dioxide and water vapor during photosynthesis), and are also able to change the orientation of their leaves. Turning the leaves in such a way as to avoid tight rays of the midday sun, Mangri reduce evaporation from the surface of the sheet. The biggest problem for mangroves is the absorption of nutrients. Since the soil under the mangars is always saturated with water, there is little free oxygen in it. With such low oxygen levels, anaerobic bacteria release gas nitrogen gas, soluble iron, inorganic phosphates, sulfides and methane, which contribute to a particularly sharp smell of mangroves and make the soil unfavorable for the development of most plants. Since the soil is poor nutrients, Mangra adapted to it by changing their roots. The system of stilt roots allows mangram to obtain gaseous substances directly from the atmosphere, and various other nutrients, such as iron from the soil. Quite often they spare gaseous substances directly in roots so that they can be recycled, even when the roots are under water during the tide. Figure 9 - Mangra In the locations of the constant immersion of the roots of Mangra, there can be a refuge of a huge variety of organisms, including algae, osonogy, oysters, sponges and mshanki, which everyone needs a solid substrate to which they are attached when filtering food (Figure 9). Mangra is a wonderful buffer between the stormy ocean and a vulnerable shore, especially during hurricanes who bring powerful storms to the shores. The powerful root mangrove system is quite effective when repaying the energy of the waves. The same root system also prevents the blurring of the shores. As tidal waters pass through the root system, they slow down so much that sedimentation of sedimental sediments occurs when the rifle is raised, and the return flow slows down at a side, preventing new weighing of smaller particles. As a result, Mangra is capable of forming their own environment. .5 marchi.
Machi - type of landscape, lowlands of the sea coast, flooded only during the highest (sisigine) tides or seawalk (Figure 10). Machi is the accumulative form of relief, on the coast are located above watts, from the sea are often limited to the dune strip. Comprehensive or sandy-or-or-ortually embossed, on which rich humus and microorganisms are formed. In the natural state of Machi, they are usually occupied by high-performance meadows, predominantly halofithic, swamped places. Widely used in agriculture. Dried plots of marches - Polders. Figure 10 - Machi. Marsh are usually elongated along the marine coasts. Typical for the shores of the North Sea (Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, United Kingdom, Denmark), in France (Biscay Biscay), Poland (Gdansk bays), Lithuania, on the Atlantic coast of the United States (in Florida, Missouri, Texas, Louisiana, Georgia, etc. states). In Russia, the analogues of the marches are lides, common coasts of the seas of the Northern Ice Ocean (Arkhangelsk region, Komi, Republic of Karelia, Murmansk region, Nenets JSC, Delta Lena, Kolyma, Khatanga, Yana and Indigirki in Yakutia, Krasnoyarsk Territory). Conclusion
Biom is a category Khorological. The aggregate of similar ecosystems in their structure occupy a completely defined space. Biom looks like an area of \u200b\u200bsimilar ecosystems. A certain similarity of the composition of life forms is indicated by the similarity of the complex of the conditions of the existence of organisms. There is a certain structure of biomes as khorological units of the biosphere. There are also several biomic classifications that include from 10 to 32 types. The distribution of biomes occurs on the principle of latitudinal<#"justify">In my course work, I looked at the basics of land sushi, such as rain tropical forests, deserts, intrazonal biomes. Their distribution, vegetable and animal world, as well as adaptation and main environmental problems. For example, the biomes of rain tropical forests are one of the most ancient and rich on Earth. It turned out that the desert is a natural zone characterized by a flat surface, affection or absence of flora and a specific fauna. Split sand, stony, clay, salt marsh desert. Also, intrazonal biocenoses are not peculiar to one, but a few, and even all zones of the globe (swamps, meadows, mangrove thickets and so on). Examples of intrazonal communities can serve as the communities of horse marshes and pinewhacks on sandy soils in the forest area, salt marshes and solonts in steppe and desert zones, meadow communities. All the types of biomes are historically stable above, but on most of them, anthropogenic effects are brighter, and more often is negative. Reducing the area of \u200b\u200bland with intact natural communities, the instability of these communities under the action of anthropogenic pressure, the imbalance of anthropogenically created biogeocenoses - all this additionally emphasizes the significance of both the environmental and environmental activity of the person in our day. List of sources used
1. Seconds, p.p. Biogeography continents / P.P. Second, N.N. Drozdov. - M.: Higher. School, 1978. - 345 p. Cope, R. Zoning Sushi / R. Kupu. - M.: Mahar, 2009. - 267 p. Petrov, KM General ecology / K.M. Petrov. - SPb.: Beck, 1997. - 558 p. Riklefs, R. Basics of general ecology / R. Riklefs. - M.: Mir, 1979. - 467 p. Voronov, A.G. Biogeography with the basics of ecology / A.G. Voronov, N.N. Drozdov. - M.: MSU, 1999. - 392 p. Voronov, A.G. Biogeography with the basics of ecology / A.G. Voronov, N.N. Drozdov. - M.: MSU, 1999. - 245 p. Drozdov, N.N. Biogeography of the world / N.N. Drozdov. - M.: Vlados-Press, 1985. - 304 p. Pechenyuk, E.V. The current state of the ecosystems of the marshes [Text] / E.V. Pechenyuk. - M.: II International Symposium, 2000. - 345 p. Chernova, N.I. General ecology / N.I. Chernova, A. M. Wedov. - M.: Drop, 2004. - 245 p. Drozdov, N.N. Sushi ecosystems / N.N. Drozdov. - M.: ABF, 1997. - 340 p. Takhtajyan, A.L. Floristic regions of the Earth / A.L. Takhtajian. - L.: Science, 1978. - 248 p. Yandex. Martinki - Search for pictures on the Internet [Electronic resource]
Biome- It is a natural zone or area with certain climates. Conditions and appropriate set of dominant (in forest biomes-trees, in tundra-perennial herbs) species of plants and animals constituting geographical unity. The term "biome" is used for large combinations of ecosystems. The decisive factor in the isolation of biomes is the peculiarity of the vegetation of a region. Moving from the north to the equator, you can select the 9 main types of land biomes.
1) Tundra (It starts where the forests end, and stretches to the north to eternal ice. The peculiarity of this biome is a small annual amount of precipitation, low temperatures, a short season of vegetation, scarce vegetation, deer, hare-beaches, a little predators (luxury).
2) Taiga (biome of northern coniferous forests) - spruce, fir, pine, birch, aspen; moose, deer; Many predators (wolves, lynks, wolverines). The predator development cycle depends on the development cycle of the victim.
3) Fall Foods Moderate Zone(Moisture a lot, hot summer is replaced by a cold winter; oak, beech, maple; boar, wolf, bear, woodpecker, thrush, fertile soils (unpacked) -lest vegetation was formed here under the influence of man.
4) steppes moderate zone (Sea of \u200b\u200bgrassy vegetation; little precipitation for the existence of plants; the soil of the steppes is rich in humus (organic. substance), because by the end of summer the grass dies and quickly decompose; cows, horses, sheep).
5) Mediterranean type vegetation (Soft rainy winter, arid summer; trees and shrubs from the genus Eucalyptus; fires play an important role (fires conducive to the growth of herbs and shrubs, create a natural barrier from the invasion of desert vegetation).
6) Desert (Desert landscape - stones, sand with rare vegetation, stones, rocks; cactuses, mochains; desert animals survive, singing plant splashing plants; tube, camel).
7) Tropical Savanns and Lugopastrate Earth (two seasons dry and wet), few trees, high grass with rare trees from labor Baobab, tree-like milk; Feature of the development of grass-pollination by the wind, vegetative. Reproduction, renewal of growth despite damage; Herd, flocks - zebras, giraffes, elephants, ostriches).
8) tropical or prickly palpal (Rare-resistant foliage. Forests, spiny shrubs; baobabs; uneven distribution of precipitation.
9) Tropical Forests (Variety of trees and animals (all the time heat and wet); Opossums, rhino birds, paradise birds, lemurs; the vast majority of the world of animal insects.
Createness of substances in the biosphere.
Biosphere - The complex outer shell of the Earth, which contains the entire totality of living organisms and the part of the substance of the planet, which is in the process of continuous exchange with these organisms. Available two main cyphans substances: large - geological and small - biogeochemical. Thus, a large cycle is due to the interaction of solar (exogenous) energy from the deep (endogenous) energy of the Earth. It redesters substances between the biosphere and deeper horizons of our planet. Large cycle There is also a circulation of water between the hydrosphere, an atmosphere and a lithosphere, which moves the energy of the Sun.
Courtyard of water in the biosphere
Plants use water hydrogen with photosynthesis in the construction of organic compounds, highlighting molecular oxygen. In the processes of respiration of all living beings, the water is formed again during the oxidation of organic compounds. In the history of life, all the free water of the hydrosphere has repeatedly passed the cycles of decomposition and neoplasm in the living substance of the planet. About 500,000 km 3 of water are involved in the water cycle on Earth.
Oxygen circulation in the biosphere
With its unique atmosphere with a high content of free oxygen, the Earth is obliged to the photosynthesis process. The formation of ozone in high atmospheric layers is closely connected with the oxygen circulation. Oxygen is released from water molecules and is essentially by the by-product of photosynthetic activity of plants. Abiotic, oxygen occurs in the upper layers of the atmosphere due to photodissociation of water vapor, but this source is only thousands of percentage of percent from the photosynthesis supplied.
The separated oxygen is intensively spent on the respiratory processes of all aerobic organisms and the oxidation of a variety of mineral compounds. These processes occur in the atmosphere, soil, water, yelh and rocks. It has been shown that a significant part of oxygen associated with sedimentary rocks has a photosynthetic origin. The exchange fund O, the atmosphere is no more than 5% of the total photosynthesis products. Many anaerobic bacteria also oxidize organic substances in an anaerobic breathing process using sulfates or nitrates for this.
Carbon cycle.
Carbon is a mandatory chemical element of organic substances of all classes. A huge role in carbon cycle belongs to green plants. In the process of photosynthesis, the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere is assimilated by terrestrial and aquatic plants, as well as cyan-nobacteria and turns into carbohydrates. In the process of breathing all living organisms, the return process takes place: carbon of organic compounds turns into carbon dioxide. As a result, many tens of billions of tons of carbon are involved annually in the cycle. Thus, two fundamental biological process -Photosynthesis and breathing are caused by carbon circulation in the biosphere.
Cycle carbon cycle is not completely closed. Carbon can leave it for a fairly long term in the form of deposits of coal, limestone, peat, sapropel, humus, etc.
A person violates the adjusted carbon cycle in the course of intensive economic activity.
Nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen stock (N 2) is huge in the atmosphere (78% of its volume). In this case, the plants absorb free nitrogen can not, but only in the bound form, mainly in the form of NN 4 + or NO 3 -. Free nitrogen from the atmosphere is associated with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and translate it into plants affordable form plants. In nitrogen plants, it is fixed in the organic matter (in proteins, nucleic acids, etc.) and is transmitted by supply chains. After moving the living organisms, the relyuznuts mineralize organic matter and turn them into ammonium compounds, nitrates, nitrites, as well as in free nitrogen, which is returned to the atmosphere.
Crooked phosphorus.
The bulk of phosphorus is contained in rocks formed in past geological era. In the biogeochemical circulation phosphorus turns on as a result of weathering processes of rocks. In terrestrial plant ecosystems, phosphorus from the soil is extracted (mainly in the form of PO 4 3-) and include it into the composition of organic compounds (proteins, nucleic acids, phospholipids, etc.) or left in inorganic form. Next, phosphorus is transmitted by power circuits. After moving the living organisms and with their sections, phosphorus returns to the soil.
Crooked sulfur.
The main reserve frame of the sulfur is in sediments and soil, but unlike phosphorus there is a reserve fund and in the atmosphere. The main role in the involvement of sulfur in the biogeochemical circulation belongs to microorganisms. Some of them reducing agents, others - oxidizing agents.
In terrestrial ecosystems, sulfur enters the plants from the soil mainly in the form of sulfates. In living organisms, sulfur is contained in proteins, in the form of ions, etc. After the death of living organisms, part of the sulfur is restored in the soil by microorganisms to H 2 S, the other part is oxidized to sulfates and is again included in the cycle. The resulting hydrogen sulfide is destroyed into the atmosphere, it is oxidized and returns to the soil with precipitation.
13. The main stages of the biosphere evolution.
Learning the main stages of the evolution of the living paleontology - Science of fossil organisms. During the period from 5 billion years ago, the following geological era is known to date: Qatarhey, Archey, Proterezhoy, Paleozoa, Mesoza and Cenozoa.
Era Archea It begins with the fact that the first living cells appear. The first living cells were called prokaryotes, that is, cells that do not have limited membrane nuclei. These were the simplest organisms capable of rapid reproduction. They lived without oxygen and could not synthesize the organic substance from the inorganic. Easily adapted to the environment and eat and eat. Next occurs, according to scientists, the exhaustion of nutrient for these cells of the medium and they change and begin to exist due to solar energy and produce the substances themselves necessary for their lives themselves. This process was called "Photosynthesis". It is in the evolution of the biosphere by the main factor. From this point on, the formation of the atmosphere of the Earth begins, and oxygen becomes the main condition for the existence of living organisms. The ozone layer is gradually formed, and the oxygen content in the air reaches the usual 21%. So there is an evolution of approximately 2 billion years.
And in ProterozoaThat is, 1.8 billion years ago, live organisms with cells appear, in which the core is clearly expressed. Another 800 million years, these organisms called eukaryotes were divided into plant and animal cells. Vegetable continued the function of photosynthesis, and the animals began to "learn" to move.
900 million years ago it was necessary to start the era of sexual reproduction. This leads to a species diversity and better adaptability to environmental conditions. The evolutionary process is accelerating.
About 100 million years old and, according to scientists, the first multicellular organisms appear. I wonder how the unicellites differed before? In multicellular organisms, organs and tissues appear.
Era Paleozoa comes And her first stage - Cambr. In the Cambrian period, almost all animals arise, including existing now. It is: mollusks, wraps, igblerouse, sponges, archeociants, plehenodes and trilobites.
500 million years ago, large carnivorous and small vertebrate appear. Another 90 million years old, they begin to settle land. Living organisms capable of exist on land and in water called two borders. Of them there were amphibians and land. These are ancient reptiles similar to modern lizards. The first insects appear. Another 110 million years passes, and insects learned to fly. In the era of Paleozoa, especially during the period of Devon and Carbon, the level of the plant world significantly exceeded the existing one. The forests were overgrown from the tree-shaped plane, giant's horsetails and various ferns.
Fauna goes along the path of improving seeds. The owners of sushi this period - reptiles that continue to leave the water. Floating, flying and moving on land appear. They are carnivore and herbivores.
Mesoza. 230 million years ago. Evolution continues. The plants appear root, stem, leaves. A system that provides a plant with water and nutrients is formed. Methods of breeding are changed. Disputes and seeds become the most suitable for these purposes on land. The deposits of non-recycled organic waste begins. Together with the deposits of stone coal, additional oxygen begins to release.
195 million years ago - first birds and mammals. This is: Pteranodon, Plesiosaur, Mesozavr, Bronnozavr, Triceratops and others.
Cenosis. 67 million years ago. The world of mammals, birds, insects and plants are huge. In the previous period, significant cooling occurred, which made some changes in the process of reproduction of plants. The advantages were covered with coated bridge.
8 million years ago - the formation period of modern creatures and primates.
Although the process of evolution was almost 4 billion years, the pediatric living organisms exist today. These are viruses and phages. That is, some police evolved into a person, while others remained, as they were.
Today, Fauna has about 1.2 million species, and Flora is about 0.5 million.
By definition of ODUMA, BIOM is a large regional or subcontinental ecosystem, which is characterized by any basic type of vegetation or other characteristic feature of the landscape, for example, the biome of the hardwood of the moderate belt.
Biome - It is a natural zone or area with certain climatic conditions and a corresponding set of dominant plant and animal species (living population) that make up geographical unity. To distinguish between terrestrial biomes, except for physico-geographical conditions of the medium, combine the vital forms of plants, their components. For example, in forest biomes, the dominant role belongs to trees, in the tundra - perennial herbs, in the desert - annual herbs, xerophytes and succulents.
Natural factors operating for many years have led to the formation of various biogeographic areas on our planet. Scientists allocate six such regions: non-polarity, Palearctic, Eastern, neopropic, Ethiopian and Australian regions. Some of them are sometimes seized by several continents and characterized by a certain complex of biomes (from Greek. BIOS - life and lat. OTA - a set) that make your specific contribution to the Land Biosphere.
Distinguish a number of major bioms of sushi; The names of most of them are determined by the type of vegetation, such as coniferous or deciduous forests, desert, tropical forest, etc. However, ultimately the factor determining the type of bioma is climate, since the nature of the medium is determined mainly by the temperature, the amount of precipitation, as well as the direction and strength of the winds. For example, both in the northern and southern hemisphere in areas lying in the equatorial belt, the winds are mainly blowing towards the equator. They carry moisture with them, which falls out of rich rains in the tropical belt; As a result, rainforests arise. However, to the north and south of the tropics, the same winds are the cause of the formation of savannas and deserts. Even further from the equator, alternating winds from subtropical and polar zones create a complex sequence of precipitation in different areas, which leads to the formation of steppes and forests of moderate belt. The proximity to the ocean affects the distribution of precipitation, and consequently, on the distribution of vegetation types.
The same biomes are found throughout the globe, on different continents, in various parts of the world. However, forests, steppes, etc. Have characteristic features in various fields of the planet. Animals that have adapted to existence in these biomes are different. Nearctic area
The non-Arctic region includes the territory of all of North America, Newfoundland and Greenland. In the north of snow and ice are replaced by tundra, and then a wide belt of coniferous forests. South follows the array of forests of moderate belt in the east, prairie in the central part and mixing the mountains, deserts and coniferous forests - in the West. The main biomes are as follows.
Tundra.Low vegetation: mosses, lichens, and seed shrubs. Major animals: Deer, Musky Bull, Leming, Polar Hare, Spring, Wolf, White Polar Bear, White Owl.
Coniferous forests. Basically dense forests from fir, spruce and other coniferous trees. Major animals: Elk, deer, dike, voles, earthmock, wolverine, lynx, woodpeckers, American troops.
Steppe.Various combination of herbal and shrub vegetation. Major animals: Bizon, Antelope, Wild Rabbit, American Badger, Fox, Coyote, Steppe Tetra, a large number of rattle snakes.
Lady forests. Wide forests having a dense crown: oak, beech, maple; Many colors. Major animals: Mole, Souslik, black squirrel, raccoon rod, opossum, chipmunk, red American fox, black bear, singing birds.
Tighted forests.Thickets of juniper and shrubs with leathery leaves. Representatives of the fauna fall from neighboring biomes.
Desert. Cacti, tree yukka, wormwood and shrubs are widespread from plants. Major animals: Wild rabbit, Suslik, cactus mouse, pocket mouse, kangarovy rat and others.
Palearctic region
The Palearctic area includes all Eurasia from the British Isles in the West to Bering Strait in East and India and Indochina in the south. Also, as in Nearctic, the zones of eternal ice, tundra and coniferous forests stretch along the entire Palearctic. Areas with temperate climates in China and Japan, as well as in Europe, are covered with deciduous forests, but the species composition of Asian forests is richer. The central areas of Asia are arid and flanks. Animals of the North Palearctic are closely related to the Nearctic, and in the south there are forms characteristic of the Eastern region.
Tundra. In Tundra and Flora and Fauna, they do not differ significantly from the inhabitants of this zone in the nonarctic area.
Coniferous forests. Wood rocks that make up these forests, pine, fir, spruce - belong to the same kinds as the corresponding Nearctic trees, but are different types of them. The same applies to animals - Ryne, Wolverine, Elk. The grass is about the same as in Nearctic. Typical animals: saiga and antelope, wild donkeys, horse and camel, as well as horse, hamster, tushkanchik, cunits, jackal.
Lady forests. Basically beech, Maple, Oak, Grab, Lipa, but others, rather than in Nearctic, species. Fauna of deciduous forests is also very reminiscent of nonarctic.
The Mediterranean area is very similar to the corresponding nonarctic biome, in which animals are inhabited from various neighboring communities.
Desert. Scattered bushes of wormwood, palpid grass, thickets of camel spines, Saksaul and Tamarisk. The animal world is represented by several types of herbivores, as well as hedgehogs, tuccanes, sands, shed rat and hamsters. From birds - eagles, falcons, owls.
Eastern area
Includes India and Indochina, as well as the islands of Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Taiwan and the Philippines. All islands are completely covered with lush tropical forests, while a significant proportion of the mainland area is occupied by mountains with a variety of floral cover, in Western India, moving in a dry steppe. Of all the tropical areas. Eastern region is the most poor endemic (from Greek. ENDEMOS - local), i.e. Particularly found in this area, forms, although it is the center of origin and vertebrate settlement.
A tropical forest.As in other tropical forests, hundreds of plant species that form impassable thickets are growing here in abundance. Some typical plants: Liana, bamboo, Manila cannabis and tick, banyan and ebony. Among the animals are widely represented primates - gibbons, orangutang, minor monkeys - Tupaya, Luggest, Laurie. Indian elephant, tapir, two kinds of rhinos, dike, tiger, bear-lubach and bamboo bear, deer and antelopes are also characteristic. Many pheasants, poisonous snakes and various lizards, pheasants.
Non-pharmacy
The region includes South and Central America, the tropical part of Mexico and the island of the Caribbean archipelago. In Continental South America, huge spaces are covered with tropical forests and steppes (pamp), but in some parts of the continent, as well as in Central America, there are relatively small territories, which are one of the most complex and peculiar plant complexes of the world. Since this area has long been completely isolated, its fauna, especially rodent, is sharply different from animals of other areas.
A tropical forest. Half of the continent is covered with a rainforest, unusually rich lichens, mshami, orchids, bromelia. A cabbage palm tree, a tree fern, tropical almonds, bamboo, liana are characterized from other plants. Many small animals.
Desert. Vegetation consists mainly of herbs and rare shrubs, dive palms grow in oases. In the south there are arrangements and plants with tuber roots. Animals are common gazelle, dike, tushkanchik, eagle, lizards.
Steppe (PAMPA). Vegetable cover is a mixture of various herbs. Animal World - Nanda, Pampas Deer, Guinea Pig, Tuko-Tuco, skunk.
Australian Oblast
The Australian region includes Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, New Zealand and Pacific Islands. In Australia, the central part of the mainland is represented by the desert, bounded steppes and savannas with rare areas of the rainforest. The islands are different - from tropical New Guinea to relatively cold New Zealand. The coils that have once connected separate sections of the sushi have long disappeared, and many endemic plants and animals appeared on isolated islands. A niche, in all parts of the world, occupied by placental mammals, here are held hereby, and partly harshly birds (kiwi). Basic biomes:
Desert. The main vegetation is local forms of swan, acacia and various eucalyptus. From animals - Sumupy Mole, Kangarovoy Mouse, Tushkchikchchichki Rats, Long-tailed Parrots.
Savannah. In the main steppe and thickets of various shrubs, eucalyptus, including red eucalyptus and other specific Australian plants. Animals are most characteristic of the giant red kangaroo and emu; Bandicates, short rabbit, womb, cacata and other parrots are also found.
A tropical forest It represents either a typical forest of hot and humid climate with a solid canopy, numerous curly plants and lianami, or a rare eucalyptus forest. In the forests dwell the woody kangaroo, koala, opossum, a sore wolf, the Tasmanian Devil, the Larochvost.
Thus, a very brief overview of the biogeographic areas of the globe shows that on different continents of the community related to the same types (for example, wet tropical forests or steppes, a deciduous forest or tundra) are inhabited by plants and animals belonging to different systematic groups . However, these animals and plants are characterized by the similar features of the organization caused by close environmental habitat conditions. Each biome has dominant, i.e. Prevailing groups, both among the types of plant communities and between the animal population. Knowledge of genetic kinship of forms inherent in such or other community in different regions of our planet, allows you to trace not only the development of fauna and flora, but also the origin of bioma in general
In this article, I will tell you about all the available biomes in Minecraft. Well, what is a biome? Biomas are the natural climatic zones on which the entire map is divided into Minecraft. Each biome is unique, and is separate landscape zones with different relief.
So let's go in order ...
Very large-scale, open biome, consisting entirely of water. At the bottom of the ocean, mountains and plains often meet, the bottom itself consists of clay and gravel. The ocean depth is capable of reaching 30 blocks, and length to several thousand blocks. Sometimes in the ocean, small or large islands can be generated.
Comparatively smooth biome with buggy terrain and a large number of high herbs. Trees can also be generated, but quite infrequent. A huge number of ravines and ponds, in addition, huge gorges can appear on the surface. The only one of the three biomes, in what villages are generated. Also, the horses can be saved.
This biome consists only of cacti, sand (sandstone), dry bushes. Sometimes there are sand pads, temples and characteristic sandy villages. Rarely because of the bugs is allowed to meet cacti up to 7 blocks in the embroidery.
Mountain Biom, which came out at all so long ago. Trees are generated, but infrequently. Here, more than other biomes are allowed to meet similar magnificent structures like cliffs, arches, sills, waterfalls, soaring islands. Here the highest possibility of generating underground caves. Sometimes there are not very large lakes at sea level. Only in this biome is allowed to communicate the emerald ore.
Biom with a huge number of oaks and / or birches, and in addition with a large number of high herbs.
Tundra with a considerable number of coniferous trees and dark-blue grass. Very often taiga is generated by a bug art. Subsequently, the update 1.7.2 there are 2 types of taiga: taiga without snow and the most rare cold taiga, in which the fire falls and water flows.
Plain biome with a large number of small lakes. Trees can grow in lakes, a huge number of fungi is growing under them (mostly coffee), and Liana grow on the foliage. In addition, it is allowed to find the reed. Water is a grayish tone, loops float on her surface. Before the water can be a considerable number of clay. The witch's hut is also generated.
The only biome of the lower world. In heights 1 and 128 are limited to the indigenous rock. The Ocean of Lava is on the embroidery 31. In addition, the lava flows faster and farther than in an ordinary world. Only here the councils, lava cubes, capers, skeletons and zombie-piglades will be saved. In this biome, hellish fortresses are generated.
The only biome edge. It assumes a low limited area from the edge of the region in the middle of the void with the pillars from Obsidian. Only travel travelers, scales of the edge and the only dragon edge will be saved here. Extremely interesting biome, the meaning of which is to kill the dragon.
The impected empty region is almost without trees, the surface of the river and lakes in this biome is to blame.
Mushroom Island
Biom, which is most often generated on the Peninsula in the Ocean. Earth in it is covered by mycelium. A very unique biome, in which the mushroom cow will dwell.
Biom, in which rain trees grow and their gigantic options are baobabs. In their very few foliage and Lian, unlike other biomes, fern grows in this biome. Biome hilly, there are mountains. In addition, this biome is allowed to find the temple. In tropical thickets, aggressive mobs are saved so much, as many foliage here, so the spun does not care.
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