Air defense missile systems of the USSR and Russian navies. Anti-aircraft missile system

DIVISIONAL AUTONOMOUS SELF-PROPELLED ANTI-AIR MISSILE SYSTEM "OSA" The development of the autonomous self-propelled military anti-aircraft missile system "Osa" (9K33) 1* began in accordance with the Resolution of the USSR Council of Ministers of October 27, 1960. The complex was intended to destroy targets

Self-propelled anti-aircraft missile system "KUB" Unlike the "Krug" air defense system, the "Kub" complex was initially created specifically to destroy mainly low-flying targets, that is, to solve problems most typical when countering front-line aviation. Wherein

The divisional autonomous self-propelled anti-aircraft missile system "OSA Anti-aircraft missile system "Cube" was intended to provide cover from air strikes primarily for tank divisions of the Ground Forces. To solve a similar problem in relation to more

Regimental self-propelled anti-aircraft missile system "Strela-1" With the advent of the late 1950s. information on the development in the United States of a man-portable air defense system with a missile equipped with a passive thermal homing head, which later received the name "Red Eye", Soviet military

Regimental self-propelled anti-aircraft missile system "Strela-10" With the creation of the "Strela-1" air defense system, the possibility of forming missile and artillery batteries in regimental anti-aircraft divisions, consisting of a platoon with four missile systems and a platoon of four "Shiloks", opened up, which

Anti-aircraft missile system M-22 "Hurricane" Rostislav Angelsky, Vladimir Korovin In the late 1960s. The basis of the air defense of the domestic fleet was two ship-based air defense systems - the M-1 "Volna" and the M-11 "Storm" that replaced it (for the M-1 and M-11 complexes, see "TiV" No. 11,12/2013. ). Both

Anti-aircraft missile weapons refer to surface-to-air missile weapons and are designed to destroy enemy air attack weapons using anti-aircraft guided missiles (SAMs). It is represented by various systems.

An anti-aircraft missile system (anti-aircraft missile system) is a combination of an anti-aircraft missile system (SAM) and the means that ensure its use.

An anti-aircraft missile system is a set of functionally related combat and technical means designed to destroy air targets with anti-aircraft guided missiles.

The air defense system includes means of detection, identification and target designation, flight control means for missile defense systems, one or more launchers (PU) with missile defense systems, technical means and electrical power supplies.

The technical basis of the air defense system is the missile defense control system. Depending on the adopted control system, there are complexes for telecontrol of missiles, homing missiles, and combined control of missiles. Each air defense system has certain combat properties, features, the combination of which can serve as classification criteria that allow it to be classified as a specific type.

The combat properties of air defense systems include all-weather capability, noise immunity, mobility, versatility, reliability, degree of automation of combat work processes, etc.

All-weather capability - the ability of an air defense system to destroy air targets in any weather conditions. There are all-weather and non-all-weather air defense systems. The latter ensure the destruction of targets under certain weather conditions and time of day.

Noise immunity is a property that allows an air defense system to destroy air targets in conditions of interference created by the enemy to suppress electronic (optical) means.

Mobility is a property that manifests itself in transportability and the time of transition from a traveling position to a combat position and from a combat position to a traveling position. A relative indicator of mobility can be the total time required to change the starting position under given conditions. Part of mobility is maneuverability. The most mobile complex is considered to be one that is more transportable and requires less time to maneuver. Mobile systems can be self-propelled, towed and portable. Non-mobile air defense systems are called stationary.

Versatility is a property that characterizes the technical capabilities of an air defense system to destroy air targets over a wide range of ranges and altitudes.

Reliability is the ability to function normally under given operating conditions.

Based on the degree of automation, anti-aircraft missile systems are classified into automatic, semi-automatic and non-automatic. In automatic air defense systems, all operations to detect, track targets and guide missiles are performed automatically without human intervention. In semi-automatic and non-automatic air defense systems, a person takes part in solving a number of tasks.

Anti-aircraft missile systems are distinguished by the number of target and missile channels. Complexes that provide simultaneous tracking and firing of one target are called single-channel, and those of several targets are called multi-channel.

Anti-aircraft missile system (SAM) - a set of functionally related combat and technical means that provide solutions to problems in combating enemy aerospace attack means.

In general, the air defense system includes:

• means of transporting anti-aircraft guided missiles (SAM) and loading the launcher with them;
• missile launcher;
• anti-aircraft guided missiles;
• enemy air reconnaissance equipment;
• ground interrogator of the system for determining the state ownership of an air target;
• missile control means (may be on the missile - during homing);
• means of automatic tracking of an air target (can be located on a missile);
• means of automatic missile tracking (homing missiles are not required);
• means of functional control of equipment;

Classification

By theater of war:

• ship
• land

Land air defense systems by mobility:

• stationary
• sedentary
• mobile

By way of movement:

• portable
• towed
• self-propelled

By range

• short range
• short range
• medium range
• long range
• ultra-long range (represented by a single sample CIM-10 Bomarc)

By the method of guidance (see methods and methods of guidance)

• with radio command control of a missile of the 1st or 2nd type
• with radio-guided missiles
• homing missile

By automation method

• automatic
• semi-automatic
• non-automatic

By subordination:

• regimental
• divisional
• army
• district

Ways and methods of targeting missiles

Pointing methods

1. Telecontrol of the first kind
2. Telecontrol of the second kind
   • The target tracking station is located on board the missile defense system and the coordinates of the target relative to the missile are transmitted to the ground
   • A flying missile is accompanied by a missile sighting station
   • The required maneuver is calculated by a ground-based computing device
   • Control commands are transmitted to the rocket, which are converted by the autopilot into control signals to the rudders
3. Tele-beam guidance
   • The target tracking station is on the ground
   • A ground-based missile guidance station creates an electromagnetic field in space with an equal-signal direction corresponding to the direction towards the target.
   • The counting and solving device is located on board the missile defense system and generates commands to the autopilot, ensuring the missile flies along the same-signal direction.
4. Homing
   • The target tracking station is located on board the missile defense system
   • The counting and solving device is located on board the missile defense system and generates commands to the autopilot, ensuring the proximity of the missile defense system to the target

Types of homing:

• active - the missile defense system uses an active target location method: it emits probing pulses;
• semi-active - the target is illuminated by a ground-based illumination radar, and the missile defense system receives an echo signal;
• passive - the missile defense system locates the target by its own radiation (thermal trace, operating on-board radar, etc.) or contrast against the sky (optical, thermal, etc.).

Guidance methods

1. Two-point methods - guidance is carried out based on information about the target (coordinates, speed and acceleration) in a related coordinate system (missile coordinate system). They are used for type 2 telecontrol and homing.

• Proportional approach method - the angular velocity of rotation of the rocket's velocity vector is proportional to the angular velocity of rotation

lines of sight (missile-target lines): d ψ d t = k d χ d t (\displaystyle (\frac (d\psi )(dt))=k(\frac (d\chi )(dt))),

Where dψ/dt is the angular velocity of the rocket velocity vector; ψ - rocket path angle; dχ/dt - angular velocity of rotation of the line of sight; χ - azimuth of the line of sight; k - proportionality coefficient.

The proportional approach method is a general homing method, the rest are its special cases, which are determined by the value of the proportionality coefficient k:

K = 1 - chase method; k = ∞ - parallel approach method;

• Chase method ru en - the rocket velocity vector is always directed towards the target;
• Direct guidance method - the axis of the missile is directed towards the target (close to the pursuit method with an accuracy of the attack angle α and the slip angle β, by which the missile velocity vector is rotated relative to its axis).
• Parallel rendezvous method - the line of sight on the guidance trajectory remains parallel to itself, and when the target flies in a straight line, the missile also flies in a straight line.

2. Three-point methods - guidance is carried out on the basis of information about the target (coordinates, velocities and accelerations) and about the missile being aimed at the target (coordinates, velocities and accelerations) in the launch coordinate system, most often associated with a ground control point. They are used for telecontrol of the 1st type and tele-guidance.

• Three-point method (alignment method, target covering method) - the missile is on the target’s line of sight;
• The three-point method with the parameter - the missile is on a line that advances the line of sight by an angle depending on the difference in the ranges of the missile and the target.

Story

First experiments

The first attempt to create a controlled remote projectile for hitting air targets was made in Great Britain by Archibald Lowe. Its “Aerial Target,” so named to mislead German intelligence, was a radio-controlled propeller with an ABC Gnat piston engine. The projectile was intended to destroy Zeppelins and heavy German bombers. After two unsuccessful launches in 1917, the program was closed due to little interest in it from the Air Force command.

The world's first anti-aircraft guided missiles, brought to the stage of pilot production, were the Reintochter, Hs-117 Schmetterling and Wasserfall missiles created in the Third Reich since 1943 (the latter was tested by the beginning of 1945 and was ready for launch into production production, which never began).

In 1944, faced with the threat of Japanese kamikazes, the US Navy initiated the development of anti-aircraft guided missiles designed to protect ships. Two projects were launched - the Lark long-range anti-aircraft missile and the simpler KAN. None of them managed to take part in the hostilities. Development of the Lark continued until 1950, but although the missile was successfully tested, it was considered too obsolete and was never installed on ships.

First missiles in service

Initially, significant attention was paid to German technical experience in post-war developments.

In the United States immediately after the war, there were de facto three independent anti-aircraft missile development programs: the Army Nike program, the US Air Force SAM-A-1 GAPA program, and the Navy Bumblebee program. American engineers also attempted to create an anti-aircraft missile based on the German Wasserfall as part of the Hermes program, but abandoned this idea at an early stage of development.

The first anti-aircraft missile developed in the United States was the MIM-3 Nike Ajax, developed by the US Army. The missile had a certain technical similarity to the S-25, but the Nike-Ajax complex was much simpler than its Soviet counterpart. At the same time, the MIM-3 Nike Ajax was much cheaper than the C-25, and, adopted for service in 1953, was deployed in huge quantities to cover cities and military bases in the United States. In total, more than 200 MIM-3 Nike Ajax batteries were deployed by 1958.

The third country to deploy its own air defense systems in the 1950s was Great Britain. In 1958, the Royal Air Force adopted the Bristol Bloodhound air defense system, equipped with a ramjet engine and designed to protect air bases. It turned out to be so successful that its improved versions were in service until 1999. The British Army created the English Electric Thunderbird complex, similar in layout, but differing in a number of elements, to cover its bases.

In addition to the USA, USSR and Great Britain, Switzerland created its own air defense system in the early 1950s. The Oerlikon RSC-51 complex developed by her entered service in 1951 and became the first commercially available air defense system in the world (although its purchases were mainly undertaken with research purposes) . The complex never saw combat, but served as the basis for the development of rocketry in Italy and Japan, which purchased it in the 1950s.

At the same time, the first sea-based air defense systems were created. In 1956, the US Navy adopted the RIM-2 Terrier medium-range air defense system, designed to protect ships from cruise missiles and torpedo bombers.

Second generation missile defense system

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the development of jet military aircraft and cruise missiles led to widespread development of air defense systems. The advent of aircraft moving faster than the speed of sound finally pushed heavy anti-aircraft artillery into the background. In turn, the miniaturization of nuclear warheads made it possible to equip anti-aircraft missiles with them. The radius of destruction of a nuclear charge effectively compensated for any conceivable error in missile guidance, allowing it to hit and destroy an enemy aircraft even if it missed badly.

In 1958, the United States adopted the world's first long-range air defense system, MIM-14 Nike-Hercules. A development of the MIM-3 Nike Ajax, the complex had a much longer range (up to 140 km) and could be equipped with a nuclear charge W31 power 2-40 kt. Massively deployed on the basis of the infrastructure created for the previous Ajax complex, the MIM-14 Nike-Hercules complex remained the most effective air defense system in the world until 1967 [ ] .

At the same time, the US Air Force developed its own, the only ultra-long-range anti-aircraft missile system, CIM-10 Bomarc. The missile was a de facto unmanned interceptor fighter with a ramjet engine and active homing. It was guided to the target using signals from a system of ground-based radars and radio beacons. The effective radius of the Bomark was, depending on the modification, 450-800 km, which made it the longest-range anti-aircraft system ever created. "Bomark" was intended to effectively cover the territories of Canada and the United States from manned bombers and cruise missiles, but due to the rapid development of ballistic missiles, it quickly lost its importance.

The Soviet Union fielded its first mass-produced S-75 anti-aircraft missile system in 1957, roughly similar in performance to the MIM-3 Nike Ajax, but more mobile and adapted for forward deployment. The S-75 system was produced in large quantities, becoming the basis of the air defense of both the country and the USSR troops. The complex was most widely exported in the entire history of air defense systems, becoming the basis of air defense systems in more than 40 countries, and was successfully used in military operations in Vietnam.

The large dimensions of Soviet nuclear warheads prevented them from arming anti-aircraft missiles. The first Soviet long-range air defense system, the S-200, which had a range of up to 240 km and was capable of carrying a nuclear charge, appeared only in 1967. Throughout the 1970s, the S-200 air defense system was the most long-range and effective air defense system in the world [ ] .

By the early 1960s, it became clear that existing air defense systems had a number of tactical shortcomings: low mobility and inability to hit targets at low altitudes. The advent of supersonic battlefield aircraft like the Su-7 and Republic F-105 Thunderchief made conventional anti-aircraft artillery an ineffective means of defense.

In 1959-1962, the first anti-aircraft missile systems were created, intended for forward cover of troops and combating low-flying targets: the American MIM-23 Hawk of 1959, and the Soviet S-125 of 1961.

The air defense systems of the navy were also actively developing. In 1958, the US Navy first adopted the RIM-8 Talos long-range naval air defense system. The missile, with a range of 90 to 150 km, was intended to withstand massive raids by naval missile-carrying aircraft and could carry a nuclear charge. Due to the extreme cost and huge dimensions of the complex, it was deployed in a relatively limited manner, mainly on rebuilt cruisers from the Second World War (the only carrier specifically built for Talos was the nuclear-powered missile cruiser USS Long Beach).

The main air defense system of the US Navy remained the actively modernized RIM-2 Terrier, the capabilities and range of which were greatly increased, including the creation of modifications of the missile defense system with nuclear warheads. In 1958, the RIM-24 Tartar short-range air defense system was also developed, intended for arming small ships.

The development program for air defense systems to protect Soviet ships from aviation was started in 1955; short-, medium-, long-range air defense systems and direct ship defense air defense systems were proposed for development. The first Soviet Navy anti-aircraft missile system created within the framework of this program was the M-1 Volna short-range air defense system, which appeared in 1962. The complex was a naval version of the S-125 air defense system, using the same missiles.

The USSR's attempt to develop a longer-range marine complex The M-2 "Volkhov" based on the S-75 turned out to be unsuccessful - despite the effectiveness of the B-753 missile itself, limitations caused by the significant dimensions of the original missile, the use of a liquid engine at the cruise stage of the missile defense system and the low fire performance of the complex led to a halt in the development of this project .

In the early 1960s, Great Britain also created its own naval air defense systems. The Sea Slug, which was put into service in 1961, turned out to be insufficiently effective and by the end of the 1960s, the British Navy developed a much more advanced Sea Dart air defense system to replace it, capable of hitting aircraft at a distance of up to 75-150 km. At the same time, the world’s first short-range self-defense air defense system, Sea Cat, was created in Great Britain, which was actively exported due to its highest reliability and relatively small dimensions [ ] .

The era of solid fuel

The development of high-energy mixed solid rocket fuel technologies in the late 1960s made it possible to abandon the use of difficult-to-use liquid fuel on anti-aircraft missiles and to create efficient solid-fuel anti-aircraft missiles with a long flight range. Given the absence of the need for pre-launch refueling, such missiles could be stored completely ready for launch and effectively used against the enemy, providing the necessary fire performance. The development of electronics has made it possible to improve missile guidance systems and use new homing heads and proximity fuses to significantly improve the accuracy of missiles.

The development of new generation anti-aircraft missile systems began almost simultaneously in the USA and the USSR. A large number of technical problems that had to be solved led to the development programs being significantly delayed, and only in the late 1970s did new air defense systems enter service.

The first ground-based air defense system adopted for service that fully meets the requirements of the third generation was the Soviet S-300 anti-aircraft missile system, developed and put into service in 1978. Developing a line of Soviet anti-aircraft missiles, the complex, for the first time in the USSR, used solid fuel for long-range missiles and a mortar launch from a transport and launch container, in which the missile was constantly stored in a sealed inert environment (nitrogen), completely ready for launch. The absence of the need for lengthy pre-launch preparation significantly reduced the complex's reaction time to an air threat. Also, due to this, the mobility of the complex has significantly increased and its vulnerability to enemy influence has decreased.

A similar complex in the USA - MIM-104 Patriot, began to be developed back in the 1960s, but due to the lack of clear requirements for the complex and their regular changes, its development was extremely delayed and the complex was put into service only in 1981. It was assumed that the new air defense system would replace the outdated MIM-14 Nike-Hercules and MIM-23 Hawk systems as an effective means of hitting targets at both high and low altitudes. When developing the complex, from the very beginning it was intended to be used against both aerodynamic and ballistic targets, that is, it was intended to be used not only for air defense, but also for theater missile defense.

SAM systems for direct defense of troops received significant development (especially in the USSR). Wide development attack helicopters and guided tactical weapons led to the need to saturate troops anti-aircraft systems at the regimental and battalion level. In the period 1960s - 1980s, a variety of mobile military air defense systems were adopted, such as Soviet, 2K11 Krug, 2K12 Kub, 9K33 “Wasp”, American MIM-72 Chaparral, British Rapier.

At the same time, the first man-portable anti-aircraft missile systems (MANPADS) appeared.

Naval air defense systems also developed. Technically, the world's first new-generation air defense system was the modernization of American naval air defense systems in terms of the use of Standard-1 type missile defense systems, developed in the 1960s and put into service in 1967. The family of missiles was intended to replace the entire previous line of US naval air defense missiles, the so-called “three Ts”: Talos, Terrier and Tartar - with new, highly versatile missiles using existing launchers, storage facilities and combat control systems. However, the development of systems for storing and launching missiles from the TPK for the Standard family of missiles was delayed for a number of reasons and was completed only in the late 1980s with the advent of the Mk 41 launcher. The development of universal vertical launch systems has made it possible to significantly increase the rate of fire and capabilities of the system.

In the USSR, in the early 1980s, the S-300F Fort anti-aircraft missile system was adopted by the Navy - the world's first long-range naval complex with missiles based in TPK, and not on beam installations. The complex was a naval version of the S-300 land-based complex, and was very different high efficiency, good noise immunity and the presence of multi-channel guidance, allowing one radar to direct several missiles at several targets at once. However, due to a number of design solutions: rotating revolving launchers, heavy multi-channel target designation radar, the complex turned out to be very heavy and large-sized and was suitable for placement only on large ships.

In general, in the 1970-1980s, the development of air defense systems followed the path of improving the logistics characteristics of missiles by switching to solid fuel, storage in TPK and the use of vertical launch systems, as well as increasing the reliability and noise immunity of equipment through the use of advances in microelectronics and unification.

Modern air defense systems

Modern development of air defense systems, starting from the 1990s, is mainly aimed at increasing the capabilities of hitting highly maneuverable, low-flying and unobtrusive targets (made using stealth technology). Most modern air defense systems are also designed with at least limited opportunities to destroy short-range missiles.

Thus, the development of the American Patriot air defense system in new modifications, starting with PAC-1 (Patriot Advanced Capabilites), was mainly refocused on hitting ballistic rather than aerodynamic targets. Assuming as an axiom of a military campaign the possibility of achieving air superiority at fairly early stages of the conflict, the United States and a number of other countries consider the enemy’s cruise and ballistic missiles as the main opponent for air defense systems, not manned aircraft.

In the USSR and later in Russia, the development of the S-300 line of anti-aircraft missiles continued. A number of new systems were developed, including the S-400 air defense system, which was put into service in 2007. The main attention during their creation was paid to increasing the number of simultaneously tracked and fired targets, improving the ability to hit low-flying and stealthy targets. The military doctrine of the Russian Federation and a number of other states is distinguished by a more comprehensive approach to long-range air defense systems, considering them not as a development of anti-aircraft artillery, but as an independent part of the military machine, together with aviation, ensuring the conquest and maintenance of air supremacy. Ballistic missile defense has received somewhat less attention, but that has recently changed. The S-500 is currently being developed.

Naval systems have received particular development, among which one of the first places is the Aegis weapon system with the Standard missile defense system. The emergence of the Mk 41 UVP with a very high missile launch rate and a high degree of versatility due to the possibility of placing a wide range of UVP in each cell guided weapons(including all types of Standard missiles adapted for vertical launch, the Sea Sparrow short-range missile defense system and its further development - ESSM, the RUR-5 ASROC anti-submarine missile and Tomahawk cruise missiles) contributed to the wide distribution of the complex. At the moment, Standard missiles are in service with the navies of seventeen countries. The high dynamic characteristics and versatility of the complex contributed to the development of SM-3 anti-missile and anti-satellite weapons based on it.

see also

• List of anti-aircraft missile systems and anti-aircraft missiles

Notes

Literature

• Lenov N., Viktorov V. Anti-aircraft missile systems of the air forces of NATO countries (Russian) // Foreign military review. - M.: “Red Star”, 1975. - No. 2. - pp. 61-66. - ISSN 0134-921X.
• Demidov V., Kutyev N. Improving missile defense systems in capitalist countries (Russian) // Foreign Military Review. - M.: “Red Star”, 1975. - No. 5. - pp. 52-57. - ISSN 0134-921X.
• Dubinkin E., Pryadilov S. Development and production of anti-aircraft weapons for the US Army (Russian) // Foreign Military Review. - M.: “Red Star”, 1983. - No. 3. - pp. 30-34. -

Anti-aircraft missile weapons refer to surface-to-air missile weapons and are designed to destroy enemy air attack weapons using anti-aircraft guided missiles (SAMs). It is represented by various systems.

An anti-aircraft missile system (anti-aircraft missile system) is a combination of an anti-aircraft missile system (SAM) and the means that ensure its use.

An anti-aircraft missile system is a set of functionally related combat and technical means designed to destroy air targets with anti-aircraft guided missiles.

The air defense system includes means of detection, identification and target designation, flight control means for missile defense systems, one or more launchers (PU) with missile defense systems, technical means and electrical power supplies.

The technical basis of the air defense system is the missile defense control system. Depending on the adopted control system, there are complexes for telecontrol of missiles, homing missiles, and combined control of missiles. Each air defense system has certain combat properties, features, the combination of which can serve as classification criteria that allow it to be classified as a specific type.

The combat properties of air defense systems include all-weather capability, noise immunity, mobility, versatility, reliability, degree of automation of combat work processes, etc.

All-weather capability - the ability of an air defense system to destroy air targets in any weather conditions. There are all-weather and non-all-weather air defense systems. The latter ensure the destruction of targets under certain weather conditions and time of day.

Noise immunity is a property that allows an air defense system to destroy air targets in conditions of interference created by the enemy to suppress electronic (optical) means.

Mobility is a property that manifests itself in transportability and the time of transition from a traveling position to a combat position and from a combat position to a traveling position. A relative indicator of mobility can be the total time required to change the starting position under given conditions. Part of mobility is maneuverability. The most mobile complex is considered to be one that is more transportable and requires less time to maneuver. Mobile systems can be self-propelled, towed and portable. Non-mobile air defense systems are called stationary.

Versatility is a property that characterizes the technical capabilities of an air defense system to destroy air targets over a wide range of ranges and altitudes.

Reliability is the ability to function normally under given operating conditions.

Based on the degree of automation, anti-aircraft missile systems are classified into automatic, semi-automatic and non-automatic. In automatic air defense systems, all operations to detect, track targets and guide missiles are performed automatically without human intervention. In semi-automatic and non-automatic air defense systems, a person takes part in solving a number of tasks.

Anti-aircraft missile systems are distinguished by the number of target and missile channels. Complexes that provide simultaneous tracking and firing of one target are called single-channel, and those of several targets are called multi-channel.

Based on their firing range, the complexes are divided into long-range (LR) air defense systems with a firing range of more than 100 km, medium-range (SD) with a firing range from 20 to 100 km, short-range (MD) with a firing range from 10 to 20 km and short-range ( BD) with a firing range of up to 10 km.

Tactical and technical characteristics (TTX) determine the combat capabilities of the air defense system. These include: the purpose of the air defense system; range and altitude of destruction of air targets; the ability to destroy targets flying at different speeds; the probability of hitting air targets in the absence and presence of interference, when firing at maneuvering targets; number of target and missile channels; noise immunity of air defense systems; working hours of the air defense system (reaction time); time for transferring the air defense system from the traveling position to the combat position and vice versa (time of deployment and collapse of the air defense system at the starting position); movement speed; missile ammunition; power reserve; mass and dimensional characteristics, etc.

Performance characteristics are specified in the tactical and technical specifications for the creation of a new type of air defense system and are refined during field testing. The values ​​of the performance characteristics are determined by the design features of the air defense missile system elements and the principles of their operation.

Purpose of the air defense system- a generalized characteristic indicating combat missions solved by means of this type of air defense system.

Damage range(firing) - the range at which targets are hit with a probability not lower than the specified one. There are minimum and maximum ranges.

Damage height(firing) - the height at which targets are hit with a probability not lower than the specified one. There are minimum and maximum heights.

The ability to destroy targets flying at different speeds is a characteristic indicating the maximum permissible value of the flight speeds of targets destroyed in given ranges and altitudes of their flight. The magnitude of the target's flight speed determines the values ​​of the required missile overloads, dynamic guidance errors and the probability of hitting the target with one missile. At high speeds targets, the necessary missile overloads and dynamic guidance errors increase, and the probability of destruction decreases. As a result, the values ​​of the maximum range and height of destruction of targets are reduced.

Probability of target hit- a numerical value characterizing the possibility of hitting a target under given shooting conditions. Expressed as a number from 0 to 1.

The target can be hit when firing one or more missiles, so the corresponding probability of hitting P is considered ; and P P .

Target channel- a set of elements of an air defense system that provides simultaneous tracking and firing of one target. There are single- and multi-channel air defense systems based on the target. The N-channel target complex allows you to simultaneously fire at N targets. The target channel includes a sighting device and a device for determining target coordinates.

Rocket channel- a set of elements of an air defense system that simultaneously provides preparation for launch, launch and guidance of one missile defense system at a target. The missile channel includes: a launch device (launcher), a device for preparation for launch and launch of the missile defense system, a sighting device and a device for determining the coordinates of the missile, elements of the device for generating and transmitting missile control commands. An integral part of the missile channel is the missile defense system. The air defense systems in service are single- and multi-channel. Portable complexes are single-channel. They allow only one missile to be aimed at a target at a time. Multi-channel missile-based air defense systems ensure simultaneous firing of several missiles at one or several targets. Such air defense systems have great capabilities for consistently firing at targets. To obtain a given value of the probability of destroying a target, the air defense system has 2-3 missile channels per target channel.

The following indicators of noise immunity are used: noise immunity coefficient, permissible interference power density at the far (near) border of the affected area in the area of ​​the jammer, which ensures timely detection (opening) and destruction (defeat) of the target, range of the open zone, range from which the target is detected (revealed) against the background of interference when the jammer sets it.

Working hours of the air defense system(reaction time) - the time interval between the moment of detection of an air target by air defense systems and the launch of the first missile. It is determined by the time spent searching and capturing the target and preparing the initial data for shooting. The operating time of the air defense system depends on the design features and characteristics of the air defense system and the level of training of the combat crew. For modern air defense systems, its value ranges from units to tens of seconds.

Time to transfer the air defense system from traveling to combat position- time from the moment the command is given to transfer the complex to a combat position until the complex is ready to open fire. For MANPADS this time is minimal and amounts to several seconds. The time it takes to transfer the air defense system to a combat position is determined by the initial state of its elements, the transfer mode and the type of power source.

Time to transfer the air defense system from combat to traveling position- time from the moment the command is given to transfer the air defense system to the traveling position until the completion of the formation of elements of the air defense system into a traveling column.

Combat Kit(bq) - the number of missiles installed on one air defense system.

Power reserve- the maximum distance that an air defense vehicle can travel after consuming a full load of fuel.

Mass characteristics- maximum mass characteristics of elements (cabins) of air defense systems and missile defense systems.

Dimensions- the maximum external outlines of the elements (cabins) of air defense systems and missile defense systems, determined by the greatest width, length and height.

SAM affected area

The kill zone of the complex is the area of ​​space within which the destruction of an air target by an anti-aircraft guided missile is ensured under the calculated firing conditions with a given probability. Taking into account the firing efficiency, it determines the reach of the complex in terms of height, range and heading parameters.

Design shooting conditions- conditions under which the closing angles of the SAM position are equal to zero, the characteristics and parameters of the target’s movement (its effective reflective surface, speed, etc.) do not exceed specified limits, and atmospheric conditions do not interfere with observation of the target.

Realized affected area- part of the affected area in which a target of a certain type is hit under specific shooting conditions with a given probability.

Firing zone- the space around the air defense system, in which the missile is aimed at the target.

Rice. 1. SAM affected area: vertical (a) and horizontal (b) section

The affected area is depicted in a parametric coordinate system and is characterized by the position of the far, near, upper and lower boundaries. Its main characteristics: horizontal (inclined) range to the far and near boundaries d d (D d) and d(D), minimum and maximum heights H mn and H max, maximum heading angle q max and maximum elevation angle s max. The horizontal distance to the far border of the affected area and the maximum heading angle determine the limiting parameter of the affected area P before, i.e., the maximum parameter of the target, which ensures its defeat with a probability not lower than the specified one. For multi-channel air defense systems on a target, a characteristic value is also the parameter of the affected area Rstr, up to which the number of firings carried out at the target is not less than with a zero parameter of its movement. A typical cross-section of the affected area with vertical bisector and horizontal planes is shown in the figure.

The position of the boundaries of the affected area is determined by a large number of factors related to the technical characteristics of individual elements of the air defense system and the control loop as a whole, firing conditions, characteristics and parameters of the movement of the air target. The position of the far border of the affected area determines the required range of action of the SNR.

The position of the realized far and lower boundaries of the air defense missile system destruction zone may also depend on the terrain.

SAM launch area

In order for the missile to meet the target in the affected area, the missile must be launched in advance, taking into account the flight time of the missile and the target to the meeting point.

Missile launch zone is an area of ​​space in which, if the target is located at the moment of missile launch, their meeting in the air defense missile zone is ensured. To determine the boundaries of the launch zone, it is necessary to set off from each point of the affected zone to the side opposite to the target course a segment equal to the product of the target speed V ii for the flight time of the rocket to a given point. In the figure, the most characteristic points of the launch zone are respectively indicated by the letters a, 6, c, d, e.

Rice. 2. SAM launch area (vertical section)

When tracking a SNR target, the current coordinates of the meeting point are, as a rule, calculated automatically and displayed on indicator screens. The missile is launched when the meeting point is located within the boundaries of the affected area.

Guaranteed launch area- an area of ​​space in which, when the target is located at the moment of missile launch, its meeting with the target in the affected area is ensured, regardless of the type of anti-missile maneuver of the target.

In accordance with the tasks being solved, the functionally necessary elements of the air defense system are: means of detection, identification of aircraft and target designation; SAM flight controls; launchers and launching devices; anti-aircraft guided missiles.

Man-portable anti-aircraft missile systems (MANPADS) can be used to combat low-flying targets.

When multifunctional radars are used as part of air defense systems (Patriot, S-300), they serve as means of detection, identification, tracking devices for aircraft and missiles aimed at them, devices for transmitting control commands, as well as target illumination stations to ensure the operation of on-board radio direction finders.

In anti-aircraft missile systems, radar stations, optical and passive direction finders can be used as means of detecting aircraft.

Optical detection devices (ODF). Depending on the location of the source of radiant energy, optical detection means are divided into passive and semi-active. Passive OSOs, as a rule, use radiant energy caused by heating of the aircraft skin and operating engines, or light energy from the Sun reflected from the aircraft. In semi-active OSOs, an optical quantum generator (laser) is located at the ground control point, the energy of which is used to probe space.

Passive OSO is a television-optical sight, which includes a transmitting television camera (PTC), a synchronizer, communication channels, and a video monitoring device (VCU).

The television-optical viewer converts the flow of light (radiant) energy coming from the aircraft into electrical signals, which are transmitted via a cable communication line and are used in the VKU to reproduce the transmitted image of the aircraft located in the field of view of the PTC lens.

In the transmitting television tube, the optical image is converted into an electrical one, and a potential relief appears on the photomosaic (target) of the tube, displaying in electrical form the distribution of brightness of all points of the aircraft.

The potential relief is read by the electron beam of the transmitting tube, which, under the influence of the field of deflection coils, moves synchronously with the electron beam of the VCU. A video image signal appears at the load resistance of the transmitting tube, which is amplified by a preamplifier and sent to the VCU via a communication channel. The video signal, after amplification in the amplifier, is fed to the control electrode of the receiving tube (kinescope).

Synchronization of the movement of the electron beams of the PTC and VKU is carried out by horizontal and vertical scanning pulses, which are not mixed with the image signal, but are transmitted through a separate channel.

The operator observes on the kinescope screen images of aircraft located in the field of view of the viewfinder lens, as well as sighting marks corresponding to the position of the TOV optical axis in azimuth (b) and elevation (e), as a result of which the azimuth and elevation angle of the aircraft can be determined.

Semi-active SOS (laser sights) are almost completely similar to radar sights in their structure, construction principles and functions. They allow you to determine the angular coordinates, range and speed of the target.

A laser transmitter is used as a signal source, which is triggered by a synchronizer pulse. The laser light signal is emitted into space, reflected from the aircraft and received by the telescope.

A narrow-band filter placed in the path of the reflected pulse reduces the impact of extraneous light sources on the operation of the viewfinder. Light pulses reflected from the aircraft enter a photosensitive receiver, are converted into video frequency signals and are used in units for measuring angular coordinates and range, as well as for display on the indicator screen.

Drive control signals are generated in the angular coordinate measurement unit optical system, which provide both an overview of the space and automatic tracking of the aircraft along angular coordinates (continuous alignment of the axis of the optical system with the direction to the aircraft).

Identification tools make it possible to determine the nationality of a detected aircraft and classify it as “friend or foe.” They can be combined or autonomous. In co-located devices, the interrogation and response signals are emitted and received by the radar devices.

Detection radar antenna “Top-M1” Optical detection means

Radar-optical detection means

A request signal receiver is installed on “your” aircraft, which receives encoded request signals sent by the detection (identification) radar. The receiver decodes the request signal and, if this signal corresponds to the established code, sends it to the response signal transmitter installed on board “its” aircraft. The transmitter produces an encoded signal and sends it in the direction of the radar, where it is received, decoded and, after conversion, displayed on the indicator in the form of a conventional mark, which is displayed next to the mark from the “own” aircraft. The enemy aircraft does not respond to the radar request signal.

Target designation means are designed to receive, process and analyze information about the air situation and determine the sequence of fire on detected targets, as well as transmitting data about them to other combat assets.

Information about detected and identified aircraft, as a rule, comes from the radar. Depending on the type of target designation means terminal device, the analysis of information about the aircraft is carried out automatically (when using a computer) or manually (by an operator when using cathode ray tube screens). The results of the decision of the computer (computing and solving device) can be displayed on special consoles, indicators or in the form of signals for the operator to make a decision on their further use, or transmitted to other combat air defense systems automatically.

If a screen is used as a terminal device, then marks from detected aircraft are displayed as light signs.

Target designation data (decisions to fire at targets) can be transmitted both via cable lines and radio communication lines.

Target designation and detection means can serve both one and several air defense units.

When an aircraft is detected and identified, an analysis of the air situation, as well as the order of firing at targets, is carried out by the operator. At the same time, devices for measuring range, angular coordinates, speed, generation of control commands and transmission of commands (command radio control line), autopilot and missile steering tract are involved in the operation of the missile defense flight control systems.

The range measuring device is designed to measure the slant range to aircraft and missile defense systems. Range determination is based on the straightness of propagation of electromagnetic waves and the constancy of their speed. The range can be measured by location and optical means. For this purpose, the signal travel time from the radiation source to the aircraft and back is used. Time can be measured by the delay of the pulse reflected from the aircraft, the magnitude of the change in the frequency of the transmitter, and the magnitude of the change in the phase of the radar signal. Information about the range to the target is used to determine the moment of launch of the missile defense system, as well as to generate control commands (for systems with remote control).

The angular coordinates measuring device is designed to measure the elevation angle (e) and azimuth (b) of an aircraft and missile defense system. The measurement is based on the property of rectilinear propagation of electromagnetic waves.

The speed measuring device is designed to measure the radial speed of the aircraft. The measurement is based on the Doppler effect, which consists in changing the frequency of the reflected signal from moving objects.

The control command generation device (UFC) is designed to generate electrical signals, the magnitude and sign of which correspond to the magnitude and sign of the missile’s deviation from the kinematic trajectory. The magnitude and direction of deviation of the missile defense system from the kinematic trajectory are manifested in the disruption of connections determined by the nature of the target’s movement and the method of aiming the missile defense system at it. The measure of violation of this connection is called the mismatch parameter A(t).

The magnitude of the mismatch parameter is measured by the SAM tracking means, which, based on A(t), generate a corresponding electrical signal in the form of voltage or current, called the mismatch signal. The mismatch signal is the main component when generating a control command. To increase the accuracy of missile guidance to the target, some correction signals are introduced into the control command. In telecontrol systems, when implementing the three-point method, to reduce the time of launching the missile to the meeting point with the target, as well as to reduce errors in pointing the missile at the target, a damping signal and a signal for compensating for dynamic errors caused by the movement of the target and the mass (weight) of the missile can be introduced into the control command .

Device for transmitting control commands (radio command lines). In telecontrol systems, the transmission of control commands from the guidance point to the on-board missile defense device is carried out through equipment that forms a command radio control line. This line ensures the transmission of rocket flight control commands, one-time commands that change the operating mode of the onboard equipment. The command radio line is a multi-channel communication line, the number of channels of which corresponds to the number of transmitted commands when simultaneously controlling several missiles.

The autopilot is designed to stabilize the angular movements of the rocket relative to the center of mass. In addition, the autopilot is an integral part of the rocket flight control system and controls the position of the center of mass itself in space in accordance with control commands.

Launchers (PU) and launching devices are special devices designed for placement, aiming, pre-launch preparation and launch of a rocket. The launcher consists of a launch table or guides, aiming mechanisms, leveling means, test and launch equipment, and power supplies.

Launchers are distinguished by the type of missile launch - with vertical and inclined launch, by mobility - stationary, semi-stationary (collapsible), mobile.

Stationary launcher C-25 with vertical launch

Man-portable anti-aircraft missile system "Igla"

Launcher of the Blowpipe man-portable anti-aircraft missile system with three guides

Stationary launchers in the form of launch pads are mounted on special concrete platforms and cannot be moved.

Semi-stationary launchers can be disassembled if necessary and installed in another position after transportation.

Mobile launchers are placed on special vehicles. They are used in mobile air defense systems and are made in self-propelled, towed, portable (portable) versions. Self-propelled launchers are placed on tracked or wheeled chassis, providing a quick transition from the traveling position to the combat position and back. Towed launchers are installed on tracked or wheeled non-self-propelled chassis and transported by tractors.

Portable launchers are made in the form of launch tubes into which the rocket is installed before launch. The launch tube may have an aiming device for pre-targeting and a trigger mechanism.

Based on the number of missiles on the launcher, a distinction is made between single launchers, twin launchers, etc.

Anti-aircraft guided missiles are classified by the number of stages, aerodynamic design, guidance method, and type of warhead.

Most missiles can be one- or two-stage.

According to the aerodynamic design, they distinguish between missiles made according to the normal design, the “swivel wing” design, and also the “canard” design.

Based on the guidance method, a distinction is made between homing and remote-controlled missiles. A homing rocket is a missile that has flight control equipment installed on board. Remote-controlled missiles are called missiles controlled (guided) by ground-based control (guidance) means.

Based on the type of warhead, missiles with conventional and nuclear warheads are distinguished.

Self-propelled PU air defense missile system "Buk" with inclined launch

Semi-stationary S-75 air defense missile launcher with inclined launch

Self-propelled PU SAM S-300PMU with vertical launch

MANPADS are designed to combat low-flying targets. The construction of MANPADS can be based on a passive homing system (Stinger, Strela-2, 3, Igla), a radio command system (Blowpipe), or a laser beam guidance system (RBS-70).

MANPADS with a passive homing system include a launcher (launch container), a trigger mechanism, identification equipment, and an anti-aircraft guided missile.

The launcher is a sealed fiberglass tube in which the missile defense system is stored. The pipe is sealed. Outside the pipe there are sighting devices for preparing a missile launch and a trigger mechanism.

The launching mechanism (“Stinger”) includes an electric battery powering the equipment of both the mechanism itself and the homing head (before launching the rocket), a coolant cylinder for cooling the receiver of the thermal radiation of the seeker during the preparation of the rocket for launch, a switching device that provides the necessary sequence passage of commands and signals, indicator device.

Identification equipment includes an identification antenna and the electronic unit, which includes a transceiver device, logic circuits, a computing device, and a power source.

The missile (FIM-92A) is single-stage, solid propellant. The homing head can operate in the IR and ultraviolet ranges, the radiation receiver is cooled. The alignment of the axis of the optical seeker system with the direction towards the target during its tracking is carried out using a gyroscopic drive.

A rocket is launched from a container using a launch accelerator. The main engine is turned on when the missile moves to a distance at which the anti-aircraft gunner cannot be hit by the jet from the operating engine.

Radio command MANPADS include a transport and launch container, a guidance unit with identification equipment, and an anti-aircraft guided missile. The container is paired with the missile and guidance unit located in it during the process of preparing the MANPADS for combat use.

There are two antennas on the container: one is a command transmission device, the other is identification equipment. Inside the container is the rocket itself.

The targeting unit includes a monocular optical sight, providing target acquisition and tracking, an IR device for measuring the deviation of a missile from the target line of sight, a device for generating and transmitting guidance commands, a software device for launch preparation and production, a requester for friend-or-foe identification equipment. There is a controller on the block body that is used when pointing the missile at a target.

After launching the missile, the operator follows it along the tail IR tracer using an optical sight. The launch of the missile to the line of sight is carried out manually or automatically.

In automatic mode, the deviation of the missile from the line of sight, measured by the IR device, is converted into guidance commands transmitted to the missile defense system. The IR device is turned off after 1-2 seconds of flight, after which the missile is aimed at the meeting point manually, provided that the operator achieves alignment of the image of the target and the missile in the field of view of the sight by changing the position of the control switch. Control commands are transmitted to the missile defense system, ensuring its flight along the required trajectory.

In complexes that provide guidance of missiles using a laser beam (RBS-70), laser radiation receivers are placed in the tail compartment of the missile to guide the missile to the target, which generate signals that control the flight of the missile. The guidance unit includes an optical sight and a device for generating a laser beam with focusing that varies depending on the distance of the missile defense system.

Telecontrol systems are those in which the movement of the missile is determined by a ground-based guidance point that continuously monitors the trajectory parameters of the target and the missile. Depending on the location of the formation of commands (signals) for controlling the rocket's rudders, these systems are divided into beam guidance systems and telecontrol command systems.

In beam guidance systems, the direction of the missile's movement is set using directed radiation of electromagnetic waves (radio waves, laser radiation, etc.). The beam is modulated in such a way that when the rocket deviates from a given direction, its on-board devices automatically detect mismatch signals and generate appropriate rocket control commands.

An example of the use of such a control system with tele-orientation of a rocket in a laser beam (after its launch into this beam) is the ADATS multi-purpose missile system, developed by the Swiss company Oerlikon together with the American Martin Marietta. It is believed that this control method, compared to the command telecontrol system of the first type, provides higher accuracy of missile guidance at long ranges.

In command telecontrol systems, missile flight control commands are generated at the guidance point and transmitted via a communication line (telecontrol line) to the missile. Depending on the method of measuring the coordinates of the target and determining its position relative to the missile, command telecontrol systems are divided into telecontrol systems of the first type and telecontrol systems of the second type. In systems of the first type, the measurement of the current coordinates of the target is carried out directly by the ground guidance point, and in systems of the second type - by the on-board missile coordinator with their subsequent transmission to the guidance point. The generation of missile control commands in both the first and second cases is carried out by a ground-based guidance point.

Rice. 3. Command telecontrol system

Determination of the current coordinates of the target and the missile (for example, range, azimuth and elevation) is carried out by a tracking radar station. In some complexes, this problem is solved by two radars, one of which accompanies the target (target sighting radar 7), and the other - the missile (missile sighting radar 2).

Target sighting is based on the use of the principle of active radar with a passive response, i.e., on obtaining information about the current coordinates of the target from radio signals reflected from it. Target tracking can be automatic (AS), manual (PC) or mixed. Most often, target sighting devices have devices that provide various types of target tracking. Automatic tracking is carried out without the participation of an operator, manual and mixed - with the participation of an operator.

To sight a missile in such systems, as a rule, radar lines with an active response are used. A transceiver is installed on board the rocket, emitting response pulses to the request pulses sent by the guidance point. This method of sighting a missile ensures its stable automatic tracking, including when firing at significant distances.

The measured values ​​of the coordinates of the target and the missile are fed into the command generation device (CDD), which can be implemented on the basis of a computer or in the form of an analog computing device. Commands are generated in accordance with the selected guidance method and the accepted mismatch parameter. The control commands generated for each guidance plane are encrypted and issued by a radio command transmitter (RPK) on board the rocket. These commands are received by the on-board receiver, amplified, deciphered and, through the autopilot, in the form of certain signals that determine the magnitude and sign of the rudder deflection, issued to the rocket's rudders. As a result of the rotation of the rudders and the appearance of angles of attack and sliding, lateral aerodynamic forces arise that change the direction of the rocket's flight.

The missile control process is carried out continuously until it meets the target.

After the missile is launched into the target area, as a rule, using a proximity fuse, the problem of choosing the moment to detonate the warhead of an anti-aircraft guided missile is solved.

The command telecontrol system of the first type does not require an increase in the composition and weight of on-board equipment, and has greater flexibility in the number and geometry of possible rocket trajectories. The main drawback of the system is the dependence of the magnitude of the linear error in pointing the missile at the target on the firing range. If, for example, the magnitude of the angular guidance error is taken to be constant and equal to 1/1000 of the range, then the miss of the missile at firing ranges of 20 and 100 km will be 20 and 100 m, respectively. In the latter case, to hit the target, an increase in the mass of the warhead will be required, and therefore rocket launch mass. Therefore, the first type of telecontrol system is used to destroy missile defense targets at short and medium ranges.

In the first type of telecontrol system, the target and missile tracking channels and the radio control line are subject to interference. Foreign experts associate the solution to the problem of increasing the noise immunity of this system with the use, including in a comprehensive manner, of target and missile sighting channels of different frequency ranges and operating principles (radar, infrared, visual, etc.), as well as radar stations with a phased array antenna ( PAR).

Rice. 4. Command telecontrol system of the second type

The target coordinator (direction finder) is installed on board the missile. It tracks the target and determines its current coordinates in a moving coordinate system associated with the missile. The coordinates of the target are transmitted via the communication channel to the guidance point. Therefore, an on-board radio direction finder generally includes an antenna for receiving target signals (7), a receiver (2), a device for determining target coordinates (3), an encoder (4), a signal transmitter (5) containing information about the target coordinates, and a transmitting antenna ( 6).

The target coordinates are received by the ground guidance point and fed into the device for generating control commands. From the missile tracking station (radio sighter), the UVK also receives the current coordinates of the anti-aircraft guided missile. The command generation device determines the mismatch parameter and generates control commands, which, after appropriate transformations by the command transmission station, are issued on board the rocket. To receive these commands, convert them and practice them on the rocket, the same equipment is installed on board as in the first type of telecontrol systems (7 - command receiver, 8 - autopilot). The advantages of the second type of telecontrol system are that the accuracy of missile guidance is independent of the firing range, the resolution increases as the missile approaches the target, and the ability to aim the required number of missiles at the target.

The disadvantages of the system include the increasing cost of an anti-aircraft guided missile and the impossibility of manual target tracking modes.

In its structural diagram and characteristics, the second type of telecontrol system is close to homing systems.

Homing is the automatic guidance of a missile to a target, based on the use of energy flowing from the target to the missile.

The missile homing head autonomously tracks the target, determines the mismatch parameter and generates missile control commands.

Based on the type of energy that the target emits or reflects, homing systems are divided into radar and optical (infrared or thermal, light, laser, etc.).

Depending on the location of the primary energy source, homing systems can be passive, active or semi-active.

With passive homing, the energy emitted or reflected by the target is created by the sources of the target itself or the target's natural irradiator (Sun, Moon). Consequently, information about the coordinates and parameters of the target’s movement can be obtained without special irradiation of the target with any type of energy.

The active homing system is characterized by the fact that the energy source that irradiates the target is installed on the missile and the energy of this source reflected from the target is used for homing the missiles.

With semi-active homing, the target is irradiated by a primary energy source located outside the target and the missile (Hawk air defense system).

Radar homing systems have become widespread in air defense systems due to their practical independence of action from meteorological conditions and the ability to point a missile at a target of any type and at various ranges. They can be used throughout or only on the final part of the trajectory of an anti-aircraft guided missile, i.e. in combination with other control systems (telecontrol system, program control).

In radar systems, the use of passive homing is very limited. This method is possible only in special cases, for example, when homing a missile defense system at an aircraft that has a continuously operating radio jammer on board. Therefore, in radar homing systems, special irradiation (“illumination”) of the target is used. When homing a missile throughout the entire section of its flight path to the target, as a rule, semi-active homing systems are used in terms of energy and cost ratios. The primary energy source (target illumination radar) is usually located at the guidance point. Combined systems use both semi-active and active homing systems. The range limitation of the active homing system occurs due to the maximum power that can be obtained on the rocket, taking into account the possible dimensions and weight of the on-board equipment, including the homing head antenna.

If homing does not begin from the moment the missile is launched, then as the missile’s firing range increases, the energy advantages of active homing compared to semi-active homing increase.

To calculate the mismatch parameter and generate control commands, the tracking systems of the homing head must continuously track the target. In this case, the formation of a control command is possible when tracking a target only by angular coordinates. However, such tracking does not provide target selection by range and speed, as well as protection of the homing head receiver from side information and interference.

To automatically track a target along angular coordinates, equal-signal direction finding methods are used. The angle of arrival of the wave reflected from the target is determined by comparing signals received from two or more divergent radiation patterns. The comparison can be carried out simultaneously or sequentially.

The most widely used are direction finders with instantaneous equal-signal direction, which use the sum-difference method for determining the angle of target deflection. The appearance of such direction-finding devices is primarily due to the need to improve the accuracy of automatic target tracking systems in direction. Such direction finders are theoretically insensitive to amplitude fluctuations of the signal reflected from the target.

In direction finders with an equal-signal direction, created by periodically changing the antenna pattern, and, in particular, with a scanning beam, a random change in the amplitudes of the signal reflected from the target is perceived as a random change in the angular position of the target.

The principle of target selection by range and speed depends on the nature of the radiation, which can be pulsed or continuous.

With pulsed radiation, target selection is carried out, as a rule, by range using gating pulses that open the homing head receiver at the moment signals arrive from the target.

Rice. 5. Radar semi-active homing system

With continuous radiation, it is relatively simple to select a target based on speed. The Doppler effect is used to track the target by speed. The magnitude of the Doppler frequency shift of the signal reflected from the target is proportional with active homing to the relative speed of approach of the missile to the target, and with semi-active homing - to the radial component of the target's speed relative to the ground-based irradiation radar and the relative speed of approach of the missile to the target. To isolate the Doppler shift during semi-active homing on a missile after target acquisition, it is necessary to compare the signals received by the irradiation radar and the homing head. The tuned filters of the homing head receiver transmit into the angle change channel only those signals that were reflected from a target moving at a certain speed relative to the missile.

In relation to the Hawk type anti-aircraft missile system, it includes a target irradiation (illumination) radar, a semi-active homing head, an anti-aircraft guided missile, etc.

The task of the target irradiation (illumination) radar is to continuously irradiate the target with electromagnetic energy. The radar station uses directed radiation of electromagnetic energy, which requires continuous tracking of the target along angular coordinates. To solve other problems, target tracking in range and speed is also provided. Thus, the ground part of the semi-active homing system is a radar station with continuous automatic target tracking.

The semi-active homing head is installed on the rocket and includes a coordinator and a computing device. It provides target acquisition and tracking by angular coordinates, range or speed (or all four coordinates), determination of the mismatch parameter and generation of control commands.

An autopilot is installed on board the anti-aircraft guided missile, solving the same problems as in command and control systems.

An anti-aircraft missile system that uses a homing system or a combined control system also includes equipment and equipment that ensures the preparation and launch of missiles, pointing the radiation radar at a target, etc.

Infrared (thermal) homing systems for anti-aircraft missiles use a wavelength range typically from 1 to 5 microns. This range contains the maximum thermal radiation of most airborne targets. The ability to use a passive homing method is the main advantage of infrared systems. The system is made simpler, and its action is hidden from the enemy. Before launching a missile defense system, it is more difficult for an air enemy to detect such a system, and after launching a missile, it is more difficult to actively interfere with it. The design of an infrared system receiver can be much simpler than that of a radar seeker receiver.

The disadvantage of the system is the dependence of the range on meteorological conditions. Heat rays are greatly attenuated in rain, fog, and clouds. The range of such a system also depends on the orientation of the target relative to the energy receiver (direction of reception). The radiant flux from the nozzle of an aircraft jet engine significantly exceeds the radiant flux from its fuselage.

Thermal homing heads are widely used in close-range and short-range anti-aircraft missiles.

Light homing systems are based on the fact that most aerial targets reflect sunlight or moonlight much more strongly than the background surrounding them. This allows you to select a target against a given background and aim an anti-aircraft missile at it using a seeker that receives a signal in the visible part of the electromagnetic wave spectrum.

The advantages of this system are determined by the possibility of using a passive homing method. Its significant drawback is the strong dependence of the range on meteorological conditions. Under good meteorological conditions, light homing is also impossible in directions where the light of the Sun and Moon falls into the field of view of the system's protractor.

Combined control refers to the combination of various control systems when pointing a missile at a target. In anti-aircraft missile systems it is used when firing at long ranges to obtain the required accuracy of missile guidance at the target with permissible mass values ​​of the missile defense system. The following sequential combinations of control systems are possible: telecontrol of the first type and homing, telecontrol of the first and second types, autonomous system and homing.

The use of combined control makes it necessary to solve such problems as pairing trajectories when switching from one control method to another, ensuring target acquisition by a missile homing head in flight, using the same on-board equipment at different stages of control, etc.

At the moment of transition to homing (telecontrol of the second type), the target must be within the radiation pattern of the receiving antenna of the seeker, the width of which usually does not exceed 5-10°. In addition, tracking systems must be guided: the seeker by range, by speed, or by range and speed, if target selection according to these coordinates is provided to increase the resolution and noise immunity of the control system.

Guiding the seeker at the target can be done in the following ways: by commands transmitted on board the missile from the guidance point; enabling autonomous automatic search for the seeker target by angular coordinates, range and frequency; a combination of preliminary command guidance of the seeker at the target with subsequent search for the target.

Each of the first two methods has its advantages and significant disadvantages. The task of ensuring reliable guidance of the seeker to the target during the missile's flight to the target is quite complex and may require the use of a third method. Preliminary guidance of the seeker allows you to narrow the target search range.

When combining telecontrol systems of the first and second types, after the onboard radio direction finder begins to operate, the command generation device of the ground guidance point can receive information simultaneously from two sources: the target and missile tracking station and the onboard radio direction finder. Based on a comparison of generated commands based on data from each source, it seems possible to solve the problem of matching trajectories, as well as increase the accuracy of missile pointing to the target (reduce random error components by selecting a source, weighing the variances of the generated commands). This method of combining control systems is called binary control.

Combined control is used in cases where the required characteristics of an air defense system cannot be achieved using only one control system.

Autonomous control systems are those in which flight control signals are generated on board the rocket in accordance with a pre-set program (before launch). When a missile is in flight, the autonomous control system does not receive any information from the target and the control point. In a number of cases, such a system is used at the initial stage of a rocket’s flight path to launch it into a given region of space.

Elements of missile control systems

A guided missile is an unmanned aircraft with a jet engine designed to destroy air targets. All onboard devices are located on the rocket airframe.

A glider is the supporting structure of a rocket, which consists of a body, fixed and movable aerodynamic surfaces. The glider body is usually cylindrical in shape with a conical (spherical, ogive) head part.

The airframe's aerodynamic surfaces are used to create lift and control forces. These include wings, stabilizers (fixed surfaces), and rudders. Based on the relative position of the rudders and fixed aerodynamic surfaces, the following aerodynamic designs of rockets are distinguished: normal, “tailless”, “canard”, “rotary wing”.

Rice. b. Layout diagram of a hypothetical guided missile:

1 - rocket body; 2 - non-contact fuse; 3 - rudders; 4 - warhead; 5 - tanks for fuel components; b - autopilot; 7 - control equipment; 8 - wings; 9 - sources of on-board power supply; 10 - sustainer stage rocket engine; 11 - launch stage rocket engine; 12 - stabilizers.

Rice. 7. Aerodynamic designs of guided missiles:

1 - normal; 2 - “tailless”; 3 - “duck”; 4 - “swivel wing”.

Guided missile engines are divided into two groups: rocket and air-breathing engines.

A rocket engine is an engine that uses fuel that is entirely on board the rocket. Its operation does not require oxygen intake from the environment. Based on the type of fuel, rocket engines are divided into solid rocket engines (solid propellant rocket engines) and liquid rocket engines (LPRE). Solid propellant rocket engines use rocket powder and mixed solid fuel as fuel, which are poured and pressed directly into the engine combustion chamber.

Air-breathing engines (ARE) are engines in which the oxidizing agent is oxygen taken from the surrounding air. As a result, only fuel is contained on board the rocket, which makes it possible to increase the fuel supply. The disadvantage of WFDs is the impossibility of their operation in rarefied layers of the atmosphere. They can be used on aircraft at flight altitudes of up to 35-40 km.

The autopilot (AP) is designed to stabilize the angular movements of the rocket relative to the center of mass. In addition, the AP is an integral part of the rocket flight control system and controls the position of the center of mass itself in space in accordance with control commands. In the first case, the autopilot plays the role of a rocket stabilization system, in the second - the role of an element of the control system.

To stabilize the rocket in the longitudinal, azimuthal planes and when moving relative to the longitudinal axis of the rocket (along the roll), three independent stabilization channels are used: pitch, heading and roll.

Onboard missile flight control equipment is an integral part of the control system. Its structure is determined by the adopted control system, implemented in the control complex for anti-aircraft and aviation missiles.

In command telecontrol systems, devices are installed on board the rocket that make up the receiving path of the command radio control line (CRU). They include an antenna and a receiver of radio signals for control commands, a command selector, and a demodulator.

The combat equipment of anti-aircraft and aircraft missiles is a combination of a warhead and a fuse.

Warhead has a combat charge, a detonator and a body. According to the principle of operation, warheads can be fragmentation and high-explosive fragmentation. Some types of missile defense systems can also be equipped with nuclear warheads (for example, in the Nike-Hercules air defense system).

The damaging elements of the warhead are both fragments and finished elements placed on the surface of the hull. High explosives (crushing) explosives (TNT, mixtures of TNT with hexogen, etc.) are used as warheads.

Missile fuses can be non-contact or contact. Non-contact fuses, depending on the location of the energy source used to trigger the fuse, are divided into active, semi-active and passive. In addition, non-contact fuses are divided into electrostatic, optical, acoustic, and radio fuses. In foreign missile models, radio and optical fuses are more often used. IN in some cases The optical and radio fuse operate simultaneously, which increases the reliability of detonation of the warhead in conditions of electronic suppression.

The operation of a radio fuse is based on the principles of radar. Therefore, such a fuse is a miniature radar that generates a detonation signal at a certain position of the target in the beam of the fuse antenna.

According to the design and principles of operation, radio fuses can be pulse, Doppler and frequency.

Rice. 8. Block diagram of a pulse radio fuse

In a pulse fuse, the transmitter produces short-duration high-frequency pulses emitted by an antenna in the direction of the target. The antenna beam is coordinated in space with the area of ​​dispersion of warhead fragments. When the target is in the beam, the reflected signals are received by the antenna, pass through the receiving device and enter the coincidence cascade, where a strobe pulse is applied. If they coincide, a signal is issued to detonate the warhead detonator. The duration of the strobe pulses determines the range of possible firing ranges of the fuse.

Doppler fuses often operate in continuous radiation mode. The signals reflected from the target and received by the antenna are sent to a mixer, where the Doppler frequency is separated.

At given speeds, Doppler frequency signals pass through a filter and are fed to an amplifier. At a certain amplitude of current oscillations of this frequency, a detonation signal is issued.

Contact fuses can be electric or impact. They are used in short-range missiles with high firing accuracy, which ensures detonation of the warhead in the event of a direct missile hit.

To increase the likelihood of hitting a target with warhead fragments, measures are taken to coordinate the areas of fuse activation and the dispersion of fragments. With good agreement, the area of ​​scattering of fragments, as a rule, coincides in space with the area where the target is located.