NATURE, ANIMAL WORLD
Terrain. Ethiopia is the most mountainous country on the African continent. More than half of its territory is located at altitudes exceeding 1500 m and makes up the Ethiopian Highlands, stretching from the Tigray region in the north to the Gamo Gofa region in the south. Within its boundaries, the northwestern, central and southwestern regions are distinguished. In the northwestern region there are peaks exceeding 4000 m above sea level. The highest of them are Mount Ras-Dashen (4620 m) and Mount Talo (4413 m), located respectively to the northeast and east of the lake. Tana. In addition, the relief shows numerous mesa-outcrops, which have the local name “amba”. The Ethiopian Highlands in the east abruptly ends towards the Afar depression in the form of a ledge with absolute heights of 2100–2400 m. The western side of the Great Rift Zone decreases somewhat in the southwest, where average heights reach 1500–1800 m above sea level. The western slopes of the highlands are flatter than the eastern ones, and are limited in the west by ledges 1200–1500 m above sea level. The northwestern parts of the highlands are dissected by V-shaped valleys, the bottoms of which are at an altitude of approx. 600 m above sea level
Mountain ranges surrounded by vast plains - characteristic feature landscape of the southeastern part of the Ethiopian Highlands, where the administrative regions of Sidamo, Arsi, Bale and Harerge are located. Only the eastern side of the Great Rift Zone is a clear boundary of this territory, since its southern and eastern edges are located on the territory of the neighboring states of Kenya and Somalia. There are even deeper canyons here than in the northwest of the highlands. The escarpments bordering the Great Rift Zone have absolute heights from 1800 m in the southwest to 1200 m in the northeast, and in the center they exceed 2700 m, where the Chilalo Mountains are located with a height of more than 3000 m.
The plains surrounding the Ethiopian Highlands make up a significant part of the country's territory and in some places turn into a plateau up to 1500 m above sea level. However, some basins are located below sea level. Within the northeastern plain, partly extending into the territory of Eritrea and constituting the northern end of the rift zone in Ethiopia, is the deepest depression in Africa, the Afar (116 m below sea level). It is sometimes considered as a link between the African Great Rift Zone proper and the Red Sea graben. The plains, forming a narrow strip to the west of the Ethiopian Highlands, stretch along the Sudanese-Ethiopian border from the Gondar region in the north to the Illubabor region in the south. Typically, absolute altitudes in this band do not exceed 1000 m.
Water resources. Since it falls in Ethiopia significant amount precipitation, rivers are full, and there is enough water to irrigate fields. In the western part of the Ethiopian Highlands the surface has a general slope towards the northwest, and most of the major rivers there belong to the vast Nile drainage basin. The largest of these rivers, Abbay, in its lower reaches called the Blue Nile, originates in the form of a small river, Little Abbay, which flows into lake. Tana, and when leaving it, it gradually turns into a full-flowing river. Significant waterways are also the Tekaze rivers in the north and the Baro and Gilo rivers in the south. The last two belong to the basin of the Sobat River, a tributary of the White Nile. Of the large permanent watercourses, only two rivers do not flow into the Nile basin. The Awash River enters the Danakil region and, before reaching the Gulf of Aden, ends in the lakes of Gamarri, Bario and Abbe. Another river, the Omo, flows into the lake. Rudolph on the Kenyan border.
Since the surface in the southeastern Ethiopian Highlands has a general slope to the southeast, river flow is directed to the Indian Ocean. Largest rivers this part of the country - Wabi Shebelle and tributaries of the main water artery of western Somalia, the Jubba River. Along with permanent watercourses, there are also numerous short rivers and streams that fill with water only during the rainy season, when loose sediments are washed away. Since during such periods the meandering channels of permanent rivers receive additional nutrition, vast areas are flooded, and tons of fertile soil are washed away from the highlands and redeposited on the underlying plains.
Ethiopia's hydrographic network is characterized by the presence of lakes in the Great Rift Zone. They vary in size - from 1300 sq. km (Lake Abaya) up to 150 sq. km (Lake Auasa). Some of them are freshwater, others are salty. The largest lake in the country is Tana with an area of 3150 square meters. km - is not associated with the rift zone and is located in the north-west of the Ethiopian Highlands. It was formed in a tectonic basin as a result of damming lava flows.
Flora and fauna. The most humidified areas have the densest vegetation cover. In southwest Ethiopia, a combination of heavy rainfall and high temperatures there are large areas of wet tropical forests with a rich and varied flora. As a result of centuries of agricultural use of the land, the forests in the northwestern Ethiopian Highlands have been cleared. In 1900, forests covered 40% of the country's territory, and in the early 1990s their area decreased to 4%. More than 2/3 of the remaining forests are concentrated in the areas of Wollega, Illubabor and Kefa, the rest is in the areas of Arsi, Bale, Sidamo and Gamo-Gofa. At the same time, in the context of a significant increase in the country's population, more and more forest land has to be allocated for arable land and the construction of new settlements. On the inland plains with a hot climate and low rainfall, sparse grassy vegetation is common, and in the south and southeast of the country, in the Borena and Ogaden regions, acacia savannas are common. The fauna varies depending on the nature of the vegetation. Deforestation and poaching have led to a significant reduction in the abundance and species diversity of wild animals. In some places there are still lions, leopards, cheetahs and elephants; Jackals, hyenas and foxes live everywhere. Hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, giraffes, zebras, antelopes, monkeys, incl., are preserved in small quantities in Ethiopia. baboons, and crocodiles. The remote northwestern and northeastern mountainous regions are home to some rare animal species, such as the Ethiopian ibex and nyala antelope.
NATURE
Terrain.
Ethiopia is the most mountainous country on the African continent. More than half of its territory is located at altitudes exceeding 1500 m and makes up the Ethiopian Highlands, stretching from the Tigray region in the north to the Gamo Gofa region in the south. Within its boundaries, the northwestern, central and southwestern regions are distinguished. In the northwestern region there are peaks exceeding 4000 m above sea level. The highest of them are Mount Ras-Dashen (4620 m) and Mount Talo (4413 m), located respectively to the northeast and east of the lake. Tana. In addition, the relief shows numerous mesa-outcrops, which have the local name “amba”. The Ethiopian Highlands in the east abruptly ends towards the Afar depression in the form of a ledge with absolute heights of 2100–2400 m. The western side of the Great Rift Zone decreases somewhat in the southwest, where average heights reach 1500–1800 m above sea level. The western slopes of the highlands are flatter than the eastern ones, and are limited in the west by ledges 1200–1500 m above sea level. The northwestern parts of the highlands are dissected by V-shaped valleys, the bottoms of which are at an altitude of approx. 600 m above sea level
Mountain ranges surrounded by vast plains are a characteristic feature of the landscape of the south-eastern part of the Ethiopian Highlands, where the administrative regions of Sidamo, Arsi, Bale and Harerge are located. Only the eastern side of the Great Rift Zone is a clear boundary of this territory, since its southern and eastern edges are located on the territory of the neighboring states of Kenya and Somalia. There are even deeper canyons here than in the northwest of the highlands. The escarpments bordering the Great Rift Zone have absolute heights from 1800 m in the southwest to 1200 m in the northeast, and in the center they exceed 2700 m, where the Chilalo Mountains are located with a height of more than 3000 m.
The plains surrounding the Ethiopian Highlands make up a significant part of the country's territory and in some places turn into a plateau up to 1500 m above sea level. However, some basins are located below sea level. Within the northeastern plain, partly extending into the territory of Eritrea and constituting the northern end of the rift zone in Ethiopia, is the deepest depression in Africa, the Afar (116 m below sea level). It is sometimes considered as a link between the African Great Rift Zone proper and the Red Sea graben. The plains, forming a narrow strip to the west of the Ethiopian Highlands, stretch along the Sudanese-Ethiopian border from the Gondar region in the north to the Illubabor region in the south. Typically, absolute altitudes in this band do not exceed 1000 m.
Water resources.
Since Ethiopia receives significant rainfall, the rivers are full and there is enough water to irrigate the fields. In the western part of the Ethiopian Highlands the surface has a general slope towards the northwest, and most of the major rivers there belong to the vast Nile drainage basin. The largest of these rivers, Abbay, in its lower reaches called the Blue Nile, originates in the form of a small river, Little Abbay, which flows into lake. Tana, and when leaving it, it gradually turns into a full-flowing river. Significant waterways are also the Tekaze rivers in the north and the Baro and Gilo rivers in the south. The last two belong to the basin of the Sobat River, a tributary of the White Nile. Of the large permanent watercourses, only two rivers do not flow into the Nile basin. The Awash River enters the Danakil region and, before reaching the Gulf of Aden, ends in the lakes of Gamarri, Bario and Abbe. Another river, the Omo, flows into the lake. Rudolph on the Kenyan border.
Since the surface in the southeastern Ethiopian Highlands has a general slope to the southeast, river flow is directed to the Indian Ocean. The largest rivers in this part of the country are the Wabi Shebelle and tributaries of the main water artery of western Somalia, the Jubba River. Along with permanent watercourses, there are also numerous short rivers and streams that fill with water only during the rainy season, when loose sediments are washed away. Since during such periods the meandering channels of permanent rivers receive additional nutrition, vast areas are flooded, and tons of fertile soil are washed away from the highlands and redeposited on the underlying plains.
Ethiopia's hydrographic network is characterized by the presence of lakes in the Great Rift Zone. They vary in size - from 1300 sq. km (Lake Abaya) up to 150 sq. km (Lake Auasa). Some of them are freshwater, others are salty. The largest lake in the country is Tana with an area of 3150 square meters. km - is not associated with the rift zone and is located in the north-west of the Ethiopian Highlands. It was formed in a tectonic basin as a result of damming lava flows.
Climate.
Ethiopia is located in the equatorial and subequatorial zones, but due to the fact that most of its territory is occupied by highlands, the climate there is more moderate and more humid than in neighboring countries located at the same latitudes. Despite the lack of long-term accurate observations for the entire country, available data indicate that in mountainous areas the amount of precipitation varies from 1000 mm in the north to 2000 mm in the southwest, with the maximum amount of precipitation falling in summer months. In the lower regions of the southeastern part of the Ethiopian Highlands, located in the zone of influence of the monsoons, the annual course of precipitation clearly distinguishes two wet periods, separated by a dry summer season. Average annual quantity precipitation here is 500–750 mm. Typically, the lowland areas of the country receive less than 500 mm of rainfall per year, with the exception of the Baro Valley in the southwest, which is in the path of summer winds that bring moisture from Atlantic Ocean. The average annual precipitation in the most arid interior regions of the country, including the Danakil and Afar depressions, does not exceed 250 mm per year (in some years no more than 50 mm).
Air temperatures depend on the altitudinal position, which changes the zonal climatic characteristics, but at the same time are closely related to the distribution of precipitation. For example, in the western regions of the Ethiopian Highlands, minimum temperatures occur during cloudy and rainy months, while maximum temperatures are usually associated with clear sunny weather. The average temperature in the wet season is 16° C, in the dry season – 21° C. Ethiopia is not characterized by sudden temperature changes. As the altitude decreases, temperatures increase, and the thermometer usually rises to 27° C in the rainy season and up to 35° C in the dry season. A record high temperature (49° C) was recorded in the Danakil Depression.
Flora and fauna.
The most humidified areas have the densest vegetation cover. Southwest Ethiopia, with a combination of high rainfall and high temperatures, has large tracts of tropical rainforest with a rich and varied flora. As a result of centuries of agricultural use of the land, the forests in the northwestern Ethiopian Highlands have been cleared. In 1900, forests covered 40% of the country's territory, and in the early 1990s their area decreased to 4%. More than 2/3 of the remaining forests are concentrated in the areas of Wollega, Illubabor and Kefa, the rest is in the areas of Arsi, Bale, Sidamo and Gamo-Gofa. At the same time, in the context of a significant increase in the country's population, more and more forest land has to be allocated for arable land and the construction of new settlements. On the inland plains with a hot climate and low rainfall, sparse grassy vegetation is common, and in the south and southeast of the country, in the Borena and Ogaden regions, acacia savannas are common.
The fauna varies depending on the nature of the vegetation. Deforestation and poaching have led to a significant reduction in the abundance and species diversity of wild animals. In some places there are still lions, leopards, cheetahs and elephants; Jackals, hyenas and foxes live everywhere. Hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, giraffes, zebras, antelopes, monkeys, incl., are preserved in small quantities in Ethiopia. baboons, and crocodiles. The remote northwestern and northeastern mountainous regions are home to some rare animal species, such as the Ethiopian ibex and nyala antelope.
POPULATION
Ethnic composition.
Amhara and Tigrayan Christians, who once dominated the country's history, speak Semitic languages based on the ancient Ethiopian language, or Ghiz, which is still used in church services today. Probably, Semitic peoples moved through the Red Sea to Ethiopia from the centers of civilization in fertile southwestern Arabia (the so-called “Happy Arabia”). In Africa, Semitic newcomers subjugated the local Hamitic-speaking population and then gradually merged with them.
The Amhara and Tigrayans, who make up a third and a tenth of Ethiopia's population respectively, inhabit the northwestern mountainous and upland regions, located mainly north of 10° N latitude. and west of 40° E. They also live in the central administrative region of Shoa as far as the latitude of Addis Ababa in the south. The Amharic language is spoken in the larger southern part of the Ethiopian Highlands, and the Tigrinya language is spoken in the northern part.
Hamitic-speaking peoples include the Oromo (until recently they were called Galla), Somalia, Afar (or Danakil), Sidamo and other smaller ethnic groups. The Oromo, the largest Hamitic-speaking group, make up approximately 40% of Ethiopia's population. Individual Oromo groups vary in level economic development, social and political organization and religion. In the distant past, these were nomads who lived on the plains with a hot climate in the southeast of the country. In the 16th century The Oromo invaded many areas of the Ethiopian Highlands, displacing the Amhara Christians and the Muslim population of the eastern provinces. Later, many Oromos converted to Islam, a slightly smaller part converted to Christianity, but many adherents of traditional beliefs remain. A significant number of Oromo Christians have achieved high positions in the government service. The Oromo make up the majority of the population on the eastern edge of the Ethiopian Highlands, the vast plateau in the Wollo region, the Wollega and Kafa regions in the southwest, and Harerge in the southeast. In the south, Oromo pastoralists are dispersed on the arid slopes of the Ethiopian Highlands.
Another Hamitic-speaking group, the Somali, inhabit the hot and dry eastern and southeastern regions of Ethiopia. These nomadic pastoralists, professing Islam, form a single ethnic group with the population of the regions of Somalia, Djibouti and Kenya bordering Ethiopia.
Their related Afars (Danakil), Sunni Muslims by religion, live on the semi-desert plains of northeastern Ethiopia and in the northern regions of Djibouti. The cultural center and residence of the Afar Sultan is located in the Afar depression, where the Awash River flows into the system of lakes Gamarra, Bario and Abbe.
Peoples speaking the languages of the Sidamo group live in the southern regions in the Omo River valley and around the drainless lakes in the south of the Great Rift Zone within Ethiopia. Remaining isolated from the Amhara as a result of the Oromo invasion, these peoples developed independently until the end of the 19th century. were not conquered by Emperor Menelik II and their lands did not become part of the Ethiopian state. Over the previous two centuries, they managed to create several small states, the most developed of which was Kefa.
The Gurage, who speak a Semitic language close to Amharic and Gyiz, form a kind of connecting link between the Oromo and Sidamo, living to the south of them, and the Amhara, living to the north. They are engaged in primitive agriculture and pastoralism, and until the end of the 19th century. only part of their territory was part of Ethiopia.
Numerous Negroid tribes live in the west and south of the country, from the southern border of the Gondar region to Lake. Rudolf, in the hilly regions stretching from the western edge of the Ethiopian Highlands to the sultry plains of Sudan. In the past, they, like the Oromo and Gurage, were often sold into slavery. Many slaves from these areas were taken to Arabia, Egypt and Sudan.
Demography.
According to the 1984 census, 41 million people lived in Ethiopia, and in 1998 the population increased to 62.1 million people. According to the UN, in 1995–2000 the average annual population growth was 3.2%. In 1996 approx. 46% of the country's residents were under 14 years of age. Population density is uneven. The most densely populated areas are the Ethiopian Highlands, which have a mild climate, fertile soils and abundant rainfall, while the arid plains in the east of the country are sparsely populated.
In the absence of precise statistics, it is estimated to be approx. 40% of Ethiopians profess Christianity, 45% - Islam, the rest - Judaism, Hindus, etc. Traditionally, the overwhelming majority of government officials were appointed from Christians, although in the history of the country there were also Muslim ministers.
A relatively small proportion of the population lives in cities. In 1994, Addis Ababa, the country's capital and largest city, had 2.1 million inhabitants—almost a third of Ethiopia's urban population. Addis Ababa is a city of pan-African significance as it is home to the Organization of African Unity (OAE) and the UN Economic Commission for Africa. Among other cities whose population, according to the 1994 census, exceeded 50 thousand people, the following stand out (in thousand people): Dire Dawa (164.8), Nazret (127.8), Gondar (112.2), Desse (97.3), Harare (131.1), Mekele (96.9), Jimma (88.9), Bahir Dar (96.1), Akaki (54.1) and Debre Zeit (Bishoftu) ( 51.1).
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
For many centuries, Ethiopia was a feudal monarchy. Her the last Emperor Haile Selassie I (1892–1975) concentrated all power in his hands from 1930 to 1974. The army's performance in early 1974 led to the resignation of the government, and in September 1974 Haile Selassie was deposed. The country was led by an army group that established the Provisional Military Administrative Council, or Derg. The new leadership announced its intention to create a one-party system and transfer property “necessary for economic development” to state control. In 1975, the monarchy was abolished by government decree. In 1977, after purges in the military leadership, the country was headed by Lieutenant Colonel Mengystu Haile Mariam.
Mengystu retained power until the defeat of government troops by armed opposition forces in 1991. The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) established control over the entire territory of Eritrea. In May 1991, troops of the Revolutionary Democratic Front of the Peoples of Ethiopia (RDFPE) occupied Addis Ababa. By decision of the EPRDF, a Transitional Government was created, and the leader of the Tigray rebels, Meles Zenawi, became the interim president of Ethiopia.
The period of the monarchy.
The highest power in Ethiopia was held by the emperor, or nyguse-negest (king of kings). The legend about the direct descent of the emperor from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba contributed to maintaining the dominant role of the monarchy in the country. Local power belonged to governors, who were appointed and removed at the request of the monarch.
The governor received no salary or military assistance from the emperor. He maintained his own army and made all appointments to the administrative apparatus of his province, annually sending a portion of the collected taxes to the center. Particularly high taxes and taxes were levied on the predominantly Orom population of the Ogaden region, which was captured at the end of the 19th century. Amhara and Tigray warriors of Emperor Menelik II. Most of the most fertile lands were distributed among the conquerors. The local population was forced, in addition to taxes, to pay rent to the new landowners.
Since the system of feudal governance that had developed in the north could not be mechanically transferred to the southern regions, where a hostile population with a different social structure lived, the process of political reform in the south was accelerated in the first half of the 20th century. under Emperor Haile Selassie I. Having become regent in 1916, he became a key figure in Ethiopian politics. In 1928, Haile Selassie became the Negus, and in 1930 he was elevated to the imperial throne. The country established a Senate, whose members were appointed from among the nobility (members of the imperial family, ministers, judges and military leaders), as well as a Chamber of Deputies, the selection of which was carried out by the nobility and local leaders “until the population can independently elect their representatives " This bicameral parliament was primarily an advisory body, and also served as a channel for information coming from above from the government to the local nobility. In 1955, 25 years after the coronation, the emperor introduced a new constitution. Dressed in modern formulations, it did not change anything in the system of government, and until 1974 the country remained an absolute monarchy, whose subjects were deprived of basic political and civil rights. In the 20th century Ethiopia remained a unique country where there was no political life in its modern manifestations: there were no political parties, non-state press, local government.
An important innovation was the creation of a cabinet of ministers. The system of new ministries was created in accordance with the annex to the imperial decree of 1943. In 1967, 18 ministries functioned in Ethiopia. All ministers, including the prime minister, were appointed by the emperor. In the period after World War II, the modern education system developed rapidly. Educational institutions trained qualified personnel for the administrative apparatus and the modernized armed forces.
Revolutionary regime.
After World War II, criticism of the monarchical regime increased from disgruntled ethnic groups and various sectors of society. The Somalis, who inhabited the southeastern Ogaden region, resisted the Ethiopian authorities, and from 1960 the young independent Republic of Somalia began to support this fight.
A similar threat has emerged in the north of the country in Eritrea. After the liquidation of the Italian colonial regime there in 1941, Eritrea came under the control of the British military administration for 10 years, and then became part of a federation with Ethiopia as a self-governing unit. In 1962, the emperor abolished the federation, turning Eritrea into one of the Ethiopian provinces. In the same year, a national liberation movement was formed, which launched an armed struggle for the independence of Eritrea.
Socio-economic changes led to the emergence of new groups in Ethiopia, dissatisfied with the policies of the monarchical regime. The educated part of society rejected the political permissiveness of the emperor and his entourage and sharply criticized the slow pace of development of Ethiopia, which ranked one of the last in the world in terms of the standard of living of the population. Among the peasants southern regions Resistance to exploitation on the part of landowners grew. Deprived of any legal protection or social security, the small urban proletariat toiled in factories that were owned and operated by foreigners. The large Muslim population was unhappy that Islam was not officially recognized as one of the state religions and that Muslims were rarely appointed to high government positions.
Discontent has been brewing for years. The internal political situation in the country sharply worsened in 1974 against the backdrop of rising inflation and unemployment, coupled with a horrific famine, which in 1972–1974 claimed the lives of approx. 200 thousand people. The government was unable to prevent the catastrophe: caring primarily about its own reputation, it tried by any means to hide the very fact of famine from the outside world, abandoning people dying of hunger to their fate. An uprising broke out in military units, exhausted by many years of ineffective fighting in the Ogaden and Eritrea. Having lost the support of the army, the imperial regime collapsed without offering resistance. On September 12, 1974, Haile Selassie was deposed, taken into custody and died on August 27, 1975. Power in the country passed to the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC), or Dergu.
This council initially consisted of 120 military personnel ranging in rank from private to major. In 1974 and 1977, the Derg was subjected to purges, as a result of which its significantly thinned composition was headed by Mengystu Haile Mariam.
The military leadership began implementing a revolutionary socialist program that would radically transform Ethiopian society. The nationalization of industrial enterprises, banks, financial and insurance companies and other sectors of the economy led to the elimination of private capital. Nationalization and redistribution of land in rural areas undermined the economic position of the old aristocracy. The nationalization of land and tenement buildings in cities deprived their former owners of the opportunity to enrich themselves through rent. The military leadership launched a nationwide campaign to propagate the ideas of “Ethiopian socialism” and accordingly changed educational programs in public schools (after the nationalization of private schools, only public schools remained in the country).
The military inherited from the previous regime the problem of the Eritreans and Somalis, who intensified the struggle for independence. Representatives of other nationalities also took up arms, so that at least five liberation fronts created on an ethnic basis opposed the central government. As a result, the military regime was drawn into fighting throughout the country. In addition, the military leadership's reluctance to share power with civilian politicians led to the emergence of underground opposition movements. The Mengystu regime destroyed thousands of its opponents, many of them were forced to flee the country.
Armed forces.
According to a long tradition, the majority of the Ethiopian army consisted of provincial formations maintained by governors. To strengthen his position and coordinate the actions of the provincial armies, the emperor sought to have his own strong army under his command. After the restoration of the imperial regime in 1941, Haile Selassie created an army that provided him with undeniable superiority over potential rivals. This allowed the emperor to implement a number of successful reforms aimed at significantly limiting the power of governors. The core of the new armed forces was the regular army, trained by the British under an agreement with Ethiopia in 1942. In addition, the emperor created a personal guard on the French model, headed by the Swedish general E. Virin.
In the early 1950s, the United States became the main ally and the main source financial assistance Ethiopia. In exchange for military assistance, which made it possible to form an army of 60 thousand people, the United States received the right to create a large Kagnew air base near the main city of Eritrea, Asmara. The Ethiopian army was equipped American weapons, and many of its officers, including Lieutenant Colonel Mengystu, underwent military training in the United States. In 1960 loyal to the regime military units decisively suppressed the attempt to overthrow Haile Selassie, which was led by officers of the imperial guard. However, the prolonged long years The hopeless war against guerrilla forces in Eritrea and the Ogaden undermined the morale of ordinary soldiers, whose living conditions deteriorated. The junior officers, graduates of the military academy in Harare, shared the dissatisfaction of the Ethiopian intelligentsia with the authoritarian political system. In 1974, ordinary military personnel and junior officers united to overthrow the monarchical regime.
The radicalism of the new government and the nationalization of American investments without compensation forced the United States to stop providing military and economic assistance to Ethiopia. Faced with simultaneous separatist advances in Eritrea and the Ogaden and increasing internal political instability throughout Ethiopia, Mengystu turned to the USSR and its allies for help. In 1977–1978, the USSR sent large quantities of weapons to Ethiopia, and also sent military advisers and technical personnel. Tactical arrived from Cuba battle group numbering several thousand people, various assistance came from other countries of the socialist camp. All these measures allowed the military regime to repel the full-scale offensive of the Somali army in 1978 and regain control over all major cities of Eritrea. Successes on the fronts allowed Mengyst to strengthen his position by eliminating the main civil opposition groups and significantly increasing the number of armed forces. However, throughout the 1980s, Eritrean rebels steadily increased their fighting power, and initially minor protests against the military regime in Tigray province escalated into a full-scale civil war. By mid-1990, Ethiopia had effectively lost Eritrea, and the military successes of the Tigrayans led to the overthrow of Mengystu in 1991.
Political parties.
Although the Derg, created in 1974, repeatedly stated (especially after the start of large-scale military aid from the USSR and Cuba in 1977) that it was carrying out socialist transformations, in fact it was far from Marxist ideology. In 1979, the Commission for the Organization of the Ethiopian Workers' Party (COPTE) was formed. Mengystu became the Chairman of the Commission, and other members of the Derg became part of its governing bodies. At the direction and control of the military, associations were created that united peasants, workers, townspeople, women and youth. In September 1984, COPTE announced the creation of a Marxist-Leninist party in the country, called the Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE). Secretary General The party became Mengystu. According to official data, in 1989 its number reached 50 thousand people.
Derg mercilessly fought against any opposition, but gradually the initiative in the country began to pass to armed groups created by Eritreans, Tigrayans, Oromos and Somalis. The most powerful rebel movements were the openly Marxist Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), which sought to achieve Eritrean independence, and the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF), which contributed to the overthrow of the Derg. The TPLF's original ideology was Maoism, but since the early 1990s it has advocated pluralism and parliamentary democracy. In 1989, at the initiative of the TPLF, the Revolutionary Democratic Front of the Peoples of Ethiopia (EPRDF) was created, which, together with the Tigrayans, included smaller armed groups created on an ethnic basis, such as the Oromo Liberation Front, which enjoyed the support of the population of the southwestern regions of the country . In May 1991, when armed forces of the EPRDF approached Addis Ababa, Mengystu fled the country. The EPRDF took control of the capital and appointed TPLF leader Meles Zenawi as interim president. By this time, the EPLF controlled the entire territory of Eritrea, and the EPRDF had to recognize its independence.
Religion.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church played an important role in the political life of the country, second in importance only to the power of the emperor and the army. Using enormous influence, comparable only to the authority of the Catholic Church in medieval Europe, the Ethiopian Church consolidated society. The unifying role of the church was facilitated not only by the common faith, but also by the peculiarities church hierarchy. At the very top was the abuna (metropolitan), the only bishop in the country, who was appointed by the patriarch of the Coptic Orthodox Church in Alexandria. Since the abuna was always appointed from among the Egyptians and was not privy to the intricacies of Ethiopian political life, he could stay away from worldly issues, taking care to maintain his spiritual authority. In fact, the church was ruled by an Ethiopian, its administrative head, ychege, but only Abuna had the right to be ordained and anointed to the imperial throne. The emperor himself often showed interest in church affairs.
In political life, the church was a powerful conservative force, which was understandable, given that the maintenance of its large clergy depended on the preservation of large church property. In 1990, there were 20 thousand churches and monasteries in the country, their parishioners were approximately 45% of the population. Even a small community sometimes had more than one church, in each of which three priests and several young deacons conducted services. The cathedral could have several hundred clergy.
One of the results of the growth of national self-awareness of the Ethiopians was the desire to weaken the dependence of their church on the Alexandrian patriarch. In 1948, the emperor refused to accept the new abuna appointed in Alexandria and put forward a number of demands to the Alexandrian patriarch. According to Haile Selassie, representatives Ethiopian Church should have participated in the selection of the patriarch and the meetings of the synod of the Coptic Church, the abuna should be appointed from among the Ethiopian clergy, and the synod of the Ethiopian Church should itself determine the clergy who would be ordained by the abuna to the rank of bishop. In 1951, for the first time in 15 centuries, the Ethiopian Church was headed by an Ethiopian Abuna, who in 1959 was elevated to the rank of patriarch. Since 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church has become completely independent of the Coptic Church.
With the military leadership coming to power in 1974, difficult times came for the church. The nationalization of the land deprived the clergy of the vast land holdings that the church had amassed over the centuries. The church has lost financial support state, and its maintenance became the lot of the clergy itself. In 1976, the current abuna was accused of corruption and deprived of his post, and his place was taken by an unknown monk who was pleasing to the authorities. Christianity has lost the privilege of being the only state religion in the country. By decision of the authorities, Islam and other religions were given equal rights with Christianity.
Foreign policy.
The spread of Islam cut off the already inaccessible Ethiopian Highlands from the outside world. Isolation contributed colonial section Africa between European powers at the end of the 19th century, which created a threat to the independence of Ethiopia. With the exception of Liberia, which was created through US efforts, Ethiopia remained the only independent state in sub-Saharan Africa. The threat of foreign invasion was fully realized when Ethiopia became the target of Italian aggression. In 1896, at the Battle of Adua, the country managed to defend its independence. The resulting respite made it possible to modernize the country and complete territorial expansion in a southern direction. However, the threat of dismemberment of the country continued to exist. For example, in 1906, a tripartite agreement was signed between Great Britain, France and Italy, in which these powers, concerned about the deteriorating health of Menelik II and the danger of internecine war, expressed their intention to respect the territorial integrity of Ethiopia, but in the event of its collapse, they declared mutual respect for the interests of each of them. parties in this region. The sphere of interest of France was the French railway from Djibouti, Great Britain (represented by Egypt) - establishing control over the lake. Tana and the Blue Nile, Italy - the construction of a railway through the territory of Ethiopia, which would connect the two Italian colonies on the coast. In 1925, Great Britain recognized Italy's sphere of influence in Ethiopia and promised to support the idea of building a railway from Eritrea to Italian Somalia. Italy promised to support the British project to build a dam on the lake. Tana. After Ethiopia protested both agreements, Western diplomats assured its government that the agreements did not pose a threat to the country's sovereignty and territorial integrity. In 1919, in order to secure its independence, Ethiopia applied for admission to the League of Nations and in 1923 became a member of this organization. When Italy began its conquest of Ethiopia in 1935, even the historic personal appeal of the then exiled Emperor Haile Selassie to the League of Nations did not convince its members of the need to take effective measures against Italy.
After the restoration of the monarchical regime with the help of British arms in 1941, there began a short period of close British-Ethiopian cooperation. In 1945 Ethiopia became a member of the UN.
In the immediate post-war years, the main goal of Ethiopian foreign policy was to prevent the transfer of its former colonies of Eritrea and Somalia to Italy and the return of these territories to Ethiopia. Britain and the United States provided military and economic assistance to Ethiopia, and during the Korean War, Ethiopian troops fought there alongside American troops under the UN flag. In 1952, Eritrea was united with Ethiopia within a federation, and in 1962 it became a province of Ethiopia. During the long-term national liberation struggle in 1991, Eritrea won and gained independence.
From the mid-1950s, Ethiopia began to establish contacts with other African countries. In 1955 she took part in the Conference of Asian and African Countries in Bandung, and in 1958 in the Conference independent states Africa in Accra. At the last conference, the representative of Ethiopia announced that his country would provide 200 Haile Selassie scholarships to Africans to study in Ethiopia. In 1958, the headquarters of the UN Economic African Commission was located in Addis Ababa, in 1960 the Second Conference of Independent States of Africa was held there, and in 1962 - a meeting of the Pan-African Liberation Movement of East, Central and Southern Africa. In May 1963, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was created in Addis Ababa, and since then its headquarters have been located there.
During the reign of Haile Selassie, Ethiopia maintained close political and economic ties with the United States, although the emperor did not want to depend on one great power and tried to get help from possible more countries American aid was directed mainly to the development of public education, health care and agriculture, and was also used to finance projects such as the construction of agricultural educational institutions and experimental stations, pedagogical institutes and medical consultation centers. With the military leadership coming to power in 1974, relations between Ethiopia and the United States deteriorated, and in 1977, most of the organizations associated with American participation were dissolved by order.
After 1977, the Ethiopian leadership moved towards rapprochement with the countries of the Soviet bloc, from where significant military and less significant economic assistance came. Several agreements were concluded between Ethiopia and the USSR, and the military leadership provided support for Soviet foreign policy actions.
ECONOMY
Consumer agriculture plays a leading role in the Ethiopian economy. In the early 1990s, more than half of gross domestic product (GDP) came from agricultural production. During the same period, the share of trade and services in GDP grew. From fiscal years 1989–1990 to 1994–1995, annual growth in the services sector's share of GDP was 2.4%. In the 1993–1994 financial year, the services sector accounted for 22% of GDP (data includes economic indicators for Eritrea). Until recently, Ethiopia was one of the poorest countries in the world and its economy was growing slowly. In the period from 1960 to 1974, the average annual growth in production did not exceed 4%. Revolutionary upheavals led to this figure dropping to 1.4% in 1974–1979. Due to rapid population growth, per capita production volume in 1985–1995 decreased annually by an average of 0.3%. During this decade, the population growth rate averaged 2.6% per year. The deterioration of living conditions was also greatly affected by severe droughts and civil war. In the early 1990s, there were signs of economic recovery. From fiscal years 1989–1990 to 1994–1995, the average GDP growth rate was 1.9%. In the fiscal year 1996–1997, GDP increased by 7%. The main factor in improving the economic situation was foreign loans and financial assistance.
Agriculture.
The temperate climate, fertile soils and abundant rainfall in most of the Ethiopian Highlands create favorable conditions for the development of agriculture. The main crops are wheat, which is grown at higher altitudes in cooler climates, corn, millet and cereals, grown at lower altitudes, as well as crops such as durro (a type of sorghum), teff (a type of millet with small grains, used for baking bread) and dagussa (from which black bread is baked). An important export crop is coffee. In the financial year 1994–1995, its share in export earnings was 66%. A significant part of the coffee harvest is harvested on plantations in the state of Kafa. Other crops include cotton, date palm, sugarcane, beans and peas, oilseeds, chat (the leaves of which contain the drug), castor beans, fruits and vegetables.
Agriculture is a vital sector for Ethiopia. In 1996, it employed 85% of the working population, and agricultural products accounted for more than 50% of GDP. Most of the peasants are engaged in consumer farming, many of them are nomadic pastoralists. At least half of the country's land is suitable for farming, including vast unused areas in the south. In early 1975, the military government nationalized all land in the countryside, promising to distribute it among the peasants. Area of private individual land plot should not exceed 10 hectares, the use of hired labor was prohibited. To carry out land reform, peasant associations were created by government decree. One such association united an average of 200 peasant households; initially the associations were given the right to resolve all land issues. Later, their powers were significantly expanded, including judicial functions (minor administrative and criminal offenses), maintaining order, and exercising local self-government. In 1979, the government announced plans to transform peasant associations into collective agricultural production associations.
17 years of Derg rule have had a detrimental effect on the agricultural sector. Labor productivity declined sharply due to the regime's attempts to force collectivization and set low government purchase prices for agricultural products. The implementation of programs to create new villages and forcibly resettle peasants has disorganized social and economic life in the Ethiopian village. The EPRDF, which overthrew the dictatorial regime of Mengystu Haile Mariam in May 1991, abolished state control over prices for agricultural products. The transitional government gave peasants the right to set minimum guaranteed prices for their crops. However, the authorities retained public ownership of the land.
Due to the lack of irrigation, most of the territory of the Ethiopian plains is suitable only for grazing. Large herd cattle(mainly zebu), sheep and goats, as well as horses, donkeys and mules (the latter are highly valued as vehicles for transporting goods and people), accompanied by shepherds, roam from place to place in search of food. Even despite the mediocre quality of the dressing, hides and leather constitute an important export item. In 1996 in Ethiopia there were approx. 30 million heads of cattle, 22 million sheep, 16.7 million goats, 5.2 million donkeys, 2.75 million horses, 630 thousand mules and 1 million camels.
Mining industry.
The depths of Ethiopia are poorly studied. Gold mining, mainly from poor deposits in the south and west, has long been a side hustle for the local population. Since the late 1960s, the development of rich gold deposits near Kibre Mengyst (Adola) in Sidamo State has contributed to the growth of gold mining. In the 1970s, gold production decreased, but in 1986 it amounted to 923 kg. Recently, a gold deposit with a thickness of approx. 500 tons. Extraction and processing are carried out on a modest scale iron ore. Significant deposits of iron ore and coal have been discovered in the areas of Wollega, Illubabor and Shoa, but development there has not yet reached the point of development. There are reports that Ethiopia, primarily in the Ogaden and Gambela, contains significant reserves of oil and gas, and geological exploration has been carried out there since the late 1980s. Table salt is mined in the country, but it is not enough to meet domestic needs. Other minerals have been explored or are being mined on a small scale: copper, sulfur, potassium salt, platinum, petroleum, marble, mica, cinnabar and manganese.
Manufacturing industry
Ethiopia is underdeveloped and contributed only 7% to GDP in the 1993–1994 fiscal year. The enterprises mainly operate in the processing of agricultural products and light industry. The main products of the manufacturing industry are textiles, food (sugar, flour, pasta, biscuits, canned meat and tomatoes), beer, shoes, cement, soap, alcoholic beverages, medicines and vegetable oils. Artisans make clothing, wood crafts, carpets and jewelry. Many manufacturing industries are concentrated near the urban centers of Addis Ababa, Harare and Dire Dawa. In 1975, the government nationalized 72 industrial enterprises and acquired the majority of shares in 29 enterprises.
Industrial development is hampered by a lack of electricity, although the country has powerful hydroelectric potential, estimated at approximately 60 billion kWh.
Industrial development depends on investment, primarily foreign. To attract foreign investors, a government decree was issued in 1950, according to which all new enterprises were exempt from paying taxes for the first five years. The decree provided that capital equipment could be imported into Ethiopia without paying customs duties that the participation of the Ethiopian side will be kept to a minimum, and the investor has the right to transfer profits in foreign currency from Ethiopia abroad in amounts proportional to the capital invested.
In 1975, the government nationalized large industrial enterprises, as well as banks, financial institutions and insurance companies. The government's socialist policy envisaged the functioning of three sectors in the Ethiopian economy. IN state property the main industries, natural resources and public utilities. The mixed public-private sector covered mining, paper and plastics production, construction of large facilities, tourism, i.e. those areas that Ethiopia could not develop without the participation of foreign capital. The third sector of the economy, which represented an extensive field of activity for private capital, included wholesale, retail and foreign trade, ground transport, except railway, food industry, hotel business, small enterprises of various profiles. At the same time, many private firms were nationalized.
The average annual growth rate in the industrial sector decreased from 6.4% in 1965–1973 to 3.8% in 1980–1987. From fiscal years 1989–1990 to 1994–1995, the average annual growth rate of industrial production was 1.6%. However, in last years There have been positive changes in the industry. Its share in GDP increased to 7.1% in FY 1993-94 and to 8% in FY 1994-95. Although the state still owns and operates some large industrial and commercial enterprises, the government has increased private investment in the economy and limited the economic role of the state.
Public Works.
Until recently public Works were used in the construction of churches, palaces and various public buildings. After World War II, the state built a modern palace, parliament building, prisons, hospitals, schools, airfields and radio stations in this way. In addition, the repair and maintenance of highways and the construction of hydroelectric power stations were carried out; foreign economic assistance and funds from the state budget from foreign loans were sent to these areas.
International trade.
Ethiopia exports mainly agricultural products and imports industrial goods. In fiscal year 1994–1995, more than 65.9% of export earnings came from coffee. Other important exports are hides, vegetables and seeds oilseeds. The main imports were machinery and transport equipment, vehicles, yarn and fabrics, chemical products (primarily pharmaceuticals) and petroleum. Ethiopia's trade balance was in deficit. In 1994, export receipts amounted to $372 million, and the value of imports amounted to $772 million. Until the mid-1980s, Ethiopia's main trading partner for exports was the United States, followed by Germany, which accounted for 32% of exports in 1994 . Main import partners – Saudi Arabia (11% total cost import), USA, Italy, Germany, Japan and Great Britain.
Transport and communications.
For a long time, important caravan routes passed through the territory of Ethiopia. The development of modern modes of transport began with the construction of the Franco-Ethiopian railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa (since 1981 it became known as the Ethiopian-Djiboutian railway). Upon completion of construction in 1917, its length was 782 km (including 682 km in Ethiopia).
Before the Italian occupation began, several highways were built, and the Italians left behind many new roads. During the Italo-Ethiopian War transport infrastructure, especially bridges, suffered significant damage, and road repairs and maintenance placed a heavy burden on the state budget. The imperial government was well aware of the role of reliable communications in strengthening central power and consolidating the country. In 1995, the total length of paved roads was 23.8 thousand km. The expansion of the road network was financed from the state budget and through foreign aid. In 1995, the Ethiopian government announced the start of a road construction program, which was subsidized mainly by loans from the EU and the World Bank.
After World War II, the merchant marine fleet was created, air transport. The Ethiopian state airline's planes fly to all states of the country and also connect Addis Ababa with countries in Europe, Asia and Africa. In 1989, the volume of air traffic carried by the Ethiopian airline was almost half of what all other African airlines transported combined. The country has three international airports (in Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar and Dire Dawa), domestic airports are available in all administrative centers and a number of major cities. The establishment of civil aviation was made possible thanks to loans provided to Ethiopia by the US Export-Import Bank and the American Development Fund. Other types of transport services include intercity bus routes and boat transportation on lakes Tana and Abaya and along the Baro river. After Eritrea left Ethiopia in May 1993, the country lost the ports of Massawa and Assab on the Red Sea. However, the Eritrean government granted Ethiopia the right to use the Assab port for humanitarian aid to the famine-stricken and foreign trade operations.
Part of Ethiopia's modernization was the expansion of domestic telephone communications. The first telephone lines were laid under Emperor Menelik II and subsequently, especially during the Italian occupation, the telephone network was significantly expanded. Since the early 1950s, telephones and telegraphs have connected Ethiopia with the rest of the world.
Monetary system.
In the past, Ethiopia had no such thing as a government budget. Taxes and duties, which were mainly paid in kind or worked out, were collected and used locally. The main source of government revenue was tribute collected by local authorities in their domains. Some of it remained locally, some was sent to the emperor. The main form of tax was tithe, when peasants were obliged to give a tenth, or even a larger part, of agricultural products. There was also a tax on livestock. In addition to the above, there were many local taxes, and there was also a system of labor.
There have long been two main forms of land ownership in Ethiopia. The first form, characteristic mainly of the northern regions, included indefinite ownership of land by communities. The second form of land ownership, common in the central and southern regions, was based on the fact that the supreme owner of all land in the country is the emperor, who, as a reward for service or payment of tribute, grants land to his subjects at his discretion. At the end of the 19th century. lands, primarily around Addis Ababa, partially became private property. There was also a gebarian, or rental, system, which was based on sharecropping. More or less orderly in the north, in the south it often led to abuses by landowners.
There were many exceptions to general rule. The emperor often granted land to noble people, who received the right to collect tithes and taxes in the form of various labors. Part of the land with the right to collect taxes was transferred to churches, monasteries and individual church hierarchs. Everywhere the right to collect tribute could be granted in exchange for bearing military service. Vast lands belonged personally to the emperor and members of his family, all taxes from there went directly to the imperial treasury.
After the restoration of the country's independence, the tax system underwent profound changes. A new land tax introduced in 1942 took into account soil fertility and the location of a particular land plot; tax collectors were appointed by the Ministry of Finance. Two years later, the tithe began to be calculated in monetary terms and was added to the new land tax, which began to be sent directly to the center, which significantly increased revenues to the state budget to the detriment of the income of local authorities.
In 1975 the government nationalized all rural land and limited the maximum size of individual ownership to 10 hectares. In 1978, changes were made to the tax system, which were aimed at a more equitable distribution of the tax burden. It was envisaged that, depending on the level of income, tax rates would vary from 10 to 85%. The collection of taxes in the countryside was entrusted to peasant associations.
Another important innovation in government fiscal policy was the significant increase in import duties in the 1940s, as well as the introduction of an individual income tax. All these measures somewhat eased the tax burden for peasants. Government revenues grew from $15.2 million in 1945 to $2.8 billion in 1987. In the 1994–1995 fiscal year, state budget revenues amounted to $928 million. The main sources of government revenue were export and import duties and income tax, and in the post-war years - foreign loans (the largest of which were received from the World Bank and the United States). There was a significant increase in budget expenditures - from 15 million dollars in 1945 to 3.9 billion dollars in 1987 (in the 1994-1995 fiscal year - 1.29 billion dollars). Main articles budget financing were defense, education, maintenance of internal order, health care, social security and maintenance of the administrative apparatus. Ethiopia's external debt in 1992 was $4.7 billion.
Banks.
The monetary unit of Ethiopia is the birr (which replaced the Ethiopian dollar), which is equal to 100 centimes. The country's central bank is the National Bank of Ethiopia, established in 1964, the successor to the former State Bank of Ethiopia. Also in 1964, in order to streamline trade operations, the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia was founded. There is the Bank for Agricultural and Industrial Development, which provides loans for the development of relevant sectors of the economy, as well as several other banks. In 1975 the government nationalized all banks, insurance companies and mortgages.
CULTURE
Education.
Since time immemorial, churches and monasteries have been the centers of learning and education in Ethiopia. In the 19th – early 20th centuries. some Ethiopians could study in schools at Christian missions of various denominations: Catholics from France and Italy, Swedish Lutherans, English and German Protestants, Seventh-day Adventists and Presbyterians from the United States. In 1908, through the efforts of Emperor Menelik II, the first public school was opened, where Egyptian Copts taught. 20 years later, Haile Selassie founded a school named after Tefari Makonnin (that was the name of Emperor Menelik II before his coronation). Soon several other schools were opened, one of them for women.
In 1993, there were 2.3 million primary school students and 714 thousand secondary school students in the country. Public schools, run by peasant and urban associations, are open to everyone and have an enrollment of approx. 95% of all students in the country. In 1991, 20.9 thousand students studied at universities in Ethiopia. The largest is Addis Ababa University (formerly Haile Selassie I University). In 1995, 35.5% of Ethiopian adults were literate, the result of a nationwide literacy campaign that began in 1980, when only c. 10% of the adult population could read and write.
Literature and art.
For a long time, literature was created mainly in the Gyiz language and had mainly religious content. True, already at the end of the 13th century. The first royal chronicles appeared on parchment. In the 19th century The first works in the Amharic language were created, and shortly before the outbreak of the First World War, the first printing press appeared in the country. Not least to support development modern literature in Amharic, during his regency, Emperor Haile Selassie I founded the publishing house “Birhan enna Selyam” (“Light and Peace”). For most literary works was characterized by a moralizing orientation. Many dramatic works were created after the country's liberation from Italian occupation, and they were staged either on the stage of the National Theater or by university students. In the early 1990s, Addis Ababa published three daily newspapers in Amharic and one in English.
The traditional fine arts of Ethiopia were predominantly Byzantine in style. After 1930, commercial art, focused on the needs of tourists, received significant development. Works of this kind often featured the plot of the Queen of Sheba’s visit to King Solomon, and they were a series of popular prints, each of which complemented the other. Around the same time, artists began to paint the walls of taverns and bars with images of national heroes and saints.
STORY
Historical roots and legends.
Around 10 centuries BC, Semitic tribes from southern Arabia landed on the northeastern coast of Africa and founded the kingdom of Aksum there, which was succeeded by Ethiopia. They gained a foothold in the north of the Ethiopian Highlands and began to move south. The main historical and archaeological sources date from 150 BC. to 600 AD In the 4th century, during the reign of King Ezana, Christianity was adopted in Ethiopia. An important role in the spread of Christianity was played by the Syrian monk Frumentius, who gained popularity among the newly converted flock and was elevated to the rank of bishop by the then patriarch of the Coptic Church in Alexandria, Athanasius. This laid the foundation for the dependence of the Ethiopian Church on the Coptic Church of Egypt. In 451, during the schism of the Christian Church, at the Council of Chalcedon, the Copts spoke out in support of the Monophysite trend, and representatives of the Ethiopian Church took the same position ( see also MONOPHYSITISM).
At the beginning of the 6th century, in order to take revenge for the oppression of the local Christian population by their rulers, the army of King Kaleb of Aksum invaded southern Arabia. Around the same time, Judaism began to penetrate into Ethiopia, which had a noticeable influence on the rituals of the Ethiopian Church; In addition, some Aksumites became followers of Judaism. (The descendants of these Falasha converts in the north of the country have now almost entirely emigrated to Israel. Their emigration began in the mid-1980s and ended in 1991.) Although the Aksumite ruler of Armah provided refuge to the early followers of the Prophet Muhammad during the persecution of them in Arabia in the 7th century, the spread of Islam led to the isolation of the Aksumite kingdom. The Ethiopians hid behind their rugged mountains and, as Gibbon wrote, “slept for almost a thousand years, forgetting about the world around them, which also forgot about them.” However, many of the country's rulers tried to maintain ties with Western European Christian countries.
According to Ethiopian tradition, the genealogy of the imperial family goes back to the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon. It is believed that the hereditary right to the imperial throne of the Solomonic dynasty was interrupted for about two centuries by representatives of the Zague dynasty. At the end of the 13th century. The ruler of Shoa ascended the throne, proving his belonging to the Solomonids. This was followed by a period of religious and cultural revival, when royal chronicles and numerous works of a spiritual nature were created, the most significant of which was Cabre Naguest (Glory of kings), containing the story of the Queen of Sheba's journey to Jerusalem.
At the end of the 15th century. A small group of Portuguese and other Europeans, setting out in search of the kingdom of High Priest John, the stuff of legends in medieval Europe, arrived in Ethiopia. The Portuguese hoped to make this Christian country an ally in the fight against Muslims and the growing Ottoman Empire. After, after 1531, Ethiopia began to suffer one defeat after another from the army of Imam Adal Ahmed ibn Ibrahim, known as Gran (Lefty), and lost most of its territory, the emperor turned to Portugal for help. In 1541, a Portuguese detachment of 400 people, led by Christopher da Gama, the son of the famous navigator Vasco da Gama, landed in Massawa. Most of the detachment, including its leader, died in the battle with the Muslims. With the assistance of the surviving Portuguese, a new Ethiopian army was created, which was armed with muskets (until that time, only the soldiers of the Gran had firearms). In 1543, this army defeated the enemy, and Ahmed Gran himself died in the battle.
Beginning of foreign infiltration into Ethiopia.
Attempts by the Portuguese, and later by the Jesuits, to impose Catholicism on the population of the country led to numerous conflicts. Eventually in 1633 the Jesuits were expelled from Ethiopia. Over the next 150 years, the country was almost completely isolated from Europe. The foundation of the capital in Gondar dates back to this period, where several stone castles were built. In the middle of the 18th century. The emperor's power fell into decline, and the country was engulfed in feudal strife. In 1769, the English traveler James Bruce visited Ethiopia, trying to find the sources of the Nile. In 1805, the English mission acquired a trading port on the Red Sea coast. At the beginning of the 19th century. Other Europeans also visited the country. In 1855 Tewodros, one of the most capable military leaders of the time, seized the imperial throne, restored the power and authority of the supreme power and attempted to unify and reform the country.
Napier Expedition.
After Queen Victoria did not respond to a letter sent to her by Tewodros for two years, several British officials were thrown into prison at Mekdel by order of the Emperor. All attempts to achieve their release through diplomatic methods led to nothing. In 1867, a military expeditionary force under the command of General Robert Napier was sent to Ethiopia to free the prisoners. Having disembarked from ships on January 7, 1868 in the town of Mulkutto on the shores of Zula Bay, Napier’s detachment, numbering more than 10 thousand people, moved through difficult mountainous terrain on a 650-kilometer journey to Mekdela. The British received help and food from local residents, dissatisfied with Emperor Tewodros, primarily the Tigrayans. Tewodros, whose power by this time had been shaken, and the ranks of the imperial army had thinned, was also advancing towards Mekdela from the other side. On April 13, 1868, this mountain fortress fell under the pressure of British troops. During the assault, not wanting to fall into the hands of enemies, Tewodros shot himself. Soon British troops left Ethiopia.
The first defeat of the Italians.
After the death of Tewodros, Yohannis IV, the ruler of Tigray, an ally of the British in their war with Tewodros, became emperor. His turbulent twenty-year reign began with the suppression of attempts by other claimants to seize the throne. Subsequently, Yohannis had many battles with external enemies: Italians, Mahdists and Egyptians. The Italians, who acquired the port of Assab back in 1869, in 1885, with the consent of the British, captured Massawa, which had previously belonged to Egypt. In 1884, Great Britain and Egypt promised the emperor that Ethiopia would receive the right to use Massawa, but the Italians soon closed access there and began to systematically move deeper into Ethiopia. In January 1887, the emperor's soldiers defeated the Italians at the town of Dogali and forced them to retreat. Then Yohannis entered into hostilities with the Mahdists, who continually invaded Ethiopia from the territory of Sudan. In March 1889 he was mortally wounded in one of the battles. Negus Shoa Menelik became the Emperor of Ethiopia, who for several years enjoyed the support of Italy. Shoah Menelik carried out successful military campaigns against the rebellious provinces and achieved significant consolidation of the Ethiopian state. During his reign, reforms aimed at modernizing the country began.
Accession to the throne of Menelik II.
May 2, 1889, shortly before official act coronation, Menelik concluded the Treaty of Uchchal with Italy, according to which the Italians received the right to occupy Asmara. Outwardly, very friendly relations were established between the two countries. However, the mentioned agreement became the source of many problems. The Amharic copy of the treaty provided that Ethiopia, if it deemed it necessary, could resort to the “good offices” of Italy in relations with other powers. The Italian text of the treaty stated that Ethiopia was obliged to do just that. In practice, this meant complete Italian control over Ethiopia's foreign policy. Using its text of the treaty, Italy declared that, based on the provisions of the General Act of the Berlin Conference of 1885, it has the right to establish its own protectorate over Ethiopia. The persistence of Italian diplomacy in defending a favorable interpretation of the Uchchala Treaty led to its denunciation by the Ethiopian side on May 11, 1893.
Rivalry between Great Britain, France and Italy.
All European powers except Russia and France recognized Italy's claim to its protectorate over Ethiopia. In 1891, the Anglo-Italian protocol was signed, according to which, in exchange for Italy's commitments not to do anything in the Nile Valley, Great Britain recognized that the Italian sphere of influence extended to Ethiopia.
Second defeat for Italy.
Italy used its advantage and began to advance deeper into Ethiopia. Having achieved success in the fight against the troops of the ruler of Tigray, Mengeshi, the Italian command had high hopes for a favorable outcome of the campaign. Meanwhile, Menelik, having by this time received large quantities of firearms from France and Russia, acted quickly and decisively. Having collected powerful army, he opposed the aggressor. On March 1, 1896, a decisive battle took place at Adua, which ended in the complete defeat of the Italian troops. On October 26, 1896, in Addis Ababa, the parties signed a peace treaty that annulled Uchchal and recognized the independence of Ethiopia.
The collapse of French claims.
The defeat of Italy left France and Great Britain alone in the Nile Valley. Mindful of France's support in the war between Ethiopia and Italy, Emperor Menelik sided with France. The latter began to claim a leading role in the economy of Ethiopia, and the idea arose to unite the colony of the French Coast of Somalia (French Somalia) on the east coast of Africa with French possessions in West Africa. Menelik, not without reason, was considered one of the key figures in the struggle for power in the Nile Valley. In the ten years following the Battle of Adua, he significantly expanded the territory of his empire. Trained by French and Russian officers and well-armed, Ethiopian troops conquered the state of Kefa and occupied vast areas extending south to Lake. Rudolph and the Borders of Kenya. On March 20, 1897, a secret treaty was concluded between Ethiopia and France, which established the Ethiopian border along the Nile and provided for the provision of trade concessions and certain advantages to France, including the right to build a railway. On May 14, 1897, Menelik signed an agreement with Great Britain, which established the border between Ethiopia and British Somalia. Great Britain, which carried out military operations against the Mahdist state, received the right to transport weapons and ammunition through the territory of Ethiopia.
In Fashoda (modern Kodok), located in Sudan, France was a loser primarily because the French and Ethiopian armed forces failed to connect at the planned time, although the Ethiopians reached the Nile just above Fashoda. Under British pressure, on November 3, 1898, France withdrew its detachment from Fashoda. For the French it was a great loss. On May 15, 1902, Menelik signed an agreement with Great Britain on the delimitation of the western borders of Ethiopia, and the Ethiopian side pledged not to divert the waters of the Blue Nile. Four years later, on December 13, 1906, an agreement was concluded between France, Great Britain and Italy, by which these powers pledged to respect the sovereignty of Ethiopia, but in the event of its split they assumed the obligation to respect their special interests in this country. Ethiopia itself did not participate in these decisions.
Internal problems.
Meanwhile, Menelik's health deteriorated, and in 1907 he was struck by paralysis. The above-mentioned tripartite agreement of 1906 was concluded precisely when it became known about the illness of the Ethiopian monarch. In June 1908, Menelik chose his twelve-year-old grandson Lij Iyasu as his successor; Ras Tesemma was later appointed regent. In 1911, after the death of Tesemma Lij, Iyasu was recognized as old enough to make decisions and take responsibility for them, but he had no real power. Menelik died on December 12, 1913; his death was kept secret for a long time. The First World War saved Ethiopia from division between Italy, Great Britain and France.
Lija Iyasu's father, ruler of the Wollo ras Mikael region, was a Muslim before his baptism, and in 1915–16 the young emperor began to demonstrate his commitment to Islam. He declared that he was a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad and began wearing a turban. In addition, Lij Iyasu established friendly relations with Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. This development of events alarmed the diplomatic missions of the Entente countries in Addis Ababa, which came out in support of the Shoan clergy. When Lij Iyasu was in the south of the country, the Shoan nobility moved its troops to Addis Ababa. On September 27, 1916, Menelik's daughter Zooditu was proclaimed Empress of Ethiopia, and Ras Tefari, the son of Menelik's cousin Ras Makonnin, was declared regent and heir to the throne. The following year, the Djibouti–Addis Ababa railway was completed, giving the capital the all-important access to the sea for the first time.
Coronation of Haile Selassie.
The period of the regency of the Tefari race was stormy. Fearing an invasion of Ethiopia by the Germans and Turkish troops During the First World War, some of the Allied powers (Great Britain, France and Italy) agreed in 1916 that, if necessary, the country would come under Italian control. However, Ethiopia's entry into the League of Nations in 1923 secured its independence. In 1928, Ras Tefari was crowned Negus, and two years later, on November 2, 1930, after the death of Empress Zooditu (April 2, 1930), he ascended the throne under the name of Emperor Haile Selassie I.
Italian occupation.
The desire to restore the former greatness of the Roman Empire and the memory of the humiliating defeat at Adua seemed to give Mussolini and his fascist regime a reason to conquer Ethiopia.
On December 5, 1934, in the Wal-Wol region, located 100 km from the undemarcated border between Ethiopia and Italian Somalia, an armed clash occurred between Italians and Ethiopians. To identify those responsible, the dispute was referred to the League of Nations, but in September 1935 this international organization stated that neither state was at fault. Meanwhile, the Italian-Ethiopian negotiations reached a dead end, and again they tried unsuccessfully to find a solution to the problem within the walls of the League of Nations. Finally, as a result of consultations between representatives of Great Britain, France and Italy, a number of proposals were developed aimed at resolving conflict situation. Ethiopia was ready for a constructive dialogue, but Italy, which this time was actively increasing the number of its troops in Italian Somalia and Eritrea, refused. On October 3, 1935, Italian troops invaded Ethiopia without declaring war. Although up until this day the Ethiopian government had been slow to announce general mobilization, the poorly armed Ethiopian army was able to initially stop the enemy advance.
On November 18, 1935, the League of Nations decided to impose economic and financial sanctions against Italy. In order to satisfy Italian demands, in December of the same year, Great Britain and France made a proposal to dismember the territory of Ethiopia, but a wave of public protests, especially in Great Britain, prevented the implementation of this plan.
On May 5, 1936, Italian troops under the command of Marshal Pietro Badoglio entered Addis Ababa. By this time, Emperor Haile Selassie was already outside the country, having received asylum in England. While in exile, he delivered a speech at a meeting of the League of Nations in Geneva, declaring: “God and history will remember your decision.” On May 9, 1936, Italy officially announced the annexation of Ethiopia. On June 1, the king of Italy was proclaimed emperor, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia were united into the colony of Italian East Africa.
Restoration of Ethiopia's independence.
The Italian occupation lasted five years, and during all this time Ethiopian patriots continued to resist the invaders. Already at the very beginning of the Second World War, the low combat effectiveness of the Italian army became evident. On July 12, 1940, Great Britain officially recognized Ethiopia as an ally. To organize resistance to the occupiers, Haile Selassie arrived by plane in Sudan. On January 15, 1941, the Ethiopian army led by the emperor began military operations on the territory of Ethiopia. On April 6, 1941, British units drove the Italians out of Addis Ababa, and on May 5, 1941, Haile Selassie solemnly entered the liberated capital. On May 20, 1941, the last Italian units surrendered in the town of Amba-Alage. Haile Selassie regained the imperial throne.
The Second World War and the growth of British influence.
British troops liberated Ethiopia from Italian occupation, but the threat to Egypt from German and Italian troops remained. In this situation, Great Britain needed reliable communications from Sudan to the Red Sea coast. In January 1942, an Anglo-Ethiopian agreement was signed, which provided for the establishment of cooperation between the allies, the sending of British civilian and military advisers to Ethiopia, as well as the provision of financial and other assistance to restore the emperor's administrative apparatus. To maintain internal political stability, the British side assumed obligations to create and train a regular Ethiopian army.
On December 19, 1944, a new agreement was concluded between Ethiopia and Great Britain, “two equal and independent powers,” which nevertheless gave the British government priority in the appointment of advisers and management of the Ethiopian financial system. The education system was reorganized and expanded, and Ethiopian control of the railroad to Djibouti was restored. In 1945, the Ethiopian government granted the Sinclair Oil Company a concession for the exploration and exploitation of oil fields for a period of 50 years.
Ethiopia after World War II.
In 1945, Ethiopia became a founding member of the United Nations and immediately asserted its rights to the former colonies of Italian Somalia and Eritrea.
The peace treaty of February 10, 1947, which officially ended the state of war with Italy, canceled the Anglo-Ethiopian agreement of 1944. The authority of the emperor was restored throughout Ethiopia, with the exception of the Ogaden, which remained under the control of the British military administration until 1948. The UN decision ended the British administration on the territory of Italian Somalia, and from 1950 it was transferred to the guardianship of Italy for ten years. In 1960, Italian and British Somalia formed the independent Republic of Somalia. In 1952, by decision of the UN, Eritrea, as an autonomous unit, joined Ethiopia in the federation under the control of the Ethiopian crown.
In 1962, in order to establish full control over the ports of Massawa and Assab, the imperial government abolished the autonomous status of Eritrea. In response, Muslim Eritreans organized the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), which began to fight first for autonomy and then for the independence of this country. By the end of the 1960s, about half of the Ethiopian army was stationed in Eritrea. Other movements also fought against the imperial government, most notably the ethnic Somalis in the Ogaden.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the police repeatedly had to forcefully disperse demonstrations by left-wing student groups who campaigned under the slogans of land and education reform in the country, as well as granting independence to Eritrea. In 1972–1974, about 200 thousand people. The government tried in every possible way to hide the truth about the famine. Until the end of 1973, the country's public was not even aware of the numerous victims. After true information appeared, mass anti-government demonstrations began.
At the beginning of 1974, army units stationed in Asmara rebelled, demanding more monetary allowance. They were soon joined by military units in other parts of the country, demanding the resignation of the government. The military was supported by workers and students. Although the emperor complied with these demands, over the next few months he was stripped of all real power, which was transferred to the military. The military soon dissolved the civilian government and created its own provisional military government. In the summer, criticism of the emperor worsened. On September 12, 1974, Haile Selassie was deposed and died eleven months later while under house arrest. Having usurped political power, the Provisional Military Administrative Council (Derg) introduced censorship and abolished civil rights. In November, a group of 60 people, including former high-ranking officials, were executed. To fight the military regime, radical representatives of the left-wing intelligentsia, workers and students organized the illegal Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party. During the Red Terror campaign launched by the Derg in 1977, the opposition was defeated. They were killed approx. 100 thousand people, and several hundred thousand more were forced to take refuge in neighboring Kenya, Sudan and Djibouti. The split in the Derg itself was eliminated by mass execution of dissidents. In November 1974, General Aman Andom, the first leader of the country after Haile Selassie, was shot by his former associates in the Derg. In mid-1976, several more high-ranking members of the Derg were shot. A group of members of the military leadership, including the head of state, General Tafari Banti, were executed in February 1977. All these repressions indicated the consolidation of the power of Lieutenant Colonel Mengystu Haile Mariam.
Despite the repression, the military promised to carry out reforms. In December 1974, the military government announced its intention to transform the country into a socialist state with a one-party system, collective agriculture and direct state control over "all property useful for economic progress." By order of the authorities, all educational institutions were closed for a year, and students and teachers were sent to rural areas, where they were supposed to explain to the peasants the goals of government policy, teach them the basics of sanitation and hygiene, and introduce them to advanced farming methods. Many enterprises owned by foreign capital were nationalized.
In 1975, sporadic armed conflicts in Eritrea escalated into a large-scale war, which threatened the existence of the military regime. In 1977, rebels supported by the Republic of Somalia captured a number of large settlements in the Ogaden during successful battles with government forces. Then Mengystu turned to the USSR with a request for help. At the beginning of 1978, the Ethiopian army launched a counteroffensive. The Somali army, fighting on the side of the rebels, was forced to retreat. Following this, government forces launched a powerful offensive against the Eritreans, who, having lost control of the cities, continued to fight in the countryside. The Maoist Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF), formed in 1976, gradually grew into a significant force and by early 1984 controlled most of the province. In the early 1980s, the Ethiopian economy, undermined by war, also suffered from severe drought. In 1983, a terrible famine began in the country, which by the beginning of 1985 claimed more than a million human lives.
To expand the support of the Mengystu regime among the masses, a new constitution was adopted in 1987, which provided for the creation of a civilian government, but this did not help to curb the growth of discontent in the country. By this time, the Eritrean liberation movement was led by the Marxist People's Liberation Front of Eritrea (EPLF), which separated from the ELF in 1970. In March 1988, EPLF troops captured the headquarters of the Ethiopian army in the town of Af-Abed. In 1989, the Eritreans helped the TPLF capture the Ethiopian headquarters in Ynda Syllas, forcing government troops to withdraw from Tigray. Together with other smaller rebel groups, the TPLF created the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), and by 1991 government troops held only Addis Ababa and its environs. In 1990, EPLF troops captured the port of Massawa, and the following year the last government military units in the port of Asebe and the administrative center of Eritrea, the city of Asmara, were defeated. In May 1991, on the eve of the capture of Addis Ababa by EPRDF troops, Mengystu fled the country. TPLF leader Meles Zenawi has become interim president of Ethiopia. EPLF leader Issaias Afwerki became president of Eritrea, and the new Ethiopian government had to recognize the de facto independence of this part of the country. In a referendum on the future of the country, held April 23–25, 1993 under the auspices of the UN, Eritreans voted almost unanimously to secede from Ethiopia. On May 24, 1993, Eritrea was officially declared an independent state.
In July 1991, at the initiative of the EPRDF, a national conference was held to discuss the political future of Ethiopia and the formation of a Transitional Government. As a result of her work, it was decided that to lead the country for two years transition period a State Council will be created, consisting of 87 representatives from 20 political groups and ethnic organizations. The Council approved TPLF leader Meles Zenawi as head of the Transitional Government.
In 1991, by decree of this government, the territory of Ethiopia was divided into 14 administrative regions, headed by local administrations with limited powers in governing the regions. Local elections held in April-May 1992 were marred by accusations of misconduct by members of the EPRDF, who constituted the majority in the Transitional Government. The ethnically based opposition Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) withdrew from the elections and accused the EPRDF of intimidating its candidates. Together with its allies, the EPRDF received approx. 90% of the votes. Soon, OLF members, unwilling to accept their secondary role, left the Transitional Government. Several other political organizations that previously supported the country's leadership spoke in favor of annulling the election results. In subsequent years, the EPRDF was repeatedly accused of human rights abuses and political repression.
In June 1994, national elections were held for the newly created Constituent Assembly, in which the EPRDF won 484 of 547 seats. The elections were boycotted by the OLF and the Amhara People's Democratic Movement, which was a coalition of about 30 opposition groups. The Constituent Assembly drafted a new constitution, which came into force in December 1994. It provided for the creation of a federal government and the administrative division of the country into nine autonomous states, which had the right to secede from Ethiopia. Under the new constitution, the country was renamed the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Instead of the Constituent Assembly, a bicameral parliament was introduced consisting of 548 members of the Council of People's Representatives and 117 members of the Federation Council. Deputies of the lower house are elected by direct vote, and members of the Federation Council are elected at meetings of representatives of each of the nine states.
In May 1995, the EPRDF again won a landslide victory in the elections of representatives of nine state assemblies and deputies to the Council of People's Representatives. In August of the same year, the legislative power of the provisional legislature was officially transferred to the Federation Council. Prolonged drought and sporadic ethnic conflicts continued to threaten Ethiopia's socioeconomic stability.
Ethiopia at the end of the 20th century - beginning of the 21st century
In the summer of 1998 there was a sharp deterioration in relations between Ethiopia and Eritrea. After Eritrea's secession from Ethiopia in 1993, the border between both states became the subject of constant disputes. In early June 1998, the Eritrean government declared its right to a territory of approx. 400 sq. km in Tigray province and sent troops there. Ethiopian aircraft raided the Eritrean capital Asmara, and Eritrean planes bombed the Ethiopian city of Mekele. The number of killed and wounded on both sides reached several hundred people. All Eritrean citizens living in Ethiopia were ordered to leave the country. General mobilization was declared in both countries. Attempts by mediating countries and the Organization of African Unity to help resolve the border conflict have failed. Since the summer of 1998, fighting on the Ethiopian-Eritrean border has either subsided or flared up with new strength. At the end of February 1999, Ethiopia launched a large-scale offensive, during which it managed to recapture the Badme area, which had previously been captured.
Border wars with Eritrea in the late 1990s ended in a peace treaty: in June 2000, the parties signed an agreement to end the confrontation, and in December of the same year, an agreement on a comprehensive peace. According to the agreement, in April 2001, under the auspices of the UN, a temporary security zone was created in the border region of Ethiopia and Eritrea, where UN peacekeepers were stationed. A special commission that was then created was engaged in delimiting the border between the two countries. In April 2003, it made a decision regarding the demarcation of the border, with which the parties agreed in principle. However, in September 2003, Ethiopia appealed to the UN Security Council with a request to redefine the disputed border with Eritrea, including the Badme region, and the latter insists on the unchanged decision of the UN commission. Thus, the peace process was again at an impasse. In November 2007, the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia was established based on geographical coordinates, but its final designation was suspended due to objections from Ethiopia.
Literature:
Morett F. Equatorial, Eastern and Southern Africa. M., 1951
Galperin G.L. Ethiopia: population, resources, economy. M., 1976
Modern Ethiopia. Directory. M., 1988
Tsypkin G.V., Yagya V.S. History of Ethiopia in the new and modern times
. M., 1989
Located in the subequatorial and equatorial belts, but its climate is determined by the altitude above sea level - it is the highest of all African countries. The climate here is temperate and humid, and it can be said that the nature of Ethiopia is richer compared to other countries in the region.
There are many lakes in Ethiopia, both salt and freshwater. Most of them are located in the Great Rift Zone. But the largest lake in Ethiopia, Tana, is not connected with it. This reservoir has an area of 3150 square meters. km with a maximum depth of 15 m, it is from here that the Blue Nile originates.
Danakil Desert
This desert is located in the very north of the country. It is called the harshest and most inhospitable place on our planet. Sulfur reservoirs, which emit toxic and bad-smelling gases under the influence of temperature (the temperature of the acid on their surface reaches +60 ° C), active volcanoes– all this makes the desert an excellent setting for filming films about Hell.
However, it is quite attractive big number tourists, including thanks to the fantastic landscapes, amazing both in shape and colors.
The main attractions of this area are:
Vegetation of Ethiopia
Again, due to the geographical location of the country, almost all vegetation zones can be found on its territory: desert, savanna, tropical rainforests, mountain savanna, evergreen mountain forests, etc.:
- South-eastern part. Almost the entire area is occupied by kolla, the lower altitudinal zone of the Ethiopian Highlands (up to 1700 m above sea level). It contains xerophytic light forests of the Ethiopian type, and along the rivers there are savannas with shrubs (acacia, myrrh, balanite, etc.) and individual umbrella trees.
- South and central highlands. These are savannas of different subspecies with occasional areas of open forest. Common plants here are the same acacia, as well as giant ficus, incense tree, and terminalia. In some places, areas of bamboo forests have been preserved, in which plants reach a height of more than 10 m.
- Southwest Highlands. It is covered by tropical rainforests. Ironwood, ficus, cordia, syzygum are found here, and coffee grows as undergrowth.
- Mountain savanna. At altitudes from 1700-2400 m the war-dega belt is located. The most characteristic plants are wild olive and Abyssinian rose. Giant ficus trees grow on the shores of the lakes, and tree-like heather is also found.
- Evergreen forests. Found in the same zone. The most characteristic plants are yellowwood, tall juniper, and pencil cedar. The narcotic shrub khat is found as undergrowth, which Arab countries used for chewing, and ephedra is high.
- Degas and choke belts. The first is located at an altitude of 2500 to 3800 m, it is characterized by bamboo forests and areas of high-mountain shrubs (Abyssinian rose, tree heather, etc.). Even higher is the choke belt, where the main plant is lobelia and cushion-shaped plants.
- It should also be noted that in mountainous Ethiopia there are many eucalyptus groves - this plant was planted starting from the end of the 19th century to restore deforested areas.
Fauna
It is clear that with such a rich flora, the species diversity of the animal world of Ethiopia is also very large. Here you can find almost all types of fauna living on the African continent. Ethiopia is home to many endemic animals:
- Ethiopian jackal (Symen fox);
- nyala antelope;
- Ethiopian goat;
- Abyssinian colobus monkeys.
The most common animals are jackals, foxes and hyenas. Here you can meet rhinoceroses, hippos, zebras, giraffes, antelopes, as well as predators - leopards, cheetahs, servals, etc. It is not for nothing that Ethiopia is called a paradise for ornithologists - more than 920 species of birds are found here:
- turaco;
- hornbills;
- weavers;
- ostriches;
- blue-winged geese;
- cinders;
- variegated breasts, etc.
Nature protected areas
It cannot be said that things are going too well with nature conservation in Ethiopia, however, there are 9 in the country where unique endemic plants and no less unique animals are protected.
The most famous and popular parks among tourists are:
Ethiopia is one of the few countries in Africa where almost all plant zones and landscapes are represented - from deserts to cold highlands.
Vegetation is subject to variability depending on the height of the area and the exposure of the slopes.
In Ethiopia, altitudinal zones have their own local names.
The lower zone is kolla, hot, up to an altitude of 1700-1800 m. This is almost the entire southeast of the country, a significant part of the river basin. Awash, large areas along the border with Sudan, as well as certain areas along the border with Kenya. In arid (arid) areas, xerophytic woodlands of the Ethiopian type grow. Along the river valleys there are typical savannah landscapes with high grass and developed shrubs: acacia, balanite, commiphora (myrrh), etc. There are free-standing umbrella trees.
Vast areas of the Ethiopian-Somali plateau, the entire southern and central part of the highlands are occupied by savannas different types with areas of woodland. Giant ficus trees (saptrees) are found near reservoirs. The western tip of the Ethiopian Highlands is characterized by deciduous woodlands, where boswellia (incense tree), acacia, terminalia, and commiphora grow. Here, in a number of places, mountain bamboo forests up to 12 m high have been preserved.
The most humidified areas have the densest vegetation cover. Southwest Ethiopia, with a combination of high rainfall and high temperatures, has large tracts of tropical rainforest with a rich and varied flora. Here the upper tier (35-45 m) is sparse in places, large trees are rare. These are pouteria, albizia, ironwood, syzygum, etc. Middle tier: croton, ironwood, stonewood, cordia, ficus. A component of the extremely developed undergrowth is the famous Arabica coffee.
The most depleted desert flora is confined to the Danakil graben and the Afar depression.
Up to an altitude of 2400 m there is a temperate zone - war-dega (average monthly temperatures from 13 to 18 degrees). A significant part of this belt is occupied by mountain savanna and evergreen shrubs. There are many powerful individual and group standing umbrella ones. Acacias, Abyssinian roses, wild olives, and cordia grow here. Along the banks of reservoirs there are ficus trees with a trunk diameter of 1.5 m or more. In open areas there are large specimens of tree-like heather, as well as candelabra spurge.
Evergreen mountain forests once covered most of the highlands and large areas in the western, most elevated part of the Ethiopian-Somali plateau. The main types of forests are coniferous, named after their main constituent species - zygba forests (yellow tree, East African podocarpus) and tyda forests (high juniper, Juniperus procera, or pencil cedar, individual specimens of which can reach up to 50 m in height and 2.5 m in diameter).
Alexander Bulatovich described these forests at the beginning of the 20th century: “These trees reach enormous heights and sizes. Old trees are covered with white moss, hanging picturesquely from the branches, which the Abyssinians call “gray hair.” A dense network of vines covers the trees.”
Currently, these forests are protected in national parks: Menagasha (near Addis Ababa), Omo, Bale.
The degas belt is cool (from 2500 to 3800 m), with an average temperature of up to 14 degrees. Kossotida forests, highland bamboo forests, steppes and highland shrubs grow here. Shrubs include tree heather, Abyssinian rose, hypericum, etc.
Along the edges of the bushes there is giant lobelia.
Above is the choke belt - cold, with winter snow cover. However, in some years snow also falls in the Addis Ababa area.
Cushion-shaped plants and lobelia grow here.
Currently, highland Ethiopia is dominated by eucalyptus groves. The seeds and seedlings of this fast-growing, unpretentious tree were imported from Australia at the end of the 19th century, with the purpose quick recovery destroyed forests.
As a result of centuries of agricultural use of the land, the forests in the northwestern Ethiopian Highlands have been cleared. In 1900, undisturbed forests covered 40% of the country's territory, and in the early 1990s their area decreased to 4%.
More than 2/3 of the remaining forests are concentrated in the areas of Wollega, Illubabor and Kefa, the rest is in the areas of Arsi, Bale, Sidamo and Gamo-Gofa.
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