Development of armor in the Middle Ages in Western Europe. Weapons of the Middle Ages

A sword is a type of bladed weapon; it was used to inflict piercing, cutting or chopping wounds. Its basic design was simple and consisted of an oblong, straight blade with a hilt. Distinctive feature The weapon is an established minimum blade length of about 60 cm. The type of sword had many variations and depended on time, region, and social status.

There is no reliable information about the date of the first sword. It is generally accepted that its prototype was a sharpened club made of wood, and the first swords were made of copper. Due to its ductility, copper was soon replaced by a bronze alloy.

The sword is undoubtedly one of the most authoritative and historically significant weapons of antiquity. It is commonly believed to symbolize justice, dignity and courage. Hundreds of folk legends were written about combat battles and knightly duels, and swords were an integral part of them. Later, writers, inspired by these legends, created the main characters in their novels in the image and likeness of the legends. For example, the story of King Arthur has been published countless times, and the greatness of his sword has always remained unchanged.

In addition, swords are reflected in religion. The nobility of edged weapons was closely intertwined with spiritual and divine meaning, which was interpreted by each religion and teaching in its own way. For example, in Buddhist teachings, the sword symbolized wisdom. In Christianity, the interpretation of the “two-edged sword” is directly related to the death of Jesus Christ, and carries the meaning of divine truth and wisdom.

Identifying the sword with a divine symbol, the inhabitants of that time were in awe of the possession of such a weapon and the use of its images. Medieval swords had a cross-shaped handle in the image of a Christian cross. This sword was used for knighting rituals. Also, the image of this weapon has found wide application in the field of heraldry.

By the way, in historical documents that have survived to this day there is information about the cost of swords. Thus, the price of one standard gun was equal to the cost of 4 heads cattle(cows), and if the work was performed by a famous blacksmith, the amount of course was much higher. A middle-class resident could hardly afford expenses of this level. High price due to the high cost and rarity of the metals used, in addition, the manufacturing process itself was quite labor-intensive.

The quality of a manufactured sword directly depends on the skill of the blacksmith. His skill lies in the ability to correctly forge a blade from a different alloy of metals so that the resulting blade is smooth, light weight, and the surface itself is perfectly flat. The complex composition of the product created difficulties in mass release. They began to produce in Europe good swords in large numbers only towards the end of the Middle Ages.

The sword can rightfully be called an elite weapon, and this is due not only to the previously listed factors. Its versatility in use and light weight set the sword apart from its predecessors (axe, spear).

It is also worth noting that not everyone can wield a blade. Those who want to become professional fighters have spent years honing their skills in numerous training sessions. It was for these reasons that every warrior was proud of the honor of possessing a sword.

1. hilt - a set of components: handle, crosspiece and pommel. Depending on whether the hilt was open or not, the degree of finger protection was determined;
2. blade - combat unit shotguns with a tapered end;
3. pommel - the top of a weapon, made of heavy metal. Served to balance weight, sometimes decorated with additional elements;
4. handle - an element made of wood or metal for holding a sword. Often, the surface was made rough so that the weapon would not slip out of the hands;
5. guard or cross - arose during the development of fencing art and made it possible to protect hands in battle;
6. blade - the cutting edge of the blade;
7. tip.

General differentiation of swords

Regarding the topic of identifying varieties of this weapon, one cannot ignore the scientific works of the researcher from England E. Oakeshott. It was he who introduced the classification of swords and grouped them by time periods. In general terms, two groups of types of medieval and later swords can be distinguished:

By lenght:

• short sword - blade 60-70 cm, fighters wore it on their belt on the left side. Suitable for close range combat;
• a long sword - its wedge was 70-90 cm; in battles, as a rule, it was carried in the hands. It was universal for fights on the ground and on horseback;
• cavalry sword. The length of the blade is more than 90 cm.

By weight of the implement and type of handle:

• a one-handed sword is the lightest, about 0.7 - 1.5 kg, which makes it possible to operate with one hand;
• bastard sword or “bastard sword” - the length of the handle did not allow both hands to be placed freely, hence the name. Weight about 1.4 kg, size 90 cm;
• two-handed sword - its weight was from 3.5 to 6 kg, and its length reached 140 cm.

Despite the general classification of species, the sword is more of an individual weapon and was created taking into account the physiological characteristics of the warrior. Therefore, it is impossible to find two identical swords.

The weapon was always kept in a sheath and attached to a saddle or belt.

The formation of the sword in antiquity

IN early era In antiquity, bronze steel was actively used in the creation of blades. This alloy, despite its ductility, is distinguished by its strength. The swords of this time are notable for the following: bronze blades were made by casting, which made it possible to create various shapes. In some cases, for greater stability, stiffening ribs were added to the blades. In addition, copper does not corrode, which is why many archaeological finds retain their beautiful properties. appearance up until today.

For example, in the Adygea Republic, during excavations of one of the mounds, a sword was found, which is considered one of the most ancient and dates back to 4 thousand BC. According to ancient customs, during burial, his personal valuables were placed in the mound along with the deceased.

The most famous swords of that time:

• the sword of hoplites and Macedonians “Xiphos” - a short weapon with a leaf-shaped wedge;
• the Roman weapon “Gladius” - a 60 cm blade with a massive pommel, effectively delivered piercing and slashing blows;
• ancient German “Spata” – 80-100 cm, weight up to 2 kg. The one-armed sword was widely popular among the German barbarians. As a result of the migration of peoples, it became popular in Gaul and served as the prototype for many modern swords.
• “Akinak” – short piercing weapon, weighing about 2 kg. The crosspiece is made in a heart shape, the pommel is in the shape of a crescent. Recognized as an element of Scythian culture.

The rise of the sword in the Middle Ages

The Great Migration of Peoples, the seizure of Roman lands by the Goths and Vandals, the raids of barbarians, the inability of the authorities to govern a vast territory, the demographic crisis - all this ultimately provoked the fall of the Roman Empire at the end of the 5th century and marked the formation of a new stage in World History. Humanists subsequently gave it the name “Middle Ages.”

Historians characterize this period as “dark times” for Europe. The decline of trade, the political crisis, and the depletion of land fertility invariably led to fragmentation and endless internecine strife. It can be assumed that it was these reasons that contributed to the flourishing of edged weapons. Particularly noteworthy is the use of swords. The barbarians of Germanic origin, being outnumbered, brought with them the Spata swords and contributed to their popularization. Such swords existed until the 16th century; later, they were replaced by swords.

The diversity of cultures and the disunity of the settlers have significantly reduced the level and quality martial art. Now the battles took place more and more often on open area without using any defensive tactics.

If in the usual sense, combat equipment war consisted of equipment and weapons, then in the early Middle Ages, the impoverishment of handicrafts led to a shortage of resources. Only elite troops owned swords and rather meager equipment (chain mail or plate armor). According to historical data, armor was practically absent during that period.

A type of sword in the era of the Great Invasions

Different languages, culture and religious views Germanic settlers and local Romans invariably led to negative relationships. The Romano-German conflict strengthened its position and contributed to new invasions of Roman lands by France and Germany. The list of those wishing to take possession of the lands of Gaul, alas, does not end there.

The Huns' invasion of Europe under the leadership of Attila was catastrophically destructive. It was the Huns who laid the foundation for the “Great Migration,” mercilessly crushing the lands one after another, the Asian nomads reached the Roman lands. Having conquered Germany, France, and Northern Italy along the way, the Huns also broke through the defenses in some parts of the Roman border. The Romans, in turn, were forced to unite with other nations to maintain the defense. For example, some lands were given to the barbarians peacefully in exchange for an obligation to guard the borders of Gaul.

In History, this period was called the “Era of Great Invasions.” Each new ruler sought to make his contribution to the modifications and improvements of the sword; let’s look at the most popular types:

The Merovingian royal dynasty began its reign in the 5th century and ended in the 8th century, when the last representative of this family was dethroned. It was people from the great Merovingian family who made a significant contribution to the expansion of the territory of France. From the middle of the 5th century, the king of the French state (later France), Clovis I, pursued an active policy of conquest in the territory of Gaul. Great importance was paid to the quality of the tools, which is why swords of the Merovingian type arose. The weapon evolved in several stages, the first version, like the ancient German spatha, did not have a point, the end of the blade was uncut or rounded. Often such swords were lavishly decorated and were available only to the upper classes of society.

Main characteristics of the Merovingian weapon:

• blade length -75 cm, weight about 2 kg;
• the sword was forged from different types of steel;
• a wide fuller of small depth ran on both sides of the sword and ended 3 cm from the tip. The appearance of a fuller in the sword significantly lightened its weight;
• the hilt of the sword is short and has a heavy pommel;
• the width of the blade almost did not narrow, which made it possible to deliver cutting and chopping blows.

Everyone famous king Arthur existed precisely in this era, and his sword, possessing unimaginable power, was Merovingian.

The Vikings of the noble Carolingian family came to power in the 8th century, dethroning the last descendants of the Merovingian dynasty, thereby ushering in the “Viking Age,” otherwise known as the “Carolingian Era” in France. Many legends were told about the rulers of the Carolingian dynasty at that time, and some of them are known to us to this day (for example, Pepin, Charlemagne, Louis I). In folk legends, the swords of kings are also most often mentioned. I would like to tell one of the stories that is dedicated to the formation of the first king Pepin the Short of the Carolingians:

Being short, Pepin received the name "Short". He became famous as a brave soldier, but people considered him unworthy to take the place of king because of his height. One day, Pepin ordered to bring a hungry lion and a huge bull. Of course, the predator grabbed the bull’s neck. The future king invited his mockers to kill the lion and free the bull. People did not dare to approach the ferocious animal. Then Pepin took out his sword and cut off the heads of both animals in one fell swoop. Thus, proving his right to the throne and winning the respect of the people of France. So Pepin was proclaimed king, dethroning the last Merovingian.

Pepin's follower was Charlemagne, under whom the French state received the status of an Empire.

Wise politicians famous family continued to strengthen the position of France, which naturally affected weapons. The Carolingian sword, otherwise known as the Viking sword, was famous for the following:

• blade length 63-91 cm;
• one-handed sword weighing no more than 1.5 kg;
• lobed or triangular pommel;
• sharp blade and sharpened point for chopping blows;
• deep bilateral valley;
• short handle with a small guard.

Carolingians were mainly used in foot battles. Possessing grace and light weight, it was a weapon for noble representatives of the Vikings (priests or tribal leaders). Simple Vikings more often used spears and axes.

Also, the Carolingian Empire imported its swords into Kievan Rus and contributed to a significant expansion of the weapons arsenal.

Improving the sword on everyone historical stage, played a significant role in the development of knightly weapons.

3. Romanov (knight's) sword

Hugo Capet (aka Charles Martell) is an abbot, the first king elected following the death of the last descendant of the Carolgins in the 8th century. It was he who was the progenitor of a large dynasty of kings in the Frankish Empire - the Capetians. This period marked by many reforms, for example the formation of feudal relations, a clear hierarchy appeared in the structure of the board. New changes also gave rise to conflicts. At this time, the largest religious wars took place, which began with the First Crusade.

During the reign of the Capetian dynasty (approximately the beginning - mid-6th century), the formation of the knightly sword, also known as the “sword for weapons” or “Romanesque”, began. This sword was a modified version of the Carolingian, and met the following characteristics:

• blade length was 90-95 cm;
• significant narrowing of the edges, which made it possible to deliver more accurate blows;
• reduced monolithic pommel with rounded edge;
• a curved handle measuring 9-12 cm, this length enabled the knight to protect his hand in combat;

It is worth noting that the listed changes to the components of the hilt made it possible to fight while riding a horse.

Popular knight swords:

Gradually, the weapon evolved from one-handed spathas to two-handed swords. The peak of popularity of wielding a sword with two hands occurred during the era of chivalry. Let's look at the most famous types:

“” is a wavy sword with a flame-shaped blade, a kind of symbiosis of a sword and a saber. Length 1.5 meters, weight 3-4 kg. He was distinguished by his particular cruelty, because with his bends he struck deeply and left lacerated wounds for a long time. The church protested against the flamberge, but nevertheless it was actively used by German mercenaries.

Chivalry as a Privilege

Chivalry arose in the 8th century and is closely related to the emergence of the feudal system, when foot soldiers were retrained as mounted troops. Under religious influence, knighthood was a titled status of nobility. Being a good strategist, Charles Martell distributed church lands to his compatriots, and in return demanded horse service or payment of a tax. In general, the vassalage system was rigidly and hierarchically structured. In addition, obtaining such land limited human freedom. Those who wanted to be free received the status of vassal and joined the ranks of the army. In this way, the knightly cavalry was assembled for the Crusade.

To obtain the desired title, the future knight began training from an early age. By about the age of seven, his warriors needed to master and improve fighting techniques; by the age of twelve, he became a squire, and by the time he came of age, a decision was made. The boy could be left at the same rank or knighted. In any case, serving the knightly cause was equated with freedom.

Knight's military equipment

The progressive development of handicrafts contributed not only to the modernization of tools, but also to military equipment in general; now such attributes as protective shields and armor appeared.

Simple warriors wore armor made of leather for protection, and noble troops used chain mail or leather armor with metal inserts. The helmet was constructed on the same principle.

The shield was made of durable wood 2 cm thick, covered with leather on top. Sometimes metal was used to enhance protection.

Myths and speculation about swords

The history of the existence of such a weapon is full of mysteries, which is probably why it remains interesting today. Over the course of many centuries, many legends have formed around the sword, some of which we will try to refute:

Myth 1. The ancient sword weighed 10-15 kg and was used in battle as a club, leaving opponents shell-shocked. This assertion has no basis. Weight ranged from approximately 600 grams to 1.4 kg.

Myth 2. The sword did not have a sharp edge, and like a chisel it could break protective equipment. Historical documents contain information that the swords were so sharp that they cut the victim into two parts.

Myth 3. Poor quality steel was used for European swords. Historians have established that since ancient times, Europeans have successfully used various metal alloys.

Myth 4. Fencing was not developed in Europe. A variety of sources claim the opposite: for many centuries, Europeans have been working on fighting tactics, in addition, most techniques are focused on the dexterity and speed of the fencer, and not on brute strength.

Despite different versions the emergence and development of the sword in history, one fact remains unchanged - its rich cultural heritage and historical significance.

According to legend, Excalibur is often confused with sword in stone, which will be discussed below. Both of these swords belonged to King Arthur, who himself is a great mystery to historians. Despite popular belief, most original sources speak of them as different blades.

Excalibur or Caliburn- another sword of King Arthur, the legendary leader of the Britons, who lived around the 5th-6th centuries. The epic about the king and his loyal subjects is very extensive and includes full list heroic adventures: rescuing beautiful ladies, a battle with a monstrous dragon, the search for the Holy Grail and simply successful military campaigns. A sword is not just a weapon, but status symbol owner. Of course, such an outstanding personality as Arthur simply could not possess an ordinary sword: in addition to the beautiful technical characteristics(which was truly an outstanding achievement for the Dark Ages), the sword is also credited with magical properties.

Before Latinization, the name of the sword most likely came from the Welsh Caledfwlch: caled(“battle”) and bwlch(“destroy, tear”). According to legend, the king obtained the sword with the help of the wizard Merlin and the mysterious Maiden of the Lake, to replace the one lost in the battle with Sir Pellinore. The sword's sheath was also magical - it accelerated the healing of the owner's wounds. Before his death, Arthur insisted that the sword be thrown back into the lake and thus returned to its first owner. The abundance of swords from the Dark Ages, found by archaeologists at the bottom of various bodies of water, allowed them to assume that in those days there existed custom of drowning weapons in the water after the death of a warrior.

Sword in the Stone

The sword in the stone, which the king himself, according to legend, plunged into the rock, proving his right to the throne, has a curious relative that has survived to this day. We are talking about a block with a blade firmly embedded in it, which is kept in the Italian chapel of Monte Siepi. The owner of the sword was, however, not the legendary king, but a Tuscan knight Galliano Guidotti, who lived in the 12th century. A funny story is connected with him: one day the Archangel Michael himself appeared to Guidotti, who, like many knights of that time, led a dissolute lifestyle and was an impudent rude man and demanded that Galliano relinquish his knightly vow and take monastic vows. In response to this, the knight said with a laugh that becoming a servant of the Lord would be as easy for him as cutting a stone. Having chopped the nearest boulder to prove his words, Guidotti was amazed: the blade easily entered it like a knife through butter. Of course, after this Galliano immediately took the righteous path, and even received posthumous canonization. According to the results of radiocarbon dating, the legend really does not lie: the age of the block and the sword stuck in it coincides with the approximate life of the knight.

Durendal

Durandal is another sword in the stone. Its owner was a knight Roland, a real historical person who later became the hero of numerous sagas and ballads. According to legend, while defending the Not-Dame chapel in the city of Rocamadour, he threw his blade from the wall and it remained stuck in it, firmly embedded in the stone. It is noteworthy that there really is a certain blade in the rock near the chapel: thanks to skillful PR on the part of the monks who actively spread the legend of Durandal, the chapel quickly became a center of pilgrimage for parishioners from all over Europe.

Scientists, however, question this fact and believe that the chapel does not contain the legendary magic sword of Roland. Firstly, the banal logic is lame: Durendal is a female name, and the hero, apparently, had a real passion for him. It is doubtful that he would throw away such a valuable and dear weapon. The chronology also lets us down: the loyal subject himself Charlemagne according to historical evidence died on August 15, 778 in the Battle of the Roncesvalles Gorge, from which Rocamadour is several hundred kilometers away. The first evidence of the sword appeared much later - in the middle of the 12th century, around the same time when the famous " Song of Roland" The true owner of the blade in the chapel was never identified: in 2011, the blade was removed from the stone and sent to the Paris Museum of the Middle Ages.

Wallace's sword

The huge broadsword, according to legend, belonged to Sir William Wallace, leader of the Scottish Highlanders in the battle for independence from England. The famous knight lived from 1270 to 1305 and, apparently, had remarkable strength. The length of the sword is 163 cm, which, with a weight of 2.7 kg, makes it a weapon of enormous power, requiring skill and daily training from the owner. As you know, the Scots had a passion for two-handed swords - it’s worth remembering the claymore, in a certain historical period which has become a real symbol of the Scottish Kingdom.

It is not easy to make a scabbard for such an impressive weapon, and the material was very unusual. After the Battle of Stirling Bridge, where the sword and its owner won fame and honor, the blade acquired a scabbard and sword belt made of human skin. Its owner was the English treasurer Hugh Cressingham, who “torn three skins from the Scots and received a well-deserved reward.” Scientists are still arguing about the authenticity of the ancient relic: due to the fact that King James IV of Scotland at one time gave the sword a new hilt and decoration to replace the worn out old one, it is very difficult to establish historical authenticity.

Ulfbert

« Ulfbert"is not just one, but a whole family of medieval swords of the Carolingian type, dating between the 9th and 11th centuries. Unlike their legendary counterparts, they are not credited with magical properties. What is more important is that for the early Middle Ages these blades were distinguished not only by their mass production, but also by their extremely high quality of workmanship. Their distinctive feature there was a stigma +VLFBERHT+ at the base of the blade.

At that time, most European swords were made according to the “false Damascus” principle: cast from low-carbon steel with high degree slag impurities, these blades only visually resembled the famous Damascus steel. The Vikings, being sea traders, apparently purchased crucible steel from Iran and Afghanistan, which was much stronger and more reliable. For the Middle Ages, this was a real breakthrough in blacksmithing, and therefore such swords were highly valued: weapons of comparable strength in Europe began to be mass-produced only in the second half of the 18th (!) century.

In this article, in the most general outline The process of development of armor in Western Europe in the Middle Ages (VII - late XV centuries) and at the very beginning of the early modern period (early XVI century) is considered. The material is provided with a large number of illustrations for a better understanding of the topic. Most of text translated from English.

Mid-VIIth - IX centuries. Viking in a Vendel helmet. They were used mainly in Northern Europe by the Normans, Germans, etc., although they were often found in other parts of Europe. Very often has a half mask covering top part faces. Later evolved into the Norman helmet. Armor: short chain mail without a chain mail hood, worn over a shirt. The shield is round, flat, medium in size, with a large umbon - a metal convex hemispherical plate in the center, typical of Northern Europe of this period. On shields, a gyuzh is used - a belt for wearing the shield while marching on the neck or shoulder. Naturally, horned helmets did not exist at that time.

X - beginning of XIII centuries. Knight in a Norman helmet with rondache. An open Norman helmet of a conical or ovoid shape. Usually,
A nasal plate is attached in front - a metal nasal plate. It was widespread throughout Europe, both in the western and eastern parts. Armor: long chain mail to the knees, with sleeves of full or partial (to the elbows) length, with a coif - a chain mail hood, separate or integral with the chain mail. In the latter case, the chain mail was called “hauberk”. The front and back of the chain mail have slits at the hem for more comfortable movement (and it’s also more comfortable to sit in the saddle). From the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries. under the chain mail, knights begin to wear a gambeson - a long under-armor garment stuffed with wool or tow to such a state as to absorb blows to the chain mail. In addition, arrows were perfectly stuck in gambesons. It was often used as a separate armor by poorer infantrymen compared to knights, especially archers.

Bayeux Tapestry. Created in the 1070s. It is clearly visible that the Norman archers (on the left) have no armor at all

Chain mail stockings were often worn to protect the legs. From the 10th century a rondache appears - a large Western European shield of knights of the early Middle Ages, and often infantrymen - for example, Anglo-Saxon huskerls. Could have different shapes, usually round or oval, curved and with a umbon. For knights, the rondache almost always has a pointed shape at the bottom - the knights used it to cover left leg. Produced in various versions in Europe in the 10th-13th centuries.

Attack of knights in Norman helmets. This is exactly what the crusaders looked like when they captured Jerusalem in 1099

XII - early XIII centuries. A knight in a one-piece Norman helmet wearing a surcoat. The nosepiece is no longer attached, but is forged together with the helmet. Over the chain mail they began to wear a surcoat - a long and spacious cape of different styles: with and without sleeves of various lengths, plain or with a pattern. The fashion began with the first Crusade, when the knights saw similar cloaks among the Arabs. Like chain mail, it had slits at the hem at the front and back. Functions of the cloak: protecting the chain mail from overheating in the sun, protecting it from rain and dirt. Rich knights, in order to improve protection, could wear double chain mail, and in addition to the nosepiece, attach a half mask that covered the upper part of the face.

Archer with a long bow. XI-XIV centuries

End of XII - XIII centuries. Knight in a closed sweatshirt. Early pothelmas were without facial protection and could have a nose cap. Gradually the protection increased until the helmet completely covered the face. Late Pothelm is the first helmet in Europe with a visor that completely covers the face. By the middle of the 13th century. evolved into topfhelm - a potted or large helmet. The armor does not change significantly: still the same long chain mail with a hood. Muffers appear - chain mail mittens woven to the houberk. But they did not become widespread; leather gloves were popular among knights. The surcoat somewhat increases in volume, in its largest version becoming a tabard - a garment worn over armor, sleeveless, on which the owner’s coat of arms was depicted.

King Edward I Longshanks of England (1239-1307) wearing an open sweatshirt and tabard

First half of the 13th century. Knight in topfhelm with targe. Topfhelm is a knight's helmet that appeared at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century. Used exclusively by knights. The shape can be cylindrical, barrel-shaped or in the shape of a truncated cone, it completely protects the head. The tophelm was worn over a chainmail hood, under which, in turn, a felt liner was worn to cushion blows to the head. Armor: long chain mail, sometimes double, with a hood. In the 13th century chain mail-brigantine armor appears as a mass phenomenon, providing stronger protection than just chain mail. Brigantine is armor made of metal plates riveted on a cloth or quilted linen base. Early chain mail-brigantine armor consisted of breastplates or vests worn over chain mail. The shields of the knights, due to the improvement by the middle of the 13th century. protective qualities of armor and the appearance of fully closed helmets, significantly decrease in size, turning into a targe. Tarje is a type of shield in the shape of a wedge, without a umbon, actually a version of the teardrop-shaped rondache cut off at the top. Now knights no longer hide their faces behind shields.

Brigantine

Second half of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. Knight in topfhelm in surcoat with aylettes. A specific feature of tophelms is very poor visibility, so they were used, as a rule, only in spear clashes. Topfhelm is poorly suited for hand-to-hand combat due to its disgusting visibility. Therefore, the knights, if it came to hand-to-hand combat, threw him down. And so that the expensive helmet would not be lost during battle, it was attached to the back of the neck with a special chain or belt. After which the knight remained in a chainmail hood with a felt liner underneath, which was weak protection against the powerful blows of a heavy medieval sword. Therefore, very soon the knights began to wear a spherical helmet under the tophelm - a cervelier or hirnhaube, which is a small hemispherical helmet that fits tightly to the head, similar to a helmet. The cervelier does not have any elements of facial protection; only very rare cerveliers have nose guards. In this case, in order for the tophelm to sit more tightly on the head and not move to the sides, a felt roller was placed under it over the cervelier.

Cervelier. XIV century

The tophelm was no longer attached to the head and rested on the shoulders. Naturally, the poor knights managed without a cervelier. Ayletts are rectangular shoulder shields, similar to shoulder straps, covered with heraldic symbols. Used in Western Europe in the 13th - early 14th centuries. as primitive shoulder pads. There is a hypothesis that epaulettes originated from the Ayletts.

From the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. Tournament helmet decorations became widespread - various heraldic figures (cleinodes), which were made of leather or wood and attached to the helmet. Various types of horns became widespread among the Germans. Ultimately, topfhelms fell completely out of use during the war, leaving pure tournament helmets for a spear collision.

First half of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries. Knight in bascinet with aventile. In the first half of the 14th century. The topfhelm is replaced by a bascinet - a spheroconic helmet with a pointed top, to which is woven an aventail - a chainmail cape that frames the helmet along the lower edge and covers the neck, shoulders, back of the head and sides of the head. The bascinet was worn not only by knights, but also by infantrymen. There are a huge number of varieties of bascinets, both in the shape of the helmet and in the type of fastening of the visor of various types, with and without a nosepiece. The simplest, and therefore most common, visors for bascinets were relatively flat clapvisors - in fact, a face mask. At the same time, a variety of bascinets with a visor, the Hundsgugel, appeared - the ugliest helmet in Europe, nevertheless very common. Obviously, security at that time was more important than appearance.

Bascinet with Hundsgugel visor. End of the 14th century

Later, from the beginning of the 15th century, bascinets began to be equipped with plate neck protection instead of chain mail aventail. Armor at this time also developed along the path of increasing protection: chain mail with brigantine reinforcement was still used, but with larger plates that could withstand blows better. Individual elements of plate armor began to appear: first, plastrons or placards that covered the stomach, and breastplates, and then plate cuirasses. Although, due to their high cost, plate cuirasses were used at the beginning of the 15th century. were available to few knights. Also appearing in large quantities: bracers - part of the armor that protects the arms from the elbow to the hand, as well as developed elbow pads, greaves and knee pads. In the second half of the 14th century. The gambeson is replaced by the aketon - a quilted underarmor jacket with sleeves, similar to a gambeson, only not so thick and long. It was made from several layers of fabric, quilted with vertical or rhombic seams. Additionally, I didn’t stuff myself with anything anymore. The sleeves were made separately and laced to the shoulders of the aketon. With development plate armor, which did not require such thick underarmor as chain mail, in the first half of the 15th century. The aketone gradually replaced the gambeson among the knights, although it remained popular among the infantry until the end of the 15th century, primarily because of its cheapness. In addition, richer knights could use a doublet or purpuen - essentially the same aketon, but with enhanced protection from chain mail inserts.

This period, the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries, is characterized by a huge variety of combinations of armor: chain mail, chain mail-brigantine, composite of a chain mail or brigantine base with plate breastplates, backrests or cuirasses, and even splint-brigantine armor, not to mention all kinds of bracers , elbow pads, knee pads and greaves, as well as closed and open helmets with a wide variety of visors. Small shields (tarzhe) are still used by knights.

Looting the city. France. Miniature from the early 15th century.

By the middle of the 14th century, following the new fashion for shortening outer clothing that had spread throughout Western Europe, the surcoat was also greatly shortened and turned into a zhupon or tabar, which performed the same function. The bascinet gradually developed into the grand bascinet - a closed helmet, round, with neck protection and a hemispherical visor with numerous holes. It fell out of use at the end of the 15th century.

First half and end of the 15th century. Knight in a salad. All further development of armor follows the path of increasing protection. It was the 15th century. can be called the age of plate armor, when they became somewhat more accessible and, as a result, appeared en masse among knights and, to a lesser extent, among infantry.

Crossbowman with paveza. Mid-second half of the 15th century.

As blacksmithing developed, the design of plate armor became more and more improved, and the armor itself changed according to armor fashion, but Western European plate armor always had the best protective qualities. By the middle of the 15th century. the arms and legs of most knights were already completely protected by plate armor, the torso by a cuirass with a plate skirt attached to the lower edge of the cuirass. Also, plate gloves are appearing en masse instead of leather ones. Aventail is being replaced by gorje - plate protection of the neck and upper chest. It could be combined with both a helmet and a cuirass.

In the second half of the 15th century. Arme appears - a new type knight's helmet XV-XVI centuries, with double visor and neck protection. In the helmet design, the spherical dome has a rigid back and movable face and neck protection from the front and sides, over which a visor attached to the canopy is lowered. Thanks to this design, the armor provides excellent protection both in a spear collision and in hand-to-hand combat. Arme is the highest level of evolution of helmets in Europe.

Arme. Mid XVI V.

But it was very expensive and therefore available only to rich knights. Most of the knights from the second half of the 15th century. wore all kinds of salads - a type of helmet that is elongated and covers the back of the neck. Salads were widely used, along with chapelles - the simplest helmets - in the infantry.

Infantryman in chapelle and cuirass. First half of the 15th century

For knights, deep salads were specially forged with full protection of the face (the fields in front and on the sides were forged vertical and actually became part of the dome) and neck, for which the helmet was supplemented with a bouvier - protection for the collarbones, neck and lower part of the face.

Knight in chapelle and bouvigère. Middle - second half of the 15th century.

In the 15th century There is a gradual abandonment of shields as such (due to mass appearance plate armor). Shields in the 15th century. turned into bucklers - small round fist shields, always made of steel and with a umbon. They appeared as a replacement for knightly targes for foot combat, where they were used to parry blows and strike the enemy’s face with the umbo or edge.

Buckler. Diameter 39.5 cm. Beginning of the 16th century.

The end of the XV - XVI centuries. Knight in full plate armor. XVI century Historians no longer date it back to the Middle Ages, but to the early modern era. Therefore, full plate armor is more a phenomenon of the New Age than of the Middle Ages, although it appeared in the first half of the 15th century. in Milan, famous as a production center best armor in Europe. In addition, full plate armor was always very expensive, and therefore was available only to the wealthiest part of the knighthood. Full plate armor, covering the entire body with steel plates and the head with a closed helmet, is the culmination of the development of European armor. Poldrones appear - plate shoulder pads that provide protection for the shoulder, upper arm, and shoulder blades with steel plates due to their rather large size. Also, to enhance protection, they began to attach tassets - hip pads - to the plate skirt.

During the same period, the bard appeared - plate horse armor. They consisted of the following elements: chanfrien - protection of the muzzle, critnet - protection of the neck, peytral - protection of the chest, crupper - protection of the croup and flanshard - protection of the sides.

Full armor for knight and horse. Nuremberg. Weight (total) of the rider’s armor is 26.39 kg. The weight (total) of the horse's armor is 28.47 kg. 1532-1536

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. two mutually opposite processes take place: if the armor of the cavalry is increasingly strengthened, then the infantry, on the contrary, is increasingly exposed. During this period, the famous Landsknechts appeared - German mercenaries who served during the reign of Maximilian I (1486-1519) and his grandson Charles V (1519-1556), who retained for themselves, at best, only a cuirass with tassets.

Landsknecht. The end of the 15th - first half of the 16th centuries.

Landsknechts. Engraving from the early 16th century.

The task of classical weapons is to perform defensive or offensive actions. Since the Stone Age, humanity has evolved to create models whose purpose was both specific and unique. Thus, the masters of antiquity developed special unusual edged weapons.

How did it all begin?

The history of edged weapons stretches back to the Paleolithic. Products of that time were widely used during hunting and in internecine battles. These are clubs and clubs. Daggers and knives were also created. Stone products were soon replaced by flint and bone ones. The first edged weapon of the Paleolithic was the bow, which at that time was considered the most advanced of all types of weapons and was indispensable both in hunting and in battle. With the discovery of copper and bronze, swords, maces, knives and daggers were created. New era bladed weapons began in the era of the Roman Empire, when the main role in battles was given to the saber.

Edged weapons of the Middle Ages

In the 9th century, the evolution of the weapons of European countries was influenced by their geographical location. Due to the similarity of folk cultures, the technologies for creating edged weapons by craftsmen from different countries had much in common. The legacy of the Roman Empire made a significant contribution to this process. Also European countries borrowed some elements Asian species weapons. Melee weapons of the Middle Ages, used in close combat, were classified according to the principle of action. As it was in ancient times.

Types of bladed weapons

Historians distinguish the following types of edged weapons:

• Shock. It includes a mace, a club, a club, a chain, a flail and a pole.
• Pricking. This type of bladed weapon can be hand-held (dirks, daggers, rapiers, stilettos and swords) or polearm (spears, pikes, spears and tridents).
• Chopping. It includes: a battle axe, a scythe and a sword.
• Piercing-cutting: saber, scimitar, halberd.
• Piercing and cutting. It includes various

Manufacturing

Expanding knowledge about the properties of metal and technologies for working with it gave gunsmiths the opportunity to experiment. Very often, weapons were made to order. This explains the presence of a large number of products of various shapes and properties. The development of gunsmithing was influenced by the emergence of manufacturing production: special attention of gunsmiths was now paid to combat qualities, and not to the decorative component. Nevertheless, ancient edged weapons are not without their individuality. Each such product, depending on the workshop in which it was made, had its own special feature: markings or stamps.

Any model is made for a specific purpose: for defense or offense. There are also unusual melee weapons designed to cause the enemy as much pain as possible. The geography of such creations by masters is very wide. It covers territories from Asia to Egypt and India.

What is khopesh?

This unusual bladed weapon is a sickle, based on Sumerian and Assyrian swords and axes. Khopesh was produced in Ancient Egypt.

Iron or bronze was used for work. In its design, this unusual bladed weapon had a wooden handle and a sickle, which made it possible to disarm an enemy by clinging to a shield. Also, with the help of khopesh, chopping, piercing and cutting blows were carried out. The design of the product ensured the efficiency of its use.

The khopesh was mainly used as an ax. It is very difficult to prevent a blow from such a bladed weapon; in addition, it is capable of breaking through any obstacle. In the entire blade, only its outer edge was subject to sharpening. Khopesh easily pierced the chain mail. back side was capable of breaking through a helmet.

Unusual Indian dagger

An unusual bladed weapon was created on Indian territory - the Qatar. This product is a type of dagger. This unique bladed weapon differs from daggers in that its handle is shaped like the letter "H" and is made of the same material as the blade.

As a support for the hand, the catarrh has two parallel thin bars. Used as something that can pierce chain mail. Possession of a catarrh indicated the high status of a warrior.

Ancient Nubian throwing knife

Klinga - this is the name given to the unusual bladed weapon used by the warriors of the Azanda tribe, which was located on the territory of ancient Nubia. This product is a throwing knife consisting of several blades.

The blade size was 550 mm. The design of this bladed weapon consisted of three blades extending in different directions from the handle. Klinga was intended to inflict the most painful blows on the enemy. The Nubian served as a very effective weapon. In addition, it was a distinctive sign confirming high status owner. Klinga was used only by experienced and honored warriors.

Unique Chinese crossbow

Before the conflict with Japan (1894-1895), the warriors of China were equipped with a unique and very formidable weapon of that time - the cho-ko-nu repeating crossbow. This product used tension and release of the bowstring. The whole structure worked with one hand: the bowstring was pulled, the bolt fell into the barrel and a descent was made. Cho-ko-nu was a very effective and fast weapon: within twenty seconds, a Chinese warrior could fire about ten arrows. The distance for which this crossbow was intended reached 60 meters. In terms of its penetrating ability, cho-ko-nu gave low indicators. But at the same time, the weapon had high speed. Various poisons were often applied to the arrow tips, which made the cho-ko-nu a truly deadly weapon. If we compare this ancient Chinese product with modern similar models, then in its simplicity of design, rate of fire and ease of use, the cho-ko-nu has much in common with the Kalashnikov assault rifle.

What are macuahutl and tepupigli?

Macuahutl - this is the name given to the one used in battles by the Aztecs. In addition to the material from which it was made, the macuahutl differed from other similar weapons in the presence of pointed pieces. They were located along the entire length of the wooden blade. The size of the sword ranged from 900 to 1200 mm. Due to this, the wounds from the macuahutl were especially terrible: pieces of glass tore the flesh, and the sharpness of the blade itself was enough to cut off the enemy’s head.

Tepuspillies are another formidable weapon of the Aztecs. In its design, this product resembled a spear, consisting of a tip and a handle. The length of the handle reached the height of a person. The palm-sized blade, like the macuahutl, is equipped with very sharp pieces of obsidian. Compared to the Aztec wooden sword, the spear had a larger blast radius. A successful blow from a tepusaw could easily pierce a person's armor and body. The design of the tip was designed in such a way that if it entered the flesh of an enemy, the tip could not be immediately removed from the wound. By design gunsmiths, the jagged shape of the tip was supposed to cause as much suffering as possible to the enemy.

Non-lethal Japanese kakute

War rings or kakute are considered unique military items that were widely used by warriors in Japan. Kakute is a small hoop that covers the finger. The Japanese combat ring is equipped with one or three riveted spikes. Each warrior used predominantly no more than two such battle rings. One of them was worn on thumb, and the other - on the middle or index finger.

Most often, the kakute was worn on the finger with the spines inward. They were used in situations where it was necessary to capture and hold the enemy or inflict minor damage. Combat rings with spikes turned outward became serrated brass knuckles. The main task of the kakute is to suppress the enemy. These Japanese battle rings were very popular among ninjas. Kunoichi (female ninjas) treated kakute spines with poisons, which gave them the ability to carry out fatal attacks.

Gladiator's Armlet

IN ancient Rome During gladiator fights, participants used a special armlet, which was also called a scissor. This unique metal product was worn at one end on the gladiator's hand, and the other end was a semicircular point. Scissor did not weigh down the hand, since it was very light. The length of the gladiator armlet was 450 mm. Skissor gave the warrior the opportunity to block and strike. Wounds from such metal armlets were not fatal, but were very painful. Each missed blow with a semicircular tip was fraught with profuse bleeding.

The history of ancient peoples knows many more types of unusual, specific weapons, which were made by ancient craftsmen in order to cause the enemy as much suffering as possible and were particularly sophisticated and effective.

The armor of the knights of the Middle Ages, photos and descriptions of which are presented in the article, went through a complex evolutionary path. They can be seen in weapons museums. This is a real work of art.

They surprise not only with their protective properties, but also with their luxury and grandeur. However, few people know that the monolithic iron armor of the knights of the Middle Ages is dated late period that era. This was no longer protection, but traditional clothing that emphasized the high social status of the owner. This is a kind of analogue of modern expensive business suits. They could be used to judge the situation in society. We will talk about this in more detail later, presenting photos of knights in armor of the Middle Ages. But first, about where they came from.

First armor

The weapons and armor of the knights of the Middle Ages developed together. This is understandable. The improvement of lethal means necessarily leads to the development of defensive ones. Even in prehistoric times, man tried to protect his body. The first armor was animal skin. It protected well from soft weapons: sledgehammers, primitive axes, etc. The ancient Celts achieved perfection in this. Their protective skins sometimes withstood even sharp spears and arrows. Surprisingly, the main emphasis in defense was on the back. The logic was this: in a frontal attack it was possible to hide from shells. Backstabs are impossible to see. Flight and retreat were part of the combat tactics of these peoples.

Fabric armor

Few people know, but the armor of the knights of the Middle Ages in the early period was made of matter. It was difficult to distinguish them from peaceful civilian clothing. The only difference is that they were glued together from several layers of material (up to 30 layers). These were light, from 2 to 6 kg, inexpensive armor. In the era of mass battles and the primitiveness of chopping tools - perfect option. Any militia could afford such protection. Surprisingly, such armor even withstood arrows with stone tips, which easily pierced iron. This happened due to cushioning against the fabric. The more prosperous people used quilted caftans instead, stuffed with horsehair, cotton wool, and hemp.

The peoples of the Caucasus used similar protection until the 19th century. Their felted wool cloak was rarely cut by a saber and withstood not only arrows, but also bullets from smoothbore guns from 100 meters. Let us recall that such weapons were in our army until Crimean War 1955-1956, when our soldiers died from European rifled rifles.

Leather armor

The armor of medieval knights made of leather replaced cloth ones. They became widespread in Rus'. Leather craftsmen were widely valued at the time.

In Europe, they were poorly developed, since the use of crossbows and bows was the favorite tactics of Europeans throughout the Middle Ages. Leather protection was used by archers and crossbowmen. She protected from light cavalry, as well as from brothers in arms opposite side. From long distances they could withstand bolts and arrows.

Buffalo leather was especially prized. It was almost impossible to get it. Only the richest could afford it. There were relatively light leather armor of the knights of the Middle Ages. Weight was from 4 to 15 kg.

Armor Evolution: Lamellar Armor

Next, evolution occurs - the production of armor for medieval knights from metal begins. One of the varieties is lamellar armor. The first mention of such technology is observed in Mesopotamia. The armor there was made of copper. Metal began to be used in similar protective technology. Lammellar armor is a scaly shell. They turned out to be the most reliable. We only got through with bullets. Their main drawback is their weight up to 25 kg. It is impossible to put it on alone. In addition, if a knight fell from his horse, he was completely neutralized. It was impossible to get up.

Chainmail

The armor of medieval knights in the form of chain mail was the most common. Already in the 12th century they became widespread. The ringed armor weighed relatively little: 8-10 kg. The full set, including stockings, helmet, gloves, reached up to 40 kg. The main advantage is that the armor did not restrict movement. Only the wealthiest aristocrats could afford them. It only became widespread among the middle classes in the 14th century, when wealthy aristocrats donned plate armor. They will be discussed further.

Armor

Plate armor is the pinnacle of evolution. Only with the development of metal forging technology was it possible to create such a work of art. It is almost impossible to make the plate armor of medieval knights with your own hands. It was a single monolithic shell. Only the richest aristocrats could afford such protection. Their distribution dates back to the Late Middle Ages. Knight in plate armor on the battlefield - a real armored tank. It was impossible to defeat him. One such warrior among the army tipped the scales towards victory. Italy is the birthplace of such protection. It was this country that was famous for its masters in the production of armor.

The desire for heavy defense stems from the battle tactics of medieval cavalry. Firstly, she delivered a powerful, swift strike in closed ranks. As a rule, after one strike with a wedge against the infantry, the battle ended in victory. Therefore, in the forefront were the most privileged aristocrats, among whom was the king himself. Knights in armor almost never died. It was impossible to kill him in battle, and after the battle the captured aristocrats were not executed, since everyone knew each other. Yesterday's enemy turned into a friend today. In addition, the exchange and sale of captured aristocrats sometimes amounted to main goal battles. In fact, medieval battles were like: There were rarely any deaths." the best people“However, in real battles this still happened. Therefore, the need for improvement constantly arose.

"Peaceful Battle"

In 1439 in Italy, at home the best masters blacksmithing, a battle took place near the city of Anghiari. Several thousand knights took part in it. After four hours of battle, only one warrior died. He fell from his horse and fell under its hooves.

The end of the era of combat armor

England put an end to "peaceful" wars. In one of the battles, the English, led by Henry XIII, who were tens of times outnumbered, used powerful Welsh bows against French aristocrats in armor. Marching confidently, they felt safe. Imagine their surprise when arrows began to rain down from above. The shock was that they had never hit knights from above before. Shields were used against frontal damage. The close formation of them reliably protected against bows and crossbows. However, the Welsh weapons were able to penetrate the armor from above. This defeat at the dawn of the Middle Ages, where the “best people” of France died, put an end to such battles.

Armor is a symbol of aristocracy

Armor has always been a symbol of aristocracy, not only in Europe, but throughout the world. Even the development of firearms did not put an end to their use. The armor always featured a coat of arms; it was a ceremonial uniform.

They were worn for holidays, celebrations, and official meetings. Of course, ceremonial armor was made in a lightweight version. Last time their combat use was already in Japan in the 19th century, during the samurai uprisings. However, firearms have shown that any peasant with a rifle is much more effective than a professional warrior with a bladed weapon, dressed in heavy armor.

Armor of a medieval knight: description

So, the classic set of the average knight consisted of the following things:

Weapons and armor were not uniform throughout the history of the Middle Ages, since they performed two functions. The first is protection. Second, armor was a distinctive attribute of high social status. One complex helmet could cost entire villages with serfs. Not everyone could afford it. This also applies to complex armor. Therefore, it was impossible to find two identical sets. Feudal armor is not a uniform uniform for recruit soldiers in later eras. They are distinguished by their individuality.