The Russian monarchical, Black Hundred organization arose on April 24 (May 8), 1905 in Moscow. Founded by V.A. Greenmouth. It united all existing Moscow monarchist organizations (RMP, Union of Russian People (SRL), Moscow Union of Russian People (SRN), Society of Russian Patriots, Circle of Muscovites, etc.).
The initial program provisions of the RMP were developed by V.A. Gringmut in the spring-summer of 1905 in his articles published in Moskovskie Vedomosti. At the end of 1905 - beginning of 1906, these publications were consolidated into a single Program. The RMP declared its main task to be “the preservation of the Autocracy.”
The need for reforms was not denied, but, firstly, they were proposed to be carried out only after the end of the unrest, and, secondly, they should be based on the triad of “Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Russian nationality.” The program proclaimed Orthodox Church“the guarantee of strengthening the Autocracy and the prosperity of the Russian People”, put forward demands for maintaining its primacy position in the Empire and its role as the spiritual and moral leader of the state and people. The second basis for reform is unlimited Autocracy - without it, according to the Program, Russia simply cannot exist.
The program required the preservation of the class system of the Russian People, especially the spiritual, noble and peasant classes. In resolving the issue of bureaucracy, the Program proceeded from the fact that parliamentarism by itself will not produce a good bureaucracy. Only the Unlimited Autocrat can liberate from bad bureaucracy by bringing to trial all faulty officials at the initiative of any loyal subject.
The RMP did not have a separate charter, but a number of necessary statutory requirements were contained in the Program: only Russian subjects of both sexes, all classes and religions (with the exception of Jews) could be members of the party; The newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti" was declared the official organ of the party, etc.
In 1907, the main efforts of Gringmut and other leaders of the Russian MP were aimed at rallying patriotic forces. February 18. An agreement was concluded to unite the two largest monarchist organizations in Moscow - the RMP and the Moscow department of the RNC - into a single Monarchical Union of the Russian People. The main terms of the agreement were as follows: founder and chairman of the RNC N.N. Oznobishin became honorary chairman new party, and Greenmouth - acting; The full merger was planned to take place on January 1. 1908; During 1907, separate office work and finances were maintained, but joint meetings were held (a total of 8 such meetings were held general meetings).
The sudden death of the party founder and recognized leader of the Moscow monarchists V.A. Gringmut (and on December 17, 1906 he was elected lifelong chairman of the party) dealt a serious blow to the activities of the RMP.
Gringmut's successor in all positions in monarchical organizations Moscow became Archpriest I. I. Vostorgov, who was his deputy during his lifetime. Since 1908, the RMP was transformed into the Russian Monarchical Union.
Union of the Russian People.
Orthodox-monarchical, nationalist organization. The largest "Black Hundred" formation in the territory Russian Empire, which existed from 1905 to 1917.
The initiative to create the Union of the Russian People belonged to several prominent figures of the monarchist movement of the early 20th century - the doctor Alexander Ivanovich Dubrovin, the artist Apollo Apollonovich Maykov and the abbot Arseny (Alekseev).
November 8 (21), 1905 was created Main Council The Union of the Russian People, Dubrovin was elected chairman, A.A. was elected as his deputies. Maikov and engineer A.I. Trishatny .
On August 7, 1906, the charter of the Union of the Russian People was approved, which contained the basic ideas of the organization, a program of action and a concept for the development of the organization. This charter was recognized as the best of the documents written in the monarchical organizations of that time.
The goals, ideology and program of the Union were contained in the Charter, adopted on August 7, 1906. Its main goal was the development of national Russian self-awareness and the unification of all Russian people for common work for the benefit of Russia, united and indivisible. This benefit, according to the authors of the document, was contained in the traditional formula “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.”
Particular attention was paid to Orthodoxy as the fundamental religion of Russia.
The Union aimed to bring the tsar closer to the people, through liberation from bureaucratic dominance in the government and a return to the traditional concept of the Duma as a conciliar body. For the authorities, the charter recommended respect for freedom of speech, press, assembly, association and personal integrity, within the limits established by law.
The charter noted the primacy of the Russian people in the state. Russians meant Great Russians, Belarusians and Little Russians. In relation to foreigners, strict principles of legality were prescribed, allowing them to consider it an honor and a blessing to belong to the Russian Empire and not be burdened by their dependence.
In the Russian Empire.
The initiator of the creation of the Russian Monarchist Party was the editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti Vladimir Andreevich Gringmut, a native of Germany. In his newspaper dated March 2, 1905, the article “Organization of the Monarchist Party” speaks of the unification of revolutionary, destructive forces in the country and indicates the need to oppose anarchy with a single, strong monarchist party, “to create a common all-Russian squad around the royal throne.” Already in May, the semi-spontaneous organization of monarchist parties began in a number of cities and villages of the empire. At the editorial office of the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti, a Central Bureau was created (in the house on Strastnoy Boulevard, where the printing house and editorial office of the newspaper were located). The first leaders of the party are Gringmut and Archpriest Vostorgov, a talented publicist and speaker. The party united the titled nobility, nobles and priests. The program was published on October 15, 1905. The main difference from other right-wing organizations was that the party did not recognize the very principle of popular representation and came out categorically against the Slavophile slogan “opinion to the people - power to the Tsar.” On February 5, 1905, the newspaper wrote: “Moskovskie Vedomosti” for more than forty years has always invariably called the government’s policy of concessions to revolutionary demands a policy of pathetic impotence, causing not a decrease, but a more daring strengthening of these demands.” Further, the idea was held that no representation could claim that it is the opinion of the people and expresses their interests.The Tsar himself is the representative of the people and responsible for them before God.
According to the members of the Monarchist Party, the formula for Russian statehood looked like this: firm autocratic power, based on the nobility and clergy with the restored patriarchy and parish life, on the bureaucracy loyal to the tsar and on the entire Orthodox people, mercilessly exterminating sedition. The Russian Monarchist Party assigned a decisive role to the Church. Gringmut himself was married to a Russian and converted to Orthodoxy. The party was under the direct patronage of St. John of Kronstadt.
Meetings, meetings, readings of reports took place in the building Historical Museum and the Diocesan House. The meetings began with prayer and church chants, and ended with the adoption of texts of the most loyal address or expressions of condolences to the families of those killed by the revolutionaries.
The newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti was constantly persecuted by the authorities, and Gringmut was put on trial in 1906 for publishing the Black Hundred Monarchist Guide. He was accused of “inciting hostility of one part of the population against another.” Gringmuth denied the accusations and explained that what the Jewish press calls pogroms is a reaction of people to violence against them.
The death of Gringmut on September 28, 1907 dealt a serious blow to the party. The founder of the party personally ensured the implementation of many projects with his unquestioned authority, influence in high circles and simply extensive knowledge in various areas of life. Gringmut's successor was his deputy Vostorgov. IN
Until 1905, only underground revolutionary parties operated in the Russian Empire. The legal activity of political parties became possible only after the proclamation of the Manifesto on the improvement of state order on October 17, 1905. The same Manifesto announced elections to the State Duma, for seats in which the newly created party organizations began to fight.
"Russian Assembly"
The Russian Assembly began its activities in 1900 as a literary and artistic club for adherents of right-wing conservative views. Its first chairman was the prince and writer Dmitry Golitsyn. It only formed into a political party in 1906. The “Russian Assembly” never took part in the Duma elections, and its political influence, in contrast to the ideological one, was small, but some leaders of other monarchist and Black Hundred parties emerged from it, such as Alexander Dubrovin, Vladimir Purishkevich, Vladimir Gringmut. At the beginning of World War I, the “Russian Assembly” was interrupted political activity, and in 1917 ceased to exist.
The party program was based on the famous triad “Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Nationality." It stated that “the Orthodox faith must be dominant in Russia, as an immutable basis of Russian enlightenment and public education”, “tsarist autocracy is the most perfect form of government in Russia”, and “the tsar cannot be subject to any responsibility to anyone except God and History”, and “Russia is united and indivisible, no autonomy is allowed.”
Members of the “Russian Assembly” were representatives of the nobility, high clergy, officers (until 1906, when the military was prohibited from joining political organizations), and conservative publicists. Among them were the famous publisher Alexei Suvorin, the widow of the great writer Anna Dostoevskaya. Viktor Vasnetsov and Nicholas Roerich sympathized with the “Russian Assembly”.
"Union of the Russian People"
The “Union of the Russian People” arose in 1905 during the First Russian Revolution with the aim of counteracting it. At the origins of the “Union of the Russian People” were the doctor Alexander Dubrovin, the artist Apollo Maykov and his main ideologist, Abbot Arseny (Alekseev), whose radical views and actions more than once aroused the wrath of church hierarchs.
Due to disagreements in the leadership of the party, in 1908 the “Russian People's Union named after Michael the Archangel” under the leadership of Purishkevich separated from it, and in 1912 - the “All-Russian Dubrovinsky Union of the Russian People”, which was headed by the former chairman pushed aside from the leadership. However, there were no significant differences in the programs of these parties. The leading landowner and famous publicist Nikolai Markov established himself at the head of the “Union of the Russian People”. Before the February Revolution of 1917, the Union of the Russian People was the most massive political party in Russia, but soon after the revolution it was banned.
The party program was based on the triad “Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Nationality." At the same time, government actions were often sharply criticized; in particular, the Union opposed attracting foreign capital. Russian society members of the Union dreamed of building on the principles of conciliarity, rejecting both revolutionary upheavals and bourgeois democracy. The Union of the Russian People has been repeatedly accused of inciting anti-Semitism, organizing Jewish pogroms and political murders.
The attitude towards the “Union of the Russian People” in the highest circles was ambiguous. His activities were sympathized with Emperor Nicholas II himself, Saint John of Kronstadt and many representatives of the highest clergy, including the future Patriarch Tikhon (Belavin). However, Prime Minister Sergei Witte called the Union “an organization of ordinary thieves and hooligans” and believed that “a decent person will not shake hands with them and will try to avoid their company.”
Russian monarchical union
The prototype of the Russian monarchical union is the Russian monarchist party was founded in 1905. For a long time, this organization was close to the “Union of the Russian People,” and there was talk of their unification, but then disagreements between the organizations intensified, and in 1909 the Russian Monarchical Union was registered. At the first stage, the leader of the party was the ideologist of the Black Hundreds Vladimir Gringmut, and after his death - Archpriest John (Vostorgov) and Archimandrite Macarius (Gnevushev). The position of the monarchists was greatly shaken at the beginning of the First World War after the prohibition of clergy from being members of political organizations, as well as due to financial scandals in which the party leadership was involved. After the February Revolution, the party was banned, and its leaders were arrested and executed in 1918.
The party advocated an unlimited monarchy, against any concessions to parliamentarism, and classified liberals, along with revolutionaries, as enemies of Russia. At the same time, the monarchists sharply criticized the government (especially when it was led by Sergei Witte) and the state bureaucracy, which, in their opinion, stood between the sovereign and the people. The monarchists were proud of the name “Black Hundreds”: “The enemies of the autocracy called the “Black Hundred” the simple, black Russian people who, during the armed rebellion of 1905, stood up to defend the autocratic Tsar. Is this name honorable, “Black Hundred”? Yes, very honorable." At the same time, they rejected terror and violent methods of struggle.
"Union of October 17" ("Octobrists")
The Union of October 17, Russia's largest liberal-conservative party, took its name from the Tsar's manifesto of October 17, 1905, which proclaimed certain civil liberties, including the organization of political parties. The base of the Octobrists were landowners, large entrepreneurs, bureaucracy and the right part of the intelligentsia. Its leader was the prominent lawyer Alexander Guchkov, chairman of the 3rd State Duma, who was later replaced by large landowner Mikhail Rodzianko, chairman of the 3rd (after Guchkov’s resignation) and 4th State Duma. Among the members and supporters of the party were lawyer Fyodor Plevako, jeweler Carl Faberge, geographer and traveler Grigory Grum-Grzhimailo. The Octobrist Party in the Duma was considered the support of the government of Pyotr Stolypin. In 1913, a split occurred in the Octobrist camp, and the party soon practically ceased political activity. However, its leaders played a major role in the February Revolution of 1917 and contributed to the abdication of Nicholas II, and subsequently occupied important positions in the Provisional Government.
The key points of the program of the “Union of October 17” were the introduction of a constitutional monarchy, guarantees of civil liberties, the unity and indivisibility of Russia (the right to autonomy was recognized only for Finland).
Centrists
Progressive Party
The Progressive Party was founded in 1912. Its predecessors, the Progressive Economic and Commercial and Industrial parties and the Trade and Industrial Union, which appeared in 1905, did not last long. The Progressive Party was led by industrialist Alexander Konovalov and large landowner Ivan Efremov. Big influence the Ryabushinsky brothers had some of the richest capitalists in it. After the February revolution, the left progressives, led by Konovalov, joined the ranks of the Cadets, and the right, led by Efremov, transformed into a radical democratic party.
The Progressive Party expressed, first of all, the interests big business. In the political spectrum, its place was between the Octobrists and the Cadets. Progressives advocated moderate political reforms, and their ideal was a government system close to the British one, with a constitutional monarchy and a bicameral parliament, with a fairly high property qualification for deputies and voters. Radically- democratic party, organized by the remnants of the progressives after February 1917, already advocated a presidential form of government with state structure, close to the American one.
Party of Constitutional Democrats (Cadets)
The Constitutional Democratic Party (other names are the “People's Freedom Party” and simply “the Cadets”) was the largest liberal party in the Russian Empire. It was founded in 1905 on the basis of the Union of Zemstvo Constitutionalists. The core of the party was the intelligentsia. Its leader was the historian Pavel Milyukov, and among its active members were scientists Vladimir Vernadsky and Pyotr Struve, a prominent lawyer, the father of the great writer Vladimir Nabokov and many others famous representatives intelligentsia. The party won the elections to the First State Duma, the chairman of which was elected its member, professor of law at Moscow University Sergei Muromtsev. The Second Duma was headed by another cadet, lawyer Fyodor Golovin. The cadets played important role in the February Revolution of 1917 and occupied key positions in the Provisional Government. Soon after the October Revolution, the constitutional democratic party was banned. Subsequently, its leaders enjoyed great influence in emigrant circles.
The cadet program affirmed the equality of all Russian citizens, regardless of gender, age, nationality, religion and social origin, parliamentary democracy, separation of powers, guarantees of personal freedoms, federal structure Russia with the right of nations to cultural self-determination, free school education, 8-hour working day.
Labor People's Socialist Party
The People's Socialist Party (ENES) was formed in 1905. Its ideology was close to the populism of the 19th century - the party advocated a transition to socialism, relying on the peasant community, bypassing the stage of capitalism. At the same time, the Popular Socialists rejected terror and other violent methods. The People's Socialist Party consisted, for the most part, of left-wing intellectuals and peasants. Their leader was the famous economist Alexey Poshekhonov. After the dissolution of the Second State Duma in 1907 and before the February Revolution of 1917 political activity The party was almost invisible until its remnants united with the Trudoviks in the summer of 1917 to form the Labor People's Socialist Party.
The labor group (trudoviks) arose as an association of deputies of the First State Duma who adhered to populist views. It mainly included deputies from peasants and leaders of the zemstvo movement, as well as some part of the left intelligentsia. Trudoviks positioned themselves as defenders of the interests of all workers: peasants, workers and the working intelligentsia. After the dispersal of the First Duma, some of the group’s deputies were arrested, and some emigrated. In subsequent Dumas, the Trudoviks were no longer so numerous. In 1917, they united with the Popular Socialist Party to form the Labor People's Socialist Party. In 1918 the party was banned.
Anarchists
Among revolutionary-minded citizens of the Russian Empire, the ideas of anarchism enjoyed a certain popularity. But there was no large anarchist party in Russia - the rigid party organization contradicted the very essence of this freedom-loving teaching. Anarchists recognized only “the voluntary agreement of individuals into groups and groups among themselves.” They did not want to participate in the elections and activities of the State Duma. There were many anarchist groups of various directions, the unifying figure for which was Prince Peter Kropotkin, who enjoyed enormous authority among all anarchists.
The most influential anarcho-communist group, Bread and Freedom (Bread Volyas), was created by anarchist emigrants in Geneva in 1903. They dreamed not only of the overthrow of tsarism, but also of the abolition of the state in general, and saw the future of the country as a free association of free communes. The Grain Volunteers called for mass strikes and revolutionary uprisings, but at the same time rejected terror. In contrast to the Khlebovoltsy, the group “Black Banner” (Black Banner), whose leader was the writer Judas Grossman, considered expropriations and terror against any “bourgeois” to be the main means of revolutionary struggle.
Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)
The Socialist Revolutionary Party (SR), which grew out of the populist organizations of the late 19th century, for a long time was the most widespread and most radical of socialist parties. The date of birth of the party can be considered 1901, but its program was finally formed only at the beginning of 1906. The leader of the Socialist Revolutionary Party was the professional revolutionary Viktor Chernov. After the February Revolution, the number of Socialist-Revolutionaries exceeded a million, and the Socialist-Revolutionary Alexander Kerensky became the head of the Provisional Government in July. They received a majority in the elections to the Constituent Assembly, which was dispersed by the Bolsheviks. After this, the right Socialist Revolutionaries fought with the Soviets, and the left Socialist Revolutionaries, who broke away from the party, led by Maria Spiridonova, actually joined the new government and remained relatively independent for several more years.
In addition to the political wing, the Socialist Revolutionary Party had combat organization, which was led by Grigory Gershuni, Yevno Azef (later exposed as an secret police agent) and Boris Savinkov. The most famous terrorist acts of the Social Revolutionaries were the murder of the Ministers of Internal Affairs Dmitry Sipyagin by Stepan Balmashev and Vyacheslav von Plehve by Yegor Sazonov, as well as the Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich by Ivan Kalyaev.
The program of the Socialist Revolutionaries is best characterized by the slogan “Land and Freedom.” They advocated the nationalization of land, the prohibition of its purchase and sale, and the provision of land plots to everyone in an amount that could be cultivated with their own labor. It is not surprising that this party gained the greatest popularity among the peasantry. The Social Revolutionaries advocated the broadest political freedoms and declared the right of peoples to self-determination.
Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP)
The RSDLP was founded illegally in 1898. At its origins stood the prominent philosopher Georgy Plekhanov. In 1903, the party split into two groups - the Bolsheviks (who were in the majority at that congress) led by Vladimir Ulyanov-Lenin and the more moderate Mensheviks, whose leader was Julius Martov. Plekhanov also joined the Mensheviks. The Bolsheviks were inclined towards revolutionary methods of struggle, while the Mensheviks preferred legal activities. The actual split into two parties occurred in 1912, but formally the Bolsheviks finally dissociated themselves from the Mensheviks and became a separate party in the spring of 1917.
By the time of the February Revolution, the Mensheviks were more numerous and influential than the Bolsheviks. Their representatives were part of the Provisional Government. Together with the Social Revolutionaries, they controlled the majority of the councils of workers', peasants' and soldiers' deputies. The Bolsheviks refused to cooperate with the Provisional Government and set a course for preparing an armed uprising, which they carried out on October 25, 1917. The Mensheviks condemned the October Revolution. Subsequently, many of their leaders (Martov, Irakli Tsereteli, Pavel Axelrod) ended up in exile, and a significant part of the rank-and-file members chose to collaborate with the Bolsheviks. From 1918 to 1921, the Mensheviks were in power in Georgia.
The RSDLP combined legal activities (its representatives were in the State Duma) with revolutionary struggle. The party had 2 programs: a minimum program and a maximum program. The first provided for the establishment democratic republic, expansion of workers' rights (establishment of an 8-hour working day, social insurance), civil liberties, implementation of the right of nations to self-determination. The goal of the maximum program was a socialist revolution, the abolition of private ownership of the means of production and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
National
The political programs of the national parties of the Russian Empire, as a rule, differed little from the programs of the central parties, with the exception of emphasizing the issue of national autonomy or independence.
"Bund"
The Bund (General Jewish Workers' Union in Lithuania, Poland and Russia) operated mainly in the western provinces of the Russian Empire. The views of the Bundists were close to the program of the RSDLP, and for some time the Bund was part of it as an autonomous organization, at first leaning towards Bolshevism, and then switching to the side of the Mensheviks. The Bundists opposed the emigration of Jews to Palestine, opposing this to the creation of national-cultural autonomies in places where Jews lived compactly.
"Musavat"
The Muslim Democratic Party Musavat (translated as “equality”) was founded in Baku in 1911 and became the most influential Azerbaijani party, enjoying widespread support from various segments of the population. Its leader was the writer and journalist Mamed Emin Rasulzade. Initially, its members took the position of pan-Turkism and dreamed of creating a united Turanian Empire with Turkey, but subsequently moderated their demands and, after uniting with the “Turkic Federalist Party,” insisted only on autonomy within Russia. They also advocated a republican form of government, civil liberties, universal free education and social guarantees.
"Dashnaktsutyun"
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation "Dashnaktsutyun" was created in 1890 in Tiflis. Its main goal was the liberation of Turkish Armenia from power Ottoman Empire or, at a minimum, the establishment of Armenian autonomy. To achieve this, it was planned to use all means, including terror. At the beginning of the 20th century, Dashnaktsutyun began to actively participate in the Russian revolutionary movement. Their demands included the establishment of democratic freedoms, the transfer of all land to peasants and the creation of national autonomy. In 1918-1921, before the establishment of Soviet power, Dashnaktsutyun was the ruling party of Armenia.
"Belarusian Socialist Community"
"Belarusian Socialist Community", the first political party of Belarus, was created in 1902 on the basis of national student circles. The goal of the party was the creation of Belarusian autonomy, and subsequently even the creation nation state. The socio-economic program of the party was at first close to the Menshevik, and then to the Socialist Revolutionary.
"Ukrainian Social Democratic Labor Party"
The first Ukrainian political party was the Ukrainian Revolutionary Party, founded in 1900. But a few years later it split into several parts, the largest of which became the Ukrainian Social Democratic Labor Party (USDRP). Its leader was the writer and artist Vladimir Vinnichenko, and the leadership team included Simon Petlyura, who in those years worked as a teacher and journalist. The USDRP program was very close to the Menshevik one. After the October Revolution, the left wing of the party supported the Bolsheviks, and the right wing headed for the creation of an independent Ukrainian state.
one of the largest right-wing monarchist organizations, founded by V. A. Gringmut. Gringmut began his activities to create the RMP immediately after the Manifesto on February 18. 1905. In March - beginning. Apr. he published a series of articles in the Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper about the need to create a monarchist party and its tasks.
24 Apr In 1905, the first meeting of a circle of like-minded people took place, as a result of which the Central Bureau was created under the editorship of Moskovskiye Vedomosti (this day became considered to be the birthday of the Russian MP).
Then there was a long break, and the next meetings were held only on September 1 and 9. Oct 6 The program and plan for the election campaign were discussed at the meeting. However, revolutionary uprisings prompted members of the newly created party to take more active action. The meeting of October 18, held the day after the release of the famous Manifesto, as Gringmuth wrote, “to the whistling and hooting of the street crowd,” marked the beginning of the fight against the revolutionaries. At the meeting on November 20. decisions were made: to enter into a close alliance with other patriotic organizations to jointly fight the revolution; appeal to the Sovereign with a statement about the loyalty of the indigenous Russian People to the oath and about the desire to strengthen the Autocracy. The result of the unification activities was the creation of the All-People's Russian Union, which united all existing Moscow monarchist organizations (RMP, Union of Russian People (SRL), Moscow Union of the Russian People (SRN), Society of Russian Patriots, Circle of Muscovites, etc.). And 1 Dec. 1905 took place The highest welcome deputations from right-wing organizations, during which the founder of the Russian MP V. A. Gringmut addressed Emperor Nicholas II with a welcoming and encouraging word on behalf of the Russian monarchists. After 6 Dec. an appeal appeared calling for open rebellion; on the initiative of Gringmut, a nationwide prayer for the Tsar and the Motherland took place on Red Square. Despite the overt revolutionary terror, at the appointed hour many thousands of Orthodox Russian people came to the city center, who, led by the archpastors, prayed to God for the pacification of the Fatherland. In 1906, systematic work began on organizational and ideological support for the activities of the RMP. Several departments of the party were opened: March 5 - in Yegoryevsk, March 6 - in Bogorodsk, March 10 - in Pavlovsky Posad, May 11 - in Bronnitsy, June 19 - in Ivanovo-Voznesensk, June 29 - in Ryazan. Three departments also appeared in Moscow itself: Dorogomilovsky, Lefortovo and Basmanny. Parties with a similar name began to emerge in other cities (the most famous was in Kyiv), but they were not organizationally connected with the Moscow RMP. From 5 Feb. to 17 Dec. In 1906, 11 meetings of the RMP were held, the most important of which were meetings on February 26, July 9 and August 8. 26 Feb. at the 2nd general meeting, party chairman V. A. Gringmut made a detailed report: he read the text of the Sovereign’s response to the telegram of the RMP, adopted at the first general meeting on February 5; spoke about the results of the 1st All-Russian Congress of Russian People in St. Petersburg on February 8–12. 1906 (All-Russian Congress of the Russian Assembly); gave an explanation on preparations for the elections to the State Duma; informed about the activities of provincial departments. Gringmut made a separate speech about the historical significance of the Tsar’s words spoken to the deputation of monarchists from Ivanovo-Voznesensk, “My autocracy will remain as it was of old.” The meeting, having sung the folk anthem “God Save the Tsar,” heard a special appeal “Orthodox people, rejoice,” compiled by K. P. Stepanov, and also decided to choose the words of the Sovereign as the motto for the monarchist’s breastplate. V. G. Orlov, L. V. Genika, K. N. Paskhalov, L. N. Bobrov, A. S. Shmakov, B. V. Nazarevsky and others also made speeches at the meeting. July 8, 1906 on the day of Kazan icons of the Mother of God Emperor Nicholas II dissolved the revolutionary State Duma.
The monarchists, who had long been dreaming of this, held a meeting the next day, at which they decided to bring a silver-gilded and enamel lamp, decorated with precious stones with the inscription “Russian monarchists in calling for prayer help from the Queen of Heaven to the Tsar Autocrat of All Russia in memory of July 8, 1906.” The dissolution of the Duma pleased the monarchists, but rumors soon appeared that the government was conducting behind-the-scenes negotiations with representatives of the liberal parties. These rumors, as well as the general unstable situation in the country, prompted the Russian MP to send the Most Submissive Address to the Sovereign, adopted by the general meeting on August 8. The address expressed the hope that the dissolved State Duma would now be abolished forever. At the same time, without setting any conditions and expressing complete obedience to the Tsar’s will, members of the RMP proposed to at least change electoral legislation: “If you, Great Sovereign, decided to continue the experiment with State Duma, then we will fulfill Your Will and make every effort to achieve it as possible best results in the upcoming elections; But in no case will we achieve such results if elections take place on the basis of the previous electoral laws and especially if Jews take part in them.” However, the electoral law was changed only after the experience with the Second Duma. The address ended with a call and prayer to the Monarch: “Dear You are our Breadwinner, heed the cry of the Russian soul, finally remove the shackles from the Russian spirit, give the Russian people the opportunity to live like Russians with the Unlimited Autocratic Tsar at their head, and then Your people will stand in all his height, will sigh with all his heart and, trusting in the mercy of God, will show his traitors and other peoples that early they gathered to sing a requiem for us. Forgive us, Great Sovereign, for our tears; we have no strength to endure our humiliation and our suffering.” In 1906, the Russian Monarchist Assembly began to function as a kind of debate club under the Russian Orthodox Church, which was designed to discuss programmatic and theoretical issues of the monarchist movement. The initial program provisions of the RMP were developed by V. A. Gringmut in the spring and summer of 1905 in his articles published in Moskovskie Vedomosti. In 1905 (n. 1906), these publications were consolidated into a single Program. The RMP declared its main task to be the “preservation of the Autocracy.” The need for reforms was not denied, but, the Russian Monarchist Party is a banner in the first place, they were proposed to be carried out only after the cessation of the unrest, and, secondly, they should be based on the triad “Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Russian nationality.” The program proclaimed the Orthodox Church “the guarantee of the strengthening of the Autocracy and the prosperity of the Russian People”, put forward demands for maintaining its primacy position in the Empire and its role as the spiritual and moral leader of the state and the people.
The second basis for reform is unlimited Autocracy - without it, according to the Program, Russia simply cannot exist. Reforms must also be based on “ free development Russian national and cultural idea throughout the Empire, but without constraining the local national characteristics, having no political significance." This meant, first of all, that the unity and integrity of the Russian Empire, the united Russian official language, unified Russian law, unified Russian public school. Rejecting the idea of a legislature, the RMP Program proposed original way participation of the people in higher government - through reorganization State Council. Now it contains former statesmen “who have work experience, but no life experience,” Gringmuth believed, “so they do not bring the necessary benefit. And he proposed appointing to the State Council outstanding Russian figures who had merit not only in the public sphere, but also in other areas, who could be advisers to the Tsar in matters of legislation. However, they should not limit the Sovereign with their decisions. The program required the preservation of the class system of the Russian People, especially the spiritual, noble and peasant classes. In resolving the issue of bureaucracy, the Program proceeded from the fact that parliamentarism by itself will not produce a good bureaucracy. Only the Unlimited Autocrat can liberate from bad bureaucracy by bringing to trial all faulty officials at the initiative of any loyal subject. In resolving the peasant issue, the RMP opposed “illegal methods of eliminating land shortages” (seizure of someone else’s property, forced alienation of large holdings), because the inviolability of “property rights is the most important guarantee of the healthy development and prosperity of the state and the lasting strengthening of people’s morality.” The problem of land shortage must be solved exclusively by legal measures: increasing land productivity, distributing cheap small loans, organizing agricultural schools, and broadly organizing the resettlement of not only peasants, but also landowners. All these measures required, first of all, energetic assistance from the government, which, on the contrary, in order to attract foreign capital, abandoned agriculture and concentrated its efforts only on industry. The RMP did not have a separate charter, but a number of necessary statutory requirements were contained in the Program: only Russian subjects of both sexes, all classes and religions (with the exception of Jews) could be members of the party; The newspaper “Moskovskie Vedomosti” was declared the official organ of the party, etc. In order to counter the formation of factions within the party, it was specially stipulated that “the principle of challenging the basic provisions is not allowed”; anyone who does not agree with at least one of them will not join the party or will be expelled from her. In 1907, the main efforts of Gringmut and other leaders of the RMP were aimed at rallying patriotic forces. 18 Feb An agreement was concluded to unite the two largest monarchist organizations in Moscow - the RMP and the Moscow department of the RNC - into a single Monarchical Union of the Russian People. The main terms of the agreement were as follows: the founder and chairman of the RNC, N. N. Oznobishin, became the honorary chairman of the new party, and Gringmut became the current one; The full merger was planned to take place on January 1.
1908; During 1907, separate office work and finances were maintained, but joint meetings were held (a total of 8 such general meetings were held). 15 Apr The banner of the Russian MP was solemnly consecrated, which was performed by the famous icon painter, supplier of the Supreme Court V.P. Guryanov with the assistance of prof. paintings by V. M. Vasnetsov and nuns of the Ioannovsky Monastery.
The banner was a slightly modified copy of the prince’s banner. D.I. Pozharsky, which emphasized the continuity of the monarchists’ service to God, the Tsar and the Fatherland. The sudden death of the party founder and recognized leader of the Moscow monarchists V. A. Gringmut (and on December 17, 1906 he was elected lifelong chairman of the party) dealt a serious blow to the activities of the RMP. The party chairman personally provided a number of projects with his highest authority, influence in the highest spheres and simply the necessary level of competence on a number of issues. Gringmut's successor in all posts in the monarchist organizations of Moscow was Prot. I. I. Vostorgov, who was his deputy during his lifetime. Since 1908, the RMP was transformed into the Russian Monarchical Union. The tenth anniversary of the founding of the Russian MP, both because of the war and because of splits in the monarchist movement, was not widely celebrated; only Moskovskie Vedomosti responded, publishing on April 24. 1915 editorial dedicated to the anniversary.
Education. At the beginning of the 20th century. The network of primary schools was expanding, which were divided into zemstvo schools, schools of the Ministry of Education and parish schools. Only in government primary schools 6 million children were educated. The literacy rate of the population over 8 years of age was about 40%.
The industrial boom caused by the reforms of S.Yu. Witte, increased the country's need for specialists various industries economy. This contributed to the growth of higher, mainly university, education. Although the number of universities has remained almost unchanged (a university was opened in Saratov in 1909), the number of students has increased by an order of magnitude (in the mid-90s of the 19th century - 14 thousand, in 1907 - 35.5 thousand). The network of higher technical educational institutions expanded, and in 1916 there were 16 of them. Higher private education became widespread (V.M. Bekhterev Psychoneurological Institute). About 30 women's universities were opened. There were special teacher seminaries that trained school teachers according to an accelerated program. Personnel for the seminaries and secondary educational institutions themselves were trained by 47 pedagogical institutes. In 1903, a women's pedagogical institute opened in St. Petersburg.
At the beginning of the century, to eliminate illiteracy among the adult population, people's universities and educational people's societies arose, where many prominent Russian scientists taught for free. According to the number of books published in the first decade of the 20th century. Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. More than 1,000 legal newspapers were published. The most popular magazine was Niva. In 1905, the government lifted preliminary censorship of periodicals. It is worth noting the educational activities of the publisher and bookseller I. D. Sytin, whose printing houses produced “Library for Self-Education” and other books for the people in mass editions. In the first decade of the 20th century. in the Russian Empire there were more than 10 thousand public and people's libraries. At the same time, the development of Russian cinema began. In the period from 1908 to 1917, 2 thousand domestically produced feature films were created. As many contemporaries noted, distinctive feature beginning of the century there was a craving for knowledge among the lower strata of the population.
The science. By the beginning of the 20th century. in Russia there was an Academy of Sciences with developed system industry institutes, as well as universities with numerous scientific societies. All-Russian congresses of scientists continued to play the role of coordinating centers for the country's scientific forces. Advanced knowledge was disseminated through numerous periodicals (magazines “Around the World”, “Nature”, “Science and Life”, etc.). The country's leading scientists often gave public lectures. New scientific branches developed in Russia: aeronautics and electrical engineering, hydro- and aerodynamics (N.E. Zhukovsky). In 1913, the first Russian aircraft were built. Continued scientific activity K.E. Tsiolkovsky, who laid theoretical basis future space flights. Russian science developed in close contact with world science. Discoveries of Russian scientists - physicist P.N. Lebedev, naturalist V.I. Vernadsky, physiologists I.P. Pavlova and I.I. Mechnikov - were received with interest by the international scientific community. Pavlov and Mechnikov were awarded Nobel Prizes. The development of natural science has led to a revaluation of many philosophical theories. Materialism and Marxism were losing followers among Russian intellectuals. These changes affected the social sciences. According to many prominent scientists, the center of philosophy has moved from Germany to Russia. At the beginning of the century, the works of religious idealist philosophers B.C. were published. Solovyova, N.A. Berdyaeva, S.N. Bulgakova, S.N. Trubetskoy, P.A. Florensky, which affirmed the primacy of spirituality. New names appear in economics (M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky) and in history (S.F. Platonov, N.P. Pavlov-Silvansky).
Art culture. The beginning of the century is considered a time of “revaluation of values” in the spiritual sphere. Intellectuals and creators are abandoning their previous passion for social problems and moving on to consider the feelings and experiences of the individual. This phenomenon in art was called “decadence”. Supporters of this trend called in their works to escape from gray reality into dreams, mysticism, and otherworldly worlds. A movement such as modernism arose, which reflected life through the subjective perception of the artist-creator.
Such luminaries of Russian literature as L.N. continued to create in literature. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, young I.A. Bunin and A.I. Kuprin. Among the revolutionary democratic strata, the popularity of M. Gorky (A.M. Peshkov) is growing. Along with realism, a new, modernist direction emerged in Russian literature at the turn of the century. Modernism was a complex movement, within which several trends can be distinguished that prevailed at different stages of its development. These are symbolism, futurism, acmeism, etc. Each of them put forward its own aesthetic program, but they all denied the principles of realistic art. Modernists advocated “pure and free” creativity, reflecting the sensory world of individuality, and not social problems. Symbolists can include D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, V.Ya. Bryusov, K.D. Balmont, A.A. Blok, A. Bely (B.N. Bugaev). Other directions of modernism (futurism, acmeism) were represented by V.V. Mayakovsky, A.A. Akhmatova, SM. Gorodetsky, N.S. Gumilev, A. Kruchenykh.
In conditions of “electrification” public life The role of the theater has increased enormously. New approaches to this type of creativity were developed by directors K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko (Moscow Art Theater). The aesthetics of symbolic, conventional theater was also formed, associated with the experiments of V.E. Meyerhold. In 1904, the V.F. Theater opened in St. Petersburg. Komissarzhevskaya, where with great success There were plays by M. Gorky.
Significant changes are also taking place in music. The scope is expanding music education, new conservatories have been opened in Saratov, Odessa, Kyiv. In 1906 in Moscow SI. Taneyev created the People's Conservatory and the House of Song. As in other forms of art, in music there has been an increased interest in inner world person. The lyrical principles are intensified in the works of Russian composers - N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.I. Scriabin, S.V. Rachmaninov. At the beginning of the 20th century. centers musical life Russia had the Mariinsky and Bolshoi theaters, which competed with numerous private operas. It was in the private opera SI. Mamontov's talent was revealed famous singer and actor F.I. Chaliapin, who became on a par with Russian vocal stars L.V. Sobinov and A.V. Nezhdanova.
IN fine arts Along with the creativity of the Itinerants, new directions appear. Searches in Russian painting are associated with the names of such artists as M.A. Vrubel, M.V. Nesterov, V.A. Serov, K.A. Korovin. In the work of the latter, Russian impressionism found its most vivid expression. There is a noticeable revival of painters’ interest in culture Ancient Rus'(V.M. Vasnetsov, N.K. Roerich). In 1898, in St. Petersburg, under the patronage of Princess M. Tenisheva, the artistic association “World of Art” and a magazine with the same name arose. A.N. united around the magazine. Benois, L.S. Bakst, E.E. Lansere. The main goal of the “World of Art” was to transform life “through touching the beautiful.” This movement, in addition to painting, embraced architecture, sculpture, poetry, opera and ballet. A prominent figure in this direction was SP. Diaghilev, who introduced Europe to Russian talents and organized exhibitions in Russian cities for educational purposes. Diaghilev's “Russian Seasons” in Paris were a great success. Since 1907, new associations have appeared in the fine arts: “Blue Rose”, “Jack of Diamonds”, “Donkey’s Tail”, etc. The work of artists belonging to these groups bore the imprint of modernism (M.S. Saryan, P. P. Konchalovsky, M.F. Larionov). The emergence of the Russian avant-garde, which played a major role in the development of world painting, dates back to 1913. The founders of this movement are considered to be artists K.S. Malevich, V.V. Kandinsky, K.S. Petrov-Vodkin, M.Z. Chagall, P.N. Filonov.
In sculpture, the aesthetics of classical calm was replaced by the harmony of continuous movement. It was reflected in the work of sculptors P.P. Trubetskoy, A.S. Golubkina, ST. Konenkova.
In general, culture and art of the early 20th century. distinguished by the complexity of philosophical and artistic quests, the diversity of movements and groups, each of which came out with its own slogans and manifestos.
The Russian monarchist party arose in 1905. around the editorial office of the Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper on the initiative of editor-publisher V.A. Greenmouth. The party occupied the right flank of the conservative movement and advocated the preservation of unlimited autocratic power and the dominant position of the Russian people. The party program initially completely rejected the idea of creating a representative elected body, believing that the main legislative body under the emperor should be the State Council appointed by him. The Russian Orthodox Church was considered by the ideologists of the Russian Monarchist Party as the spiritual basis of society and the state. The party demanded the preservation of the unity and indivisibility of the Russian Empire. The creation of national schools and any national political organizations was considered unacceptable.
The most important factor in the stability of society was the preservation of classes, among which the clergy, nobility and peasantry were recognized as the support of the state. Fearing an increase in the number of the proletariat, the party called for strengthening peasant farms, which were recognized as having a leading role in the Russian economy.
The number of the party is up to 10 thousand people, but the majority of its members were nominal members. Social base - intelligentsia, middle urban strata, workers. Party chairmen: V.A. Gringmut (1905-1908), I.I. Vostorgov (1908-1913), V.V. Tomilin (November 1913-August 1914), S.A. Keltsev (August 1914-February 1917). The leading bodies of the party were located in Moscow.
The Russian monarchist party advocated the continuation of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. before victory, against any concessions to Japan, and condemned the Portsmouth Peace Treaty; during the Revolution of 1905-1907. sharply criticized the authorities for their indecisiveness in the fight against the revolutionary movement; criticized the activities of the government of S.Yu. Witte.
After the split of the conservative movement (1910-1912), she actively collaborated with the renewed Union of the Russian People. An attempt to get its candidates through the elections to the 4th State Duma ended in failure for the Russian Monarchist Party, which contributed to increasing disagreements within the party leadership. In the autumn of 1913 the party split: its working departments, headed by V.G. Orlov, moved to Russian People's Union named after Michael the Archangel.
During the First World War, the party advocated war to a victorious end.
On the initiative of the Russian Monarchist Party, several temperance societies were created, a society to promote the patriotic education of children. The party collected funds to purchase a building for the “Russian House”, the Greenmouth library and book warehouse were founded, and a printing house was equipped.
The Russian monarchist party collapsed in February 1917.
2. Union of the Russian People (Black Hundreds).
The union was founded in November 1905. In Petersburg. The leaders of the monarchical union argued that the Black Hundred were ordinary people who had saved the fatherland from traitors for centuries. The overwhelming majority of the organization's members were peasants; significantly fewer were artisans, small traders, and hired workers. At the same time, the top of the “Union” consisted of representatives of the intelligentsia, government officials, merchants, landowners, and the clergy. The Black Hundreds stood for strengthening the dominant position of the Russian Orthodox Church, for the unity and indivisibility of the Russian Empire. The ideology of the Black Hundreds was permeated with anti-Semitism. On the agrarian issue, the Union defended the principle of the inviolability of private property, rejecting the confiscation of landowners' land. Realizing the unpopularity of this thesis among the peasants who numerically predominated in the Union, the party leaders put forward a number of minor measures designed to improve the situation rural population. Although the leaders of the Union declared their commitment to the law, some leaders expressed the conviction that it was necessary to use terrorist methods against the revolutionaries. Lacking firm support in the Duma, the Black Hundred leadership set a course to discredit the legislative institution.
Two currents gradually took shape among the Black Hundreds. One of them, called Dubrovinsky (after Dubrovin), expressed dissatisfaction with the reforms of the socio-economic system. In contrast to the Dubrovinites, a group emerged that recognized the irreversible nature of changes in the political system. In 1916 The Union was in a state of deep crisis, its local departments were disorganized. Like other Black Hundred organizations, the Union of the Russian People was unable to resist during the February Revolution. In March 1917 The union collapsed.
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