Social organization of society(from Late Latin organizio - I form, give a slender appearance< лат. organum - орудие, инструмент) - установленный в обществе нормативный социальный порядок, а также деятельность, направленная на его поддержание или приведение к нему.
Organization is often understood as 1) the property of society as a whole or any social object to have an orderly structure, as well as 2) activities associated with a clear distribution of functions and delegation of powers, regulation and coordination of actions, management.
In the first case, the term “organization” means the established social order in the system as a whole or its individual subsystems. For example, an organization state power according to the administrative-territorial principle, or the organization of spending at the enterprise through a system of standards for the production and qualification of work.
In the second case, the term “organization” characterizes the moment of activity associated with management. For example, a manager organizes a production process - this means that he must arrange people at work places in such a way as to ensure its continuity and uninterrupted operation.
Thus, organization is understood as a certain normative order, which is ensured by the entire set of regulatory mechanisms and actions taken to maintain it and lead to it.
However, there is also a third, more specialized meaning of this term in society: “social organization” is a specific social unit that unites individuals into a group that jointly and coordinatedly realizes a common goal (N. Smelzer). A social organization, writes N. Smelzer, is a secondary social group formed to achieve certain goals.. The “Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary” (M., 1983) distinguishes between the broad and narrow meanings of social organization. IN in a broad sense– this concept “characterizes the ways of ordering and regulating the actions of individual individuals and social groups...”. In a narrower sense, “a social organization is a relatively autonomous group of people focused on achieving some pre-fixed goal, the implementation of which requires joint and coordinated action.” But in any case, the organization is characterized by hierarchy and controllability. According to A.I. Prigozhin, “organizations arise,” he writes, “when the achievement of any common goals is carried out through the achievement of individual goals; or when the achievement of individual goals is carried out through the promotion and achievement of common goals.”
Social organization- this is a target group (secondary and practical group), arising from a social need and representing an orderly, regulated and coordinated way of joint activity, applying a certain algorithm to the actions of people grouped around a set of target settings: social prescriptions and expectations (social roles).
Signs of social organization
Social organizations are essential elements social structure society, along with social communities, social groups and social institutions and are not reducible to any of them.
Three specific features distinguish social organizations from them:
firstly, organizations are, first of all, practically operating groups, and not social ones, focused on achieving rational, functional, immediate goals;
secondly, organizations are communities of people that are characterized by a high degree of formalization. Unlike social communities their internal structure is highly formalized, normative and standardized in the sense that rules, regulations, routines cover almost the entire sphere of behavior of its members.
thirdly, organizations, unlike social institutions, are very dependent on the qualitative composition of participants, the personal qualities of their members, organizers, their group properties (organization, cohesion, solidarity, mobility, controllability, etc.), the composition changes - it changes " face" of the organization.
The structure of formal social organization is characterized by the following features:
a) rationality, i.e. at the basis of its formation and activity is the principle of expediency, usefulness, conscious movement towards a specific goal;
b) impersonality, i.e. it (the organization) is indifferent to the individual personal characteristics of its members, since it is designed for relationships established according to a given function;
c) service relations, i.e. provides for and regulates only official relations;
d) functionality, subordinated in its activities and communications to functional (necessary, necessary) goals;
e) the presence of organizers, persons systematically involved in its management, i.e. has (in most cases) a management level (“core”), administrative personnel, constantly responsible for maintaining the stability of the organization, coordinating the interactions of its members and the effectiveness of its activities as a whole.
In social organization, formal and informal structures can be distinguished. Formal structure social organization includes the following elements (components):
goals of the organization;
members of the organization, or participants;
“organizers” who form the managerial link, the “organizational core” (this feature is typical for large groups; for small ones it is not necessary);
a set of interrelated roles (i.e. everyone performs their part of the common task);
rules governing human behavior;
means of activity (technical, technological, informational, financial, etc.), including technology - systematized knowledge of useful and most rational methods of practical actions (techniques, operations, procedures);
a given algorithm of actions;
a system of relationships between members of the organization, primarily relations of subordination;
orderly connections with other organizations, surrounding social groups and communities (for example, with clients), institutions (for example, with the state), and society as a whole.
Types social organizations
Depending on the design of the organizational structure, social organizations are divided into formal and informal.
Informal is a system of interpersonal connections that arises on the basis of mutual interest individuals to each other without connection with functional needs, i.e. a direct, spontaneously arisen community of people based on personal choice of connections and associations with each other (comradeship, mutual sympathy, amateur interests, etc.).
There are three main features of this phenomenon:
a) spontaneity, that is, unplanned occurrence;
b) existence and functioning alongside (in parallel) with the formal organization;
c) the main feature is non-official, “non-business” content interpersonal relationships.
Formal is a form of relations within an officially formed team, fixed by job descriptions, regulations, orders and instructions. It involves compliance with approved standards of behavior and interaction of employees within such a team.
The social properties of the organization are as follows:
the organization is created as an instrument for solving social problems, a means of achieving goals, therefore, in the foreground when studying it there are such problems as clarifying its goals and functions, conditions for the effectiveness of results, motivation and stimulation of personnel;
the organization takes shape as a human community, a specific sociality, i.e., a set of social groups, statuses, norms, leadership relationships, cohesion or conflict;
the organization is objectified as an impersonal structure of connections and norms, determined by administrative and cultural factors. The subject of analysis of an organization in this sense is an aggregated integrity, built hierarchically and interacting with the external environment. And the main problems here are balance, self-government, division of labor, and controllability of the organization.
Social organization is an association of people who jointly realize common goals and act on the basis of certain rules and procedures. Signs of social organization: goal-oriented nature; distribution of organization members by roles and statuses; division of labor and specialization of functions; construction on a vertical (hierarchical) principle; the presence of specific means of regulation and control of the organization’s activities; integrity of the social system.
Key element social organization has a goal.
The following are mainly distinguished: types of social organizations :
business organizations, membership in which provides workers with a means of subsistence (enterprises, corporations, firms, banks, etc.);
public organizations, representing mass associations, membership in which allows one to satisfy political, social, cultural, spiritual, creative and other needs ( political parties, trade unions, creative associations, etc.);
intermediate organizations, combining the characteristics of business and public organizations (cooperatives, artels, partnerships, etc.);
associative organizations, arising on the basis of mutual realization of interests ( scientific school, interest clubs, informal groups etc.).
Typology of organizations by industry: industrial and economic, financial, administrative and managerial, research, educational, medical, sociocultural, etc.
Social organization plays an important role in the life of society. Modern man is a “man of organization.” The organization requires him to focus on a rational style of behavior, competence, knowledge and skills. In turn, a person can realize these qualities only within the framework of an effectively working organization.
16. Bureaucracy as a special type of social group. The inevitability of the emergence of bureaucracy, especially its attitude to the public domain and its own role in society. Principles of “ideal bureaucracy” by M. Weber. The concept of adhocracy.
In sociology, bureaucracy is understood as an impersonal management mechanism based on formal-rational relations and a hierarchical system of power.
According to Weber, the spread of bureaucracy in modern society inevitably. The development of bureaucratic power is the only way cope with the administrative demands of large-scale social systems. Weber connects the formation of bureaucracy with the process rationalization and considers it as the most rational and effective form of achieving management goals, based on the legal-rational type of legitimacy (domination). Bureaucracy for Weber is an “ideal type” of management, focused on the rational and effective implementation of the tasks facing the organization. Weber's ideal type of rational bureaucracy has the following main features:
1. strictly hierarchical structure;
2. formal status subordination;
3. management according to formal, impersonal rules;
4. emotional neutrality of relationships.
Rational bureaucracy is considered by Weber to be technically more advanced and efficient than all previous forms of administration, since it is the most predictable, accurate, impartial and quick to act. Modern sociology notes the limitations and ineffectiveness of bureaucracy. Adhocracy - the opposite of bureaucracy. An adhocracy ignores the classical management principles that everyone has a defined, permanent role and is a flexible organization where individuals are free to use their talents as needed.
17. The concept of a social institution, the main types of social institutions, their purpose
Social Institute- this is an adaptive structure of society, created to satisfy its most important needs and regulated by a set of social norms. Basic institutions exist in every society, from the most primitive to the most modern.
Depending on the goals and objectives, functions performed in society, the main types of social institutions can be distinguished:
Institute of Family and Marriage;
economic institutions;
political institutions;
sociocultural and educational institutions(education, science, art, religion, etc.).
There are certain features and characteristics that are characteristic of all social institutions: attitudes and patterns of behavior (for the institution of the family - affection, respect, trust; for the institution of education - the desire for knowledge); cultural symbols (for families - wedding rings, marriage ritual; for the state - coat of arms, flag, anthem; for business – brand name, patent mark; for religion – cross, icons); utilitarian cultural features (for a family - a house, apartment, furniture; for business - a store, factory, equipment; for education - classes, a library); oral and written codes of conduct (for the state - constitution, laws; for business - contracts, licenses); ideology (for family - love, compatibility; for business - freedom of trade, business expansion; for religion - Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, Islam).
The activities of a social institution are considered functional if they benefit society and contribute to its stability and integration.
Thanks to social institutions in society, stability, predictability of people’s behavior, and sustainability are achieved. social connections.
18. Social progress as a process and as an idea. Criteria for social progressiveness. Problem social progress in modern world.
No society stands still: it either progresses or regresses. If the sum of positive changes in society exceeds the sum of negative ones, then we speak of progress. Otherwise there is regression.
Social progress- this is a global, world-historical process of the ascent of human societies from a state of savagery to the heights of civilization. Progress - global process characterizing the movement of human society throughout history.
Progress is both local and global. There are gradual and spasmodic types of social progress. The first is called reformist, the second - revolutionary. Reform is a partial improvement in any area of life, a series of gradual transformations that do not affect the foundations of the existing social system. Revolution - a comprehensive change in all or most of the parties public life, affecting the foundations of the existing system.
Reforms are called social, if they concern transformations in those areas of society or aspects of public life that are directly related to people, are reflected in their level and lifestyle, health, participation in public life, access to social benefits (the introduction of universal secondary education, health insurance, health benefits unemployment, etc.) They touch social status various segments of the population, limit or expand their access to education, healthcare, employment, and guarantees.
By comparing the evolution of societies that human civilization goes through in its development, scientists have identified a number of patterns. One of them - law of acceleration of history. He testifies on the compaction of historical time: each subsequent stage takes less time than the previous one. Recent history constitutes one thousandth of world history. But this is the most eventful period with social, cultural, economic and political events.
The highest type of organization of a social group and community is social organization. These are banks, enterprises, universities, shops, transport systems, etc. A social organization has its own name, charter, goals, scope of activity, operating procedures, staff, head office, uniform, and even the manager’s company car.
In a broad sense, social organization includes the most different types social communities that do not necessarily have a hierarchical structure: the state, work collectives, tribe, family, small groups, bandit groups, youth associations, peasant farming, etc. Examples are also a political party, a government agency, a bank, steel company, symphony orchestra, football team, hobby club, board of founders. Social organization does not include races and ethnic groups (they have no agenda), social classes (no clear collective identity, self-identity or list of members), cliques and playgroups, as well as socio-political currents. The state is a social organization, the nation is not. In domestic and foreign sociology, the subject of research into social organization is usually limited to business organization: enterprise, firm, bank, corporation, workshop, etc.
Social organizations have features that resemble those of other types of collectivities. For example, status hierarchies in social organizations and in social classes are somewhat similar. But in an organization, superior, equal and inferior statuses are precisely predetermined as positions. Demotion and promotion sometimes dramatically changes a person's behavior, range of responsibilities, and workplace. None of this is in the system social stratification society. Towards social class or the social stratum cannot say for sure whether an individual occupies a higher place than another (an engineer or a teacher) or not. Such estimates are always approximate and subjective.
Each type of social organization has a strictly limited set of forms(or species). There are three main forms of family (nuclear, patriarchal, extended) and marriage (monogamy, polyandry, polygyny). Six types have been known since Aristotle political power(monarchy, aristocracy, constitutionalism, tyranny, oligarchy, democracy). Those social organizations which are limited in this way for a long time remain stable and become social institutions. Even developing independently in different countries, they go through the same stages and have a lot in common. For example, monogamy as a social institution is similar among both Australian aborigines and modern Europeans. The same can be said about the institution of bureaucracy, which has much more common features, than differences, in Ancient Egypt and China, in medieval Europe and modern America. Social institutions remain almost unchanged even as societies and countries change or disappear altogether. Thanks to the existence of historically stable types of social organizations, comparative studies in sociology are possible. Thus, Max Weber compared bureaucracy in different eras, and Karl Marx identified historically recurring social formations.
The sustainability of social organization is based on laws joint activities of people. When several people interact for a long enough time, they develop stable partner behavior (more similarities than differences; in new situations they often act in concert than separately; everyone can predict how a partner will behave in an unfamiliar situation), identity of attitudes and views, strong confidence that they are able to develop as individuals precisely in close connection with each other (for example, loving spouses).
Most sociologists understood social organization as a special subsystem of an enterprise. For example, V.G. Podmarkov distinguished three levels in it: the main production team (enterprise), the secondary team (workshop) and the primary, or contact, team (team). The fabric of social organization, in his opinion, consists of various types social connections:
- formal connection means a functionally determined and enshrined in official instructions system of relations between people. The formal structure of a team arises at the intersection of three types of connections: functional, professional and hierarchical;
- informal communication based on non-work interpersonal contacts of people;
- semi-formal communication arises between the administration and public organizations (party committee, trade union committee, Komsomol committee);
- informal communication is a variant of informal communication. Its peculiarity is that formal goals are achieved through informal means;
- official communication practically coincides with the formal one, since both are based on administrative regulations. The difference between them is that each official organization is also formal, but not every formal organization recognized by higher authorities as official;
- informal communication develops between people beyond and outside the framework of job descriptions and officially established regulations.
The concept of social organization serves as a connecting link between the other two important categories– an enterprise and a team, while the team of an enterprise is understood both as a set of workers and as a set of those arising between them social relations.
Social organization – social system, characterized by unity of activity, having a list of members, a program and charter, goals and objectives. It is usually referred to as open systems. The main elements of social organization: position, position, power, authority, prestige, organizational culture, topography, competence.
Distinguish formal organization consisting of formal service relationships, and informal, implying informal service (friendly) relationships. The first is headed by a manager, the second by a leader. Both functions can be performed by one person, then the bearer of authority (informal recognition) becomes the subject of power (formal recognition). But as soon as the leader small group appointed leader, the group selects a new leader from its ranks.
Social organization is a collection of individuals, roles, and other elements that are systematically interrelated to achieve results that are inaccessible to isolated individuals. It represents a way of joint activity of people in which social organization takes the form of strictly ordered, regulated, coordinated and aimed at achieving specific goals of interaction.
Sociologists believe that social organization is a structure designed to coordinate the activities of two or more people through the division of labor and hierarchization of power to achieve common goal. Such formulation includes:
- A) distribution of functions(horizontal specialization) between teams, sections, workshops, departments (the structure and methods of their action are formalized by regulations, instructions and other official documents);
- b) subordination of positions(vertical specialization) – the volume and degree of responsibility in decision-making at different levels;
- V) communication system, those. means and channels for transmitting information that moves “over)” down (transmission of orders, instructions, tasks), bottom up (reports from subordinates) and horizontally (consultations and exchange of opinions of peers).
All functions are united management, those. organization of the management process, ensuring the adoption of the optimal decision and its practical implementation, as well as monitoring and verification of execution.
Thus, social organization is a set of hierarchically located social positions (statuses), functions performed (roles), forms of activity, relationships and connections of employees. In social organization, the unit is not the individual as such, but his role. Therefore, social organization can be defined as a set of similar roles united into a system through communication channels. Moreover, social organization is target group, i.e. a grouping of people striving to achieve certain goals in an orderly manner. However, the main thing that attracts the attention of sociologists to social organization is the presence in it social hierarchy , a special system of distribution of roles and statuses, a complex mosaic of social relations and interactions, which must necessarily include types, types and forms of power, leadership, prestige, career, rewards, sanctions, norms and rules of behavior, etc.
A large social organization resembles a society in miniature, for in the first we will find everything that exists in the second. The only difference is in scale: the social hierarchy consists of large social groups (classes, strata, estates, castes), and the organizational hierarchy consists of small ones: senior administration, line managers, staff managers, supervisors (lower management ranks) and the so-called individual contributors - employees and workers who have no one under them.
- For more details see: Podmarkov V. G. Introduction to industrial sociology. M., 1973.
Note that the term “organization” (from Lat. organiso- inform, slender appearance, arrange) is used in several meanings:
- as an element of the social structure of society;
- as a type of activity of a group;
- as the degree of internal orderliness and consistency in the functioning of system elements.
In sociology key concept there will be an element of social structure and the following definition is given: social organization- a large social group formed to achieve certain goals(N. Smelser)
The first attempt to create a theory of organization was made by an American engineer Federico Note that Taylor(1856-1915) Putting into practice a system of standardization of labor methods, he came up with the idea of production lines and conveyors. In such an organization main role played by the administration and management personnel who exercised control over production process. Moreover, the most hardworking and proactive ones. Note that Taylor proposed to be stimulated through a system of material incentives. By the way, this model, note that Taylor’s was called the “school of scientific management” or “Taylorism.”
At the beginning of the 20th century. French engineer Henri Fayol(1841-1925) developed the “organization-machine” model. Its essence was that the organization itself was understood as an impersonal mechanism, a tool for solving socially significant problems, in which a person was an exclusively formal performer, an elementary cell in the system of management and control. The administration's task was exclusively to control, coordinate and plan the work of various parts of the system. Fayol believed that the effectiveness of an organization is determined by unity of command and a clear division of labor.
All organizations, due to the standardization of their activities and unity of management, are to one degree or another bureaucratized. The term itself "bureaucracy", meaning the power of officials, was introduced into scientific circulation by the French scientist de Gournay in 1745 by A. M. Weber. who first developed the sociological concept of bureaucracy, singled out seven main characteristic features bureaucratic organization:
- hierarchy of power in the form of a pyramid, implying the responsibility of lower-level officials to their superiors;
- the activities of officials are regulated on the basis of formally established rules and instructions that ensure uniformity and continuity of management activities;
- strict division of labor, and each function must be performed by a competent and knowledgeable specialist working under a contract and bearing full responsibility for the quality performance of their duties;
- the private life of officials is separated from activities in the organization, they obey only official duty and must be as objective as possible (“the ideal administrator works without anger and bias”);
- The promotion (career) of an official through the ranks is carried out depending on his professional abilities, level of qualifications and work experience;
- employee activities are based on official discipline and administrative control:
- officials are rewarded with a constant salary (salary)
M. Weber believed that modern bureaucracies effective organizations, since decisions here are made not arbitrarily, but according to general criteria, professional training cuts off “talented amateurs” and raises general level competence. Bureaucracy, by giving a fixed salary and strictly limiting functions, reduces corruption compared to organizations of traditional societies, general criteria performance evaluations reduce the possibility of personal and family connections.
The main advantage of bureaucracy, according to Weber, - ϶ᴛᴏ high economic efficiency: accuracy, speed, knowledge, constancy of the management process, official secrecy, unity of command, subordination, minimizing conflicts and efficiency. Main disadvantage— ignoring the specifics of conflict situations, acting according to a template, lack of necessary flexibility.
Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that bureaucracy for M. Weber is the “ideal type” of management, focused on the rational and effective implementation of the tasks facing the organization. In reality, no really existing organization can fully emulate the Weberian model of bureaucracy.
Despite numerous shortcomings, bureaucracy, according to a number of experts, retains its functionality as a form of management at the present time. Therefore, one of the tasks of modern management is to adjust the activities of the bureaucracy in accordance with the principles developed by M. Weber.
Russian sociologist A.I. Comely(b. 1940) highlights the following signs of a modern organization:
- target nature;
- distribution of organization members by roles and statuses;
- division of labor and specialization of functions;
- construction on a vertical (hierarchical) principle;
- the presence of specific means of regulation and control of the organization’s activities;
- integrity of the social system.
The key element of social organization is purpose. There are three interrelated type of organizational goals:
- goals-tasks - instructions issued externally by a higher-level organization, formalized as programs of general actions;
- goal-orientation— a set of goals implemented through the organization;
- goals-systems - goals dictated by the desire to preserve the organization as an independent system.
All the variety of social organizations are classified according to different criteria. So, American sociologist. Etzioni divides all organizations into three main groups:
- voluntary, whose members unite on a voluntary basis (political parties, trade unions, clubs, religious associations, etc.);
- forced, whose members become forced by force (army, prisons, mental hospitals, etc.):
- utilitarian, whose members unite to achieve common and individual goals (enterprises, firms, financial structures and etc.)
Modern Russian sociologists mainly distinguish the following types of organizations:
- business, membership in which provides workers with a means of subsistence (enterprises, corporations, firms, banks, etc.);
- public, which are mass associations, membership in which allows you to satisfy political, social, cultural, spiritual, creative and other needs (political parties, trade unions, creative associations, etc.);
- intermediate, combining the characteristics of business and public organizations (cooperatives, partnerships, etc.);
- associative arising on the basis of mutual realization of interests (scientific school, interest clubs, informal groups, etc.)
A typology of organizations can be produced by industry: industrial and economic, scientific research, administrative and managerial, financial, educational, sociocultural, medical, etc.
Modern organizations have complex control system, including the following characteristics:
- development of an organization management strategy;
- activities for managing the organization’s personnel;
- obtaining, selecting and distributing business and socially significant information;
- rational distribution of organization resources;
- implementation of personnel policy;
- conducting business negotiations;
- introduction of innovation management principles;
- advertising distribution;
- planning and designing work in an organization;
- control and coordination of employee actions.
This is far from full list functions of a specialist performing management activities. Today such specialists will be key figures In the organisation. At the same time, informal connections and relationships can develop within organizations that arise spontaneously as a result of prolonged interpersonal and intragroup communication. Informal relationships serve as a kind of mechanism for relieving tension generated by the contradiction between individual interests and the rigid rules of the formal organization, but sometimes they can have a negative impact on the activities of the organization.
Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that social organization plays an important role in the life of society. By figuratively American sociologist W. White, modern man— ϶ᴛᴏ “man of the organization.” At the same time, the organization requires him to focus on a rational style of behavior, competence, knowledge and skills. At the same time, sociology is called upon to solve social problems of optimizing the conditions for the effective functioning of organizations.
Types of social organizations
There are two main types of organization - formal and informal. They are distinguished from each other by the degree of formalization of all connections, interactions and relationships existing in it. At the same time, in practice, organizations have both a formal and an informal aspect.
Formal aspect of organization- the main thing that distinguishes an organization from other social phenomena. Organization implies the presence of a stable form, a rigid hierarchical framework of relationships. The formal nature of a social organization will remain in the presence of a permanent status structure, a set of formalized norms, and a stable division of responsibilities and powers.
It is worth noting that the basis of formalization will be the functional division of labor. In ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with the system of division of labor they develop and are fixed on the formal
level of status difference. Statuses are ordered hierarchically according to the similarity of functional tasks and leadership-subordination relationships are established between them.
Informal aspect of organization will remain in the obligatory presence of a “background” in it, which consists of the moral and psychological atmosphere, interpersonal relationships, implicit leadership, likes and dislikes of people. Between “form” and “background” there are always complex dialectical relationships of indissoluble interconnection.
The crystallization of the formal structure of social organization constitutes the process of institutionalization. During this process, the formal structure acquires a kind of independent existence, independent of a specific individual and his will. It is precisely because of this “independence” that it is so detached from the individual that it ceases to respond to individual variability, loses any psychologism, turning into the social as such.
Classical functionalism (T. Parsons, R. Merton, A. Etzioni) considers the formal organization as a self-balancing system, self-sufficient in its objectivity. The main thing that distinguishes an organization from all other types of groups is conscious goal setting. An organization is created with a specific, clearly understood purpose and consciously plans the actions of its members. Etzioni points out the total nature of the organization for society: “We are born in the organization, raised in it, we devote a significant part of its existence to work in the organization... It is important to know that most of us die in it, and when the hour of funeral comes, the greatest one of the organizations - the state - must issue a burial permit.”
The degree of organization of social relations and everyday life is maximum in industrial society. The emergence of large forms of production and capital in late XIX V. required the solution of the following questions: how to rationalize the labor process and production management, how to achieve the goals and at the same time maximally satisfy the needs of the participants in achieving them. F. Taylor tried to answer these questions in his managerial concept of bureaucracy and M. Weber in his theoretical concept
bureaucracy. Both concepts were united by the belief in the possibility of an ideal social organization, which could ensure uninterrupted, perfectly coordinated labor activity and the same perfect control. The key to all this, according to Weber, was adherence to the principle of rationality.
According to M. Weber's concepts, the formation of the formal structure of society - its organization - occurs on the basis of progressive rationality. The material was published on http://site
The more mature a society becomes, the more rationally it tends to organize itself. It is worth noting that it is freed from irrational ideas and traditions. It develops a bureaucratic organization based on professional management, stability and rigidly fixed hierarchy.
Describing the “ideal type”, i.e. non-existent theoretical model of bureaucracy, Weber identified seven main distinctive features characterizing a bureaucratic organization:
- division of labor enshrined in formal rules or laws (list of job responsibilities);
- vertical hierarchical order of subordination;
- the presence of a public office or office where written documents reflecting the activities of the organization are stored, business correspondence is conducted, and complaints are received;
- existence of a formal procedure for training officials;
- the presence of full-time employees who are constantly occupied with the affairs of the organization throughout the working day;
- the presence of official rules regulating the organization’s operating hours, the distribution of weekends and working days, break hours, reception of visitors, etc.;
- loyalty of each employee to the organization as a whole, acceptance of its rules, activities in the interests of the whole.
By the way, this formal system of regulation is aimed at ensuring that the actions of individuals included in the organization are as predictable as possible, easily coordinated and simply controlled.
Weber believed that the maximum development of bureaucracy should ensure absolute efficiency of management, ideal speed and coherence in the functioning of the social mechanism. Its advantages are impersonality, alienation from the individual, unambiguous relationships, since it is rather a rigid abstract scheme, a bare drawing, the main advantage of which will be clarity. It is important to note that at the same time Weber also noted the shortcomings of bureaucratic management, such as the lack of flexibility necessary to adequately respond to non-standard situations, template thinking and actions, which entails the inability to allow for the possibility of unforeseen consequences of any action that does not fit into the template.
From historical practice and later research by sociologists (for example, R. Mrton, who showed the inevitability of “unforeseen consequences”) it became clear that, in principle, there cannot be a perfectly functioning formal organization. The formal organization is rigid, while living social reality is changeable and always richer and more diverse than the bureaucratic scheme. Moreover, a formal organization operates exclusively with roles - boss, subordinate, secretary, auditor - and does not see beyond them real people, since it cannot take into account the individuality of individuals, their psychology, and interpersonal relationships that arise between them. It is worth noting that it operates with simple and clear logic and is so impersonal in its mechanical inertia that it gives rise to the phenomena “ dead souls"and second lieutenants Kizhe.
Modern sociology of organizations critically perceives Weber's theory of bureaucracy. T. Parsons, A. Gouldner and many other sociologists see the main contradiction in the fact that the real person at the top of the bureaucratic pyramid does not always have sufficient special knowledge. His status formal leader gives him greater power within the organization, while professional authority and competence belong to informal leader. Therefore, next to the formal hierarchy, an informal one arises, and such a state can become a source of constant conflicts.
A bureaucratic organization can become an obstacle to creativity and innovation. According to the French sociologist M. Crozier, creativity is possible in organizations where there are norms that encourage innovation, but the structure of a bureaucratic organization, focused on uniformity and unquestioning subordination to higher structures, does not provide the necessary freedom to introduce innovation.
The system of bureaucratic control does not encourage independence of thought, but conformity and discipline, so bureaucratic organization will be a positive factor in decisions simple tasks and is incompatible with the creative process.
Solution complex tasks, suggesting high degree uncertainty and unpredictability of conditions requires a different management organization.
In a bureaucratic organization, the self-interests of individuals are transformed into the general interests and goals of the organization as a single entity. This leads to the leveling of individual creativity in the name of preserving the bureaucratic structure. Except for the above, with such a fusion of interests, the goals of the top of the hierarchy are identified with the interests of the organization as a whole. Ultimately, the goal of the bureaucracy is to preserve the material and other privileges of the ruling elite, the existing system of social regulation and, in general, the managerial status quo.
Western sociology has developed a different typology of organizations, including various models organizations proposed by foreign researchers. Let's study the most famous ones.
Organization as a labor process(Tylorism), the basis of which is the “man - labor” block. The behavior of an employee, according to this model, is completely determined from the outside according to a rationalized scheme.
Organization is a machine, which considers the organization as an impersonal mechanism built from formalized connections, statuses, goals in the form of a multi-level administrative hierarchy. It is precisely such a system that presupposes complete controllability, controllability, a person in it does not appear in specific manifestations, but exclusively as an abstract “man in general” (A. Fayol, L. Urvik, etc.)
Organization - community, where the main regulator is the norms of behavior adopted in the organization. It is important to know that a big role in this environment is played by informal relationships in the form of informal associations that arise quite often. Such organization satisfies social needs the individual (in communication, recognition, belonging) and controls his behavior (through ostracism, condemnation). By the way, this naturally occurring system is poorly controlled by previous methods. It is worth noting that it represents an “organization within an organization” and the only effective management method for non-members will be inclusion in this system (E. Mayo, F. Roethlisberger, etc.)
Sociotechnical model organization, based on dependence within group connections on production technology. With all this, there is also an influence of the socio-psychological organization of the group on productivity.
Interactionist model, considered as a system of long-term interactions between employees. Individuals bring their own expectations and values to the organization depending on the situation, influencing the goals and structure of the organization. As a result of formal and informal interactions and the significant influence of the latter, great uncertainty arises for management, risk for decisions (C. Barnard, G. Simon, J. March, etc.)
"Natural" organization(based on the ideas of T. Parsons, R. Merton, A. Etzioni, etc.) The functioning of organizations is considered as an objective, self-improving process, in which the subjective principle will not be predominant. Organization within the framework of this model is understood as the homeostatic state of the system, allowing it to self-adjust under influences from the outside or from the inside. It is important to know that a large role in the functioning of this organization belongs to specially unplanned, spontaneous factors. This approach allows us to consider the organization as a specific social phenomenon, developing according to its own, little-known patterns, as a result of which numerous unforeseen situations arise.
Bureaucratic model M. Weber's organization is close to the organization-machine model, which is based on the concept of rationalization (“bureaucratization”) of human behavior in organizations.
Types of social organizations
Let's study the typology of social organizations according to social systems. We should not forget that the most important demosocial organization pre-industrial society was a family. It is worth noting that it was governed by the laws of customary law and functioned on the basis of a system of customs, traditions, rituals, and strict subordination to the boss - the father. IN industrial In European society, the family became a social institution, regulated by love, morality, and law. When going to post-industrial In society, the family turns into a social group, losing ϲʙᴏ and institutional features. This once again shows the complex dialectical relationship between social group, institution and organization.
Economic organizations - agricultural, industrial, transport, construction, etc. enterprises engaged in the production, distribution, consumption and exchange of material social goods and services. Their activities are accompanied by a system of exchanges, banks, savings banks, etc. financial organizations. Production and financial organizations ensure the functioning and development economic system society. It is worth noting that they differ in state (Asian) and market (European) societies.
IN market In societies, production and financial organizations are created by enterprising owners of the means of production to produce some goods and make a profit. It is worth noting that they are gradually united into holdings, trusts, corporations, banks, forming market economy peace. In state societies, such organizations are created by state authorities - for example, GAZ in the USSR. It is worth noting that they are part of sectoral monopolies-ministries, forming the state economy of the country.
The enterprise contains a production management body (directorate, production and economic bureaucracy), which develops a charter, a plan, selects funds, and controls the activities of the enterprise. The enterprise operates on the basis of the division and coordination of labor of many professional groups, regulated by moral, administrative, etc. norms.
Do not forget that the most important political the organization of the society will be government, which contains: 1) legislative, executive, judicial branches; 2) the state apparatus (administration apparatus, or bureaucracy (officialdom)); 3) legal norms (constitution, laws, job descriptions), defining the rights and responsibilities of government bodies and their representatives; 4) material resources of power: finances, buildings, weapons, communications, prisons, etc.
State power is created and improved throughout the postprimitive history of mankind. The goals and functions of state power will be protection from other states (or attack on them), maintaining order, organizing economic life. It is worth noting that it is a hierarchical system of managing society, headed by a monarch or president, parliament, government, etc. By the way, this system operates on the basis of strict differentiation of the activities of statuses and roles. The system of statuses and roles is supported by a system of legal, administrative, moral, material regulators (values, norms, traditions, etc.)
Spiritual the social system contains ideological (church, parties, etc.), artistic (creative associations, etc.), educational (school, university, etc.), scientific organizations (academies of sciences, etc.). ) In this system of society, social institutions, rather than organizations, predominate. This means that the relations between governing bodies and managed organizations-institutions are determined not by administrative and legal norms, but by ideology, mentality, morality (conscience, duty, etc.) In Soviet society - as a type of totalitarian - the CPSU, the Academy of Sciences, etc. etc., were more organizations than institutions.
The type of social organizations depends on historical era. In the post-industrial (post-economic) era, which advanced countries are now opening, there will be post-industrial (post-economic) transnational corporations (TNCs). They are characterized by the following features: 1) their activities are based not on command and control, a strict hierarchy of statuses and roles, but on a modular scheme when small associated groups of workers work on the basis of a common worldview, mentality, and attitudes; 2) the process of creativity, and not its conditions, becomes the property of workers, as a result of which there is an increased dependence of management and owners of corporations on workers; 3) employees in such corporations perceive work as creativity, that is, activity motivated by spiritual (self-realization) interests.
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