An organization interacts with the external environment, must adapt to changes in it in order to function normally, and as such must be considered an “open system”. An open system depends on energy, information, materials that come from the external environment.
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Organization as an open system.
Plan
IN 1. Formation of open and closed system models within the framework of general systems theory.
AT 2. Specifics of the organization as a target social system.
AT 3. The problem of entry and entry stability.
AT 4. Dependence of the internal environment and internal processes of the organization on the state of the external environment. Equifinality.
IN 1. Formation of open and closed system models within the framework of general systems theory.
Systems theory was first applied in the exact sciences and technology. The application of systems theory to management in the late 1950s was the most important contribution of the school of management science. A systematic approach is not a set of guidelines or principles for managers - it is way of thinking in relation to organization and management. To understand how a systems approach helps a manager better understand an organization and achieve goals more effectively, let's first define what it is. system.
A SYSTEM is a certain integrity consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole.
Cars, computers, televisions are all examples of systems. They are made up of many parts, each of which works in conjunction with the others to create a whole that has its own specific properties. These parts interdependent. If one of them is missing or does not function correctly, then the entire system will not function correctly. For example, the TV will not work if the setting is not set correctly. All biological organisms are systems. Your life depends on the proper functioning of many interdependent organs that together make up the unique being that you are.
All organizations are systems. Since people are, in a general sense, components of organizations (social components), along with technology, which together are used to perform work, they are called sociotechnical systems. Just like in a biological organism, in an organization its parts are interdependent. It doesn't matter how hard RCA's national sales manager works to attract new VCR buyers if the designs developed by the engineering department are flawed, the people on RCA's assembly lines refuse to assemble the equipment, or the company doesn't can pay for the supply of components.
Just as a doctor will collect information about your breathing, metabolism, heart rate, eating habits and other vital signs before diagnosing and prescribing medication, a good leader must collect information about all the essential elements of the organization. to diagnose problems and take corrective action.
OPEN AND CLOSED SYSTEMS.
There are two main types of systems: closed and open. A closed system has rigid, fixed boundaries; its actions are relatively independent of the environment surrounding the system. A clock is a familiar example of a closed system. The interdependent parts of the watch move continuously and very precisely once the watch is wound or the battery is inserted. And as long as the watch has a source of stored energy, its system is independent of environment.
Open system characterized by interaction with the external environment. Energy, information, materials are objects of exchange with the external environment through the permeable boundaries of the system. Such a system is not self-sustaining; it depends on energy, information and materials coming from outside. In addition, an open system has the ability fit to changes in the external environment and must do this in order to continue its functioning.
Managers are primarily concerned with open systems because all organizations are open systems. The survival of any organization depends on outside world. Even for a monastery to operate for a long time, it is necessary for people to come and food to arrive, and contact to be maintained with the church that founded it. The approaches developed by the early schools of management could not suit all situations because they assumed, at least implicitly, that organizations are closed systems. They did not actively consider the environment as an important variable in management.
SUBSYSTEMS.
Large components of complex systems, such as an organization, a person, or a machine, are often systems themselves. These parts are called subsystems. The concept of a subsystem is an important concept in management. By dividing an organization into departments, which is discussed in subsequent chapters, management intentionally creates subsystems within the organization. Systems such as departments, departments, and various levels of management each play an important role in the organization as a whole, just like the subsystems of your body such as circulation, digestion, nervous system, and skeleton. The social and technical components of an organization are considered subsystems.
Subsystems can, in turn, consist of smaller subsystems. Since they are all interdependent, the malfunction of even the smallest subsystem can affect the system as a whole. A corroded battery cable does not supply current to the vehicle's electrical system, resulting in the entire vehicle being unable to operate. Likewise, the work of every department and every employee in an organization is very important to the success of the organization as a whole.
Understanding that organizations are complex open systems consisting of several interdependent subsystems helps explain why each of the schools of management has proven to be practical only to a limited extent. Each school sought to focus on one subsystem of the organization. The behaviorist school was mainly concerned with the social subsystem. Schools scientific management and management science - mainly with technical subsystems. Consequently, they often failed to correctly identify all the major components of the organization. Neither school seriously considered the impact of the environment on the organization. More recent research shows that this is a very important aspect of organizational performance. There is now a widespread view that external forces can be the main determinants of an organization's success, determining which tools in the management arsenal are appropriate and most likely to be successful.
MODEL OF ORGANIZATION AS AN OPEN SYSTEM.
The figure is a simplified representation of the organization as an open system. As inputs, the organization receives information, capital, human resources and materials from the environment. These components are called inputs. During the transformation process, the organization processes these inputs, converting them into products or services. These products and services are exits organizations that it brings into the environment. If the management organization is effective, then during the transformation process an added value of inputs is generated. As a result, many possible additional outputs appear, such as profit, increased market share, increased sales (in business), implementation of social responsibility, employee satisfaction, organizational growth, etc.
Variables and systems approach
Since this is a fairly new approach, we cannot yet fully assess the true impact of this school on management theory and practice. However, it can already be said that its influence is great and seems to be growing in the future. According to Professors Rosenzweig and Kast, systems theory provided the management discipline with a framework for integrating concepts developed and proposed by earlier schools. Many of these earlier ideas, although they may not be considered entirely correct, are of great value. On a systematic basis, it will probably be possible to synthesize new knowledge and theories that will be developed and appear in the future.
However, systems theory itself does not tell managers which elements of the organization as a system are especially important. It only says that an organization consists of numerous interdependent subsystems and is an open system that interacts with the external environment. This theory does not specifically identify the major variables that influence the management function. It also does not determine what in the environment affects management and how the environment affects the results of the organization’s activities. Obviously, managers must know what the variables of the organization as a system are in order to apply systems theory to the management process. This identification of variables and their impact on organizational performance is the main contribution of the situational approach, which is a logical extension of systems theory.
AT 2. Specifics of the organization as a target social system.
The structure of an organization is a way of interconnecting all heterogeneous and differently oriented elements of the organizational system. More adequate to the specifics of the organization as a target social system and widespread is the definition of social organization as a method of distributing and connecting heterogeneous types of activities, coordination and control, as well as a method of distributing power and competence in an organization.
Like any other structure, the S.O. fixes the morphological profile of the functioning of the organization, ensures the stability of relationships and predictability of the behavior of people in it. However, unlike biological, technical, physical systems, in which the rigidity and stability of the structure are guaranteed by the material nature of objects, S.O. is formed on the basis of reproducible patterns of interaction and activity, and its emergence is closely related to the processes of institutionalization (see Patterns of interaction and activity). As a component that gives stability to the structure and predictability to people's behavior, sociologists consider social norms, which are usually interpreted as a system of social standards and rules that define the behavior and activities of workers. Norms are characterized by varying degrees of rigidity and formalization (see: Organization; Formal (official) organization; Informal organization).
The concept of SO is usually used in organization theory as a synonym for the concept of “formal structure of an organization” (see Formal (official) organization). Based on this understanding, S.O. is a formalized and strictly structured way of regulating and reproducing business relations, based on norms, rules and standards enshrined in documents and legally formalized that govern the activities of employees and business interaction. It is focused on achieving corporate goals. Many experts highlight as its specificity: conscious character; role in suppressing conflict between departments and overcoming group egoism, regulating business communications, making and implementing management decisions, etc. The main function of the S.O. is to ensure a reduction in the uncertainty of relations in the business sphere, as well as the necessary level of social order in the organization , which creates the preconditions for purposeful collective activity.
It was precisely the target orientation and rational-instrumental nature of SO that was emphasized by Charles Barnard, who argued that the organization is a system of “conscious coordination of activities” and has a scalar structure (see Scalar principle of the structure of organizations). This was also kept in mind by other researchers (M. Albert, M. Mescon and F. Khedouri), who defined the organizational structure as a system of “logical relationships, levels of management and functional areas” and considered it as a tool for achieving goals.
A system is a certain set of interconnected and interacting elements that has the properties of integrity, emergence and stability. From this point of view, the concept of “organization” as an ordered state of the whole is identical to the concept of “system”. However, the concept of “organization” is somewhat broader than the concept of “system”, since it reflects not only the state of order, but also the processes of ordering. It is this duality of the nature of the concept of “organization” that makes its interpretation much more meaningful. Any system can be considered as the result of organizational transformations that replace one of its equilibrium states with another.
Representing an organization as a system allows us to identify a number of common properties inherent in it, observed in organizations of any nature.
The famous Aristotelian proposition “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts” still remains the most important characteristic organized integrity. The creation of the whole is accomplished through integration. Integration is the joining of parts into a single whole. Any organization can be considered as an integrated whole, in which each structural element occupies a strictly defined place.
The concept of integrity is inextricably linked with the concept of emergence. Emergence is the presence of qualitatively new properties of the whole that are absent in its component parts. This means that the properties of the whole are not a simple sum of the properties of its constituent elements, although they depend on them. However, elements combined into a system (whole) may lose the properties inherent to them outside the system or acquire new ones.
The organization, being a holistic, systemic entity, has the property of sustainability, i.e. always strives to restore the disturbed balance, compensating for changes arising under the influence of external factors.
Open and closed systems
Comprehensive analysis internal structure organization is ensured using a systematic approach. A system is a set of interconnected and interdependent parts, arranged in such an order that allows the whole to be reproduced. A unique characteristic when considering systems is the internal relationships of the parts. Every system is characterized by both differentiation and integration. The system uses a variety of specialized functions. Each part of the organization performs its specific functions. In order to maintain the individual parts in one organism and form a complete whole, integration occurs in each system. For this purpose, such means as coordination of levels of the management hierarchy, direct observation, rules, procedures, and courses of action are used.
Although organizations break up into separate parts or constituent elements, they are themselves subsystems within a larger system. There are not only systems and subsystems, but also supersystems. The classification of these concepts depends on the characteristics of the subject of analysis. Moreover, the whole is not a simple sum of parts, since the system should be considered as their unity.
There are open and closed systems. The concept of a closed system originated in physics. This is a system that is self-restraining. Her main characteristic is that it essentially ignores the effect of external influence. A perfect closed system would be one that does not receive energy from external sources and does not provide energy to the external environment. A closed organizational system has little applicability.
An open system involves dynamic interaction with the outside world. Organizations obtain raw materials and human resources from the external environment. They depend on external clients and customers consuming their products. Banks that actively interact with the external environment open deposits, turn them into loans and investments, and use the profits received to support development, pay dividends and pay taxes.
Figure 2.1 shows an industrial organization as an open system. At the input of the system is the receipt of materials, labor, and capital. Technological process organized to process raw materials into the final product. The final product, in turn, is sold to the customer. Financial institutions, labor, suppliers and customers, and government are all part of the external environment.
Fig.2.1
The distinction between open and closed systems is not rigid and established once and for all. An open system can become closed if contact with the environment decreases over time. In principle, the opposite situation is also possible. Open systems tend to become more complex and differentiated. In other words, the growth of an open system is accompanied by an increase in the level of specialization of its elements and a complication of the structure, often expanding the boundaries of the system or creating a new supersystem. If a business enterprise grows, then there is significant differentiation and complication of its structure. New specialized departments are created, new types of raw materials are purchased, the range of products is expanded, and new sales offices are organized.
Plan
Introduction
.The concept and essence of the organization
.Organization as an open system
System properties
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The complex nature of Russian market reforms has changed the emphasis in the modern approach to managing organizations. Bureaucratic, authoritarian and technocratic leadership tools in conditions of shortage of time, information and people have proven to be largely ineffective. Modern theories humane management is nothing more than an attempt to return to a harmonious way of existence, based, first of all, on the development of the individual and determining his place in the world.
An organization is one of the most ancient social formations on Earth. Thus, according to archaeologists, during excavations of ancient Sumer (which existed approximately 3 thousand years BC), clay tablets were found on which information about the commercial activities of organized groups of people was recorded.
The development of organizations proceeded slowly, experience in their creation gradually accumulated, world-famous plants and factories appeared; talented managers, manufacturers, breeders, etc. The composition gradually expanded public organizations. The first scientific approach to the analysis of organizations and the process of managing them is attributed to Frederick Taylor (USA), who in 1911 published the book “Principles of Scientific Management”. Since that time, sustained public interest in the management of social systems has contributed to the development of all areas scientific research in this area, including organizations.
The main capabilities of a modern organization are associated with the use of internal reserves: changing internal reserves, changing the management structure, building a model of organizational behavior, developing personnel and activating their work consciousness (motivation based on higher needs and personality components).
1. Concept and essence of organization
The modern world is based on the existence of organizations of various kinds: commercial and non-profit (the latter include, in particular, charitable foundations and religious organizations), having a clear or vague structure, managed in one way or another. However, they are all built according to certain laws and principles. Let's consider the features, principles of design, development and existence of organizations and their properties.
An organization is a consciously coordinated social entity with defined boundaries, functioning on a relatively permanent basis to achieve common goal or goals.
The phrase “consciously coordinated” means management, and “social formation” means that the organization consists of individuals or their groups interacting with each other. Organizational processes have a social essence. The patterns of interaction that individuals follow are deliberate, and the interaction of group members must be balanced, which involves coordination.
The following features of organizations:
An organization is separate from its external environment and its boundaries may change over time. They can be physical or psychological, due to the existence of symbols such as names, clothing, rituals. The concept of boundaries is required for a deeper understanding of systems and organizations.
- An organization always has a set of goals that are hierarchically interconnected, from its mission to its daily operational goals.
- Members of the organization, who are assigned specific responsibilities, contribute to the achievement of established overall (organizational) goals.
- To do this, they create a system of norms of corporate behavior, including generally accepted values, attitudes and motives for the behavior of personnel within the organization.
- The definition of an organization requires formal coordination of employee interactions.
- The structure of the organization determines the method of distribution of tasks and responsibilities (reporting), formal coordinating mechanisms and models of interaction between employees and departments in the process of achieving organizational goals.
The organization is characterized by the following principles of design, development and existence: complexity, formalization and a certain ratio of centralization and decentralization.
Complexity allows us to consider an organization as a set of its elements and the relationships between them.
Formalization means pre-developed and established rules and procedures governing employee behavior and intra-company relationships.
The relationship between centralization and decentralization is determined by the levels at which management decisions are developed and made in the organization. The accepted ratio determines the nature and type of the established organizational management structure. Organizations are designed in advance to form a structure subordinated to the achievement of established goals. There is no universal organization that can achieve different goals without changing the structure. When designing an organization, the following properties are taken into account:
- it has an a priori established goal - a mission in the name of which people unite and carry out their activities. The mission justifies the existence of the organization in the eyes of its employees and society as a whole throughout its entire life. life cycle. There are only two types of missions: making a profit and bringing selfless benefit to society. The mission defines the strategic goals of the organization: survival, growth, stabilization and change;
- the organization develops by improving methods of achieving goals.
Designing organizations in modern conditions brought to life by the increasing complexity of management, the increase in the speed of performing management functions, changes in the external and internal environment, as well as the specialization of managerial work. This approach is qualitatively different from widespread methods of increasing the efficiency of an organization (traditional division and unification on an experimental basis of divisions or areas of responsibility of managers, their replacement, improvement of certain organizational procedures) in that it sees not quantitative, but qualitative transformations (a complete change in the model ).
The design of an organization during its creation or reform is carried out taking into account the following aspects of its activities:
the intended product or service market sector and consumer; in its place and role in the system of market relations;
- goals of the organization (survival, growth, stabilization, change);
- technologies (processes, innovations);
- in philosophy (basic views of the leader, values, motivation);
- internal concept (sources and degree of competitiveness, survival factors);
- formation of external image, image (responsibility to partners, consumers, society as a whole, ethics);
- corporate culture.
All these aspects determine not only the features of creating or reforming a particular organization, but also the model of organizational behavior in it.
2. Organization as an open system
A system is a collection of interconnected and interdependent parts, arranged in such an order that allows the whole to be reproduced under any conditions.
A unique characteristic of systems is the internal relationships between parts (elements):
- Any system is characterized by both differentiation and integration. Each part performs individual functions. At the same time, integration is carried out to maintain the interconnection of individual parts of the system and form a single whole.
Although organizations are made up of parts, or elements, they are themselves subsystems within a larger system. Moreover, the whole is not a simple sum of parts, since the system should be considered as a unity not only of elements, but also of the relationships between them, which can increase or decrease the efficiency of their activities (multiplex, or synergistic, effect). There are closed and open systems. The concept of a closed system originates from the natural sciences. Such a system, being self-sustaining, almost does not react to external influences. A perfect system of this type would not receive energy from external sources at all and would not give off its energy to the external environment. It cannot be a subsystem of the system of economic and social relations in society and, accordingly, cannot fulfill a mission that is significant for society and carry out economic or other activities.
An open system, on the contrary, interacts with its environment. Organizations that are systems of this type receive raw materials and human resources from there and depend on clients and customers from the outside world to consume their products. Banks, actively interacting with the environment, convert deposits into loans and investments, use the profits received to maintain and develop their activities, pay dividends and pay taxes.
The degree of openness changes as a result of any changes within the system. An open system can acquire the features of a closed one if, over time, contacts with the environment become limited. The opposite situation is also possible.
Open systems tend to become more complex and differentiated.
All systems (organizations) have an input, a transformation process and an output. They receive raw materials, energy, information, and other resources and transform them into goods, services, profits, waste, etc.
Open systems, however, have some specific features. The first of them is the presence of interdependence between the system and the external environment. There is a boundary separating the system from its environment.
Changes in the external environment affect one or more attributes of the system, and vice versa, changes in the system affect the environment. The external environment of the organization is schematically presented in Fig. 1. The organization must reflect the state of the external environment. Its construction is based on prerequisites of an economic, scientific, technical, political, social or ethical nature. The organization must be created so that it functions normally. The contribution of each of its members to the overall work must be ensured and effective help employees in achieving their goals. In this sense, an effective organization cannot be static. It must quickly monitor all changes in the external environment, evaluate them and choose the best response to achieve its goals. It must respond effectively to environmental influences.
Fig.1. External environment of the organization
The second feature is the adaptability of the organization. It reflects changes in the external and internal environment. Therefore, the basis for building an organization is the prerequisites for its changes not only of an economic, scientific, technical, political, but also of a social and ethical nature. In this sense, an effective organization cannot be static.
The third feature is feedback, which is of fundamental importance for the functioning of organizations as open systems. Here under feedback understand the introduction of information or means into the system (after the sale of part of the product) for modifying production or establishing the release of new products.
The internal environment of an organization influences the effectiveness of its activities no less, and in certain periods of the life cycle even more than the external environment. One of the most important parameters of the internal environment is the behavior of groups and individuals in an organization. (Fig. 2.)
Fig.2. Internal environment of the organization
The organization is characterized by a cyclical nature of functioning. In case of disruption or termination of the cycle without the possibility of further existence, organizational systems are predisposed to reduction (collapse) or disintegration into parts. If the system does not receive energy and new inputs from the external environment, then over time it may shrink. An open system is capable of reconstructing itself, maintaining its structure, avoiding liquidation, and even expanding, because it has the ability to receive energy from the outside in greater quantities than it gives out.
The constant influx of resources into the system and the constant outflow of results ensure its certain dynamic balance.
Research shows that large and complex organizational systems tend to continue to grow and expand. They have a certain “margin of safety” that exceeds the limit necessary to ensure only survival. The organization's resources (energy) mean not only finances, but also ideas, technologies, promising personnel, new opportunities in the external environment, management principles and organizational structures.
As an organization grows, senior management is forced to transfer more and more of its decision-making responsibilities to lower levels (delegate authority).
However, since the leaders top level are responsible for all decisions, their role in the organization changes: from making decisions they move to managing the process of making decisions. Thus, the increase in the size of organizations leads to the need for a division of labor in management. One group - top-level managers - has primary authority and is responsible for determining the methods of managing the organization by which its problems should be resolved. Another group of managers reports to senior management. The people included in it are components of the management system, their main responsibility is to develop decisions. So harmonious organizational structure is very stable, as it embodies the principle of hierarchy, which states: there are no systems in the world in which all elements would be completely equal and bear equal responsibility for the final result. Everything is governed by hierarchy.
Another basic principle of forming an organizational structure is to ensure that the system can return to its original state after changes, as well as the ability to reproduce itself in various conditions. Management's actions to maintain its stability, which is one of the main functions of management, must respond to specific environmental conditions, which prevents very rapid changes in the system that could unbalance it.
Also important is the principle of increasing the adaptability of the system to various changes in the internal and external environment.
Both are necessary for the survival and development of the organization. Stable and well-equipped organizations, but unadapted to changing conditions, will not be able to survive for long in an open system mode. At the same time, adaptive but unstable organizations will be ineffective and also unlikely to function for long. Therefore, it is necessary to consider various forms and methods of solving problems of design and existence of an organization, and not look for any one “optimal” solution leading to quick results.
An organizational system can achieve its goals using various combinations of resources and strategies. That is why it is necessary to consider various forms and methods of solving emerging problems, rather than looking for any one “optimal” solution that leads to quick results.
Table 1. Principles of existence of organizations as systems
No. Name of the principle Brief description 1 The principle of the internal unity of the system, its internal logic, the feasibility of its existence Clear goal setting when creating an organization, its limitation from the external environment and identification in comparison with other organizations; having a strong personality when creating an organization and business2 The principle of uniquenessDefining the uniqueness of an organization, finding its place in the external environment based on specific significant differences. It is the basis for the positioning of goods and services in the future. 3 The principle of pairing (polarization of processes) The pairing of processes occurring in the organization: origin - destruction; quantitative - qualitative changes (which are opposite); process balance ;their harmony (the principle of dynamic balance). If this principle is observed, the development and transformation of systems is possible. Fixing the system in an extreme state will stop its development and lead to rapid destruction4 The principle of the effectiveness of the combination of opposite principles (antagonistic and non-antagonistic) Presence positive result from each operation carried out within the organization; the meaningfulness of the actions taken and the exclusion of ineffective ones. Focus on the result, not the process5 The principle of dynamic stability and reproducibility in micro parts (fractal principle) Each smallest subsystem of the organization must be adaptive and sustainable and, in addition, if necessary, be able to develop into an independent system. This will ensure the dynamic stability of the mother system. Subsystems should be interchangeable, functions should be pulsating (expanding and collapsing depending on strategic objectives organization) 6 The principle of development restrictions in the system: development cannot take place without reasonable restrictions, and the system must remain itself, changing in accordance with changes in the external environment. The presence in the structures of the organization of certain unchangeable parameters that allow the system to be recreated in the previous state without failures; restrictions on creativity and non-standard solutions that threaten the existence of the organization with “permanent repairs”; a certain pace of change, the introduction of control indicators and corrective systems; balance of all internal subsystems of the organization 7 Principle of movement and development Constant changes and adjustment to the external environment and internal goals; understanding the cyclical nature of changes, their constant nature; exclusion of stagnation at any point of development; movement of processes8 The principle of completing actions and processes Anticipating the results (both positive and negative) of processes in the organization; readiness for these results; manifestation of the will and determination of leaders, the ability to take responsibility for failure. If the principle is violated, the attenuation of organizational processes is possible9 Principle of similarityLogical or intuitive relationship of processes occurring in the external and internal environments of the organization, their interdependence10Principle of creativityPresence of creative ideas in the process of development (and not expansion); creation of fundamentally new elements and subsystems for a given organization; investment in such development is required; maintaining previously achieved results: balance between development and stable production; commercialization of inventions 11 The principle of combining material and intangible principles The presence of a vision (image), mission and other intangible components of the business along with material goals and indicators. A business without ideas is dead, only an idea can bring in really big money. Attention! Not to be confused with two missions: making money by satisfying human needs (business) and bringing good to people (not business). Mixing them is possible, but destructive for business, since spiritual ideas are stronger than material ones. 12 The principle of dynamic complexity Taking into account the constant complication of elements and interconnections of subsystems in a modern organization in connection with the cognitive (cognitive) processes of civilization and scientific and technological progress. As the external environment becomes more complex and a person realizes this, the systemic nature of the organization’s internal environment also becomes more complex. The management unit of modern systems must have a high system level of decision-making. Increasing complexity of systems and decisions increases the risk of negative consequences of incorrect decisions made. The responsibility of people in an organization requires the development of their decision-making abilities in conditions of increased complexity and instability, as well as the growing unpredictability of external processes 13 The principle of determinism There are no random processes. There are processes in which people cannot yet understand the laws. A persistent search, study of the causes of events, collection of statistical information and comprehensive development analytical function in the organization, attention to the construction of information networks and the quality of information 14 The principle of harmony Selection of management decisions that do not violate internal organizational and external (in society) naturally occurring processes; a reasonable approach to the power component of decisions that does not give rise to unreasonable violence both inside and outside the organization. The solution as a tool should not be more complex or powerful than the task 15 The principle of timely action Understanding the natural course of processes in order to avoid unnecessary acceleration and disastrous delay, which will lead to the waste of the organization's capital; a sense of the right moment and the development of productive thinking among modern managers of organizations 16 Field principle The influence of individual elements in an organization as a system extends to other elements. The influence of the organization on the external environment and the influence of the environment on the organization also extend. There is not a single isolated object, all mutually influence each other, this is a two-way process in each case. Taking into account the influence of people in the organization and the influence of the organization itself on society 17 The principle of constant investment (investments, sacrifices) Understanding the need for energy exchange both within the organization and in the business infrastructure and society; constant investment of effort, energy, money, knowledge and the manifestation of creativity and other types of energy in the development of processes in the internal and external environment; constant willingness to give a lot for the sake of success 18 The principle of rhythm Taking into account a certain amplitude (rhythm) of fluctuations in various processes: from the life cycle of an organization to the cycle of human relationships within it. The duration of various cycles gives an understanding of the rhythm and moment of the organization’s readiness for targeted impact. Rhythm also contributes to the maximum use of the organization’s capital: the refusal to accumulate and the introduction of a “just-in-time” system into all processes. Rhythm is also a measure of fluctuation: a period of prosperity or development will be approximately equal to a period of disaster and destruction. This makes it possible to maintain the concentration of efforts at the desired level. Finding a rhythm is necessary for every system. 19 The principle of return of influence It would be more correct to call it the principle of inevitable retribution for any (good or other) deed. There are no decisions and actions that do not have certain consequences in the organization, which in themselves are already retribution, but can also lead to more significant, specific results. Everything comes back. It is advisable to remember this20 The principle of instrumentalismAn organization is only a tool for achieving its goals. People are her soul. Once the goals are achieved, the organization may cease to exist, but human capital is the seed of a new business idea. As long as it is there, the business can last a long time. It is necessary to understand that for each goal it is necessary to create a new organization or transform an old one
Internal variables are situational factors within organizations. Since organizations are systems created by people, internal variables in. are mainly the result of management decisions. This, however, does not mean that all internal variables are completely controlled by management. Often the internal factor is something “given” that management must overcome. So. The monotony and fatigue associated with assembly line work cannot be overcome by eliminating assembly lines because... By doing so, the organization will jeopardize its existence. Instead, management recognizes the adverse impact of the assembly line on workers and productivity and takes measures to reduce it,
Key variables within the organization itself that require management attention. - these are goals, structure, tasks, technology and people.
Goals. An organization is a group of people with conscious common goals. It can be seen as a means to an end that allows people to accomplish collectively what they could not accomplish individually. During the planning process, management develops goals and communicates them to organizational members.
Goals can be varied, especially for organizations various types. Organizations that engage in business focus primarily on the production of certain goods or services within specific constraints - costs and profits. This objective is reflected in objectives such as profitability and productivity. Government bodies, educational institutes and non-profit organizations do not seek to make a profit, but they are concerned about costs. And this is reflected in a set of goals, formulated as the provision of specific services within certain budgetary constraints.
This diversity of focus extends further, as large organizations have many goals. In order to make a profit, for example, a business must formulate goals in areas such as market share, new product development, service quality, management training and selection, and even social responsibility. The orientation determined by goals permeates all subsequent management goals.
Structure. The structure of an organization is the logical relationship between management levels and functional areas, built in a form that allows the organization's goals to be most effectively achieved. The concept of "functional area" refers to the work that a particular department performs for the organization as a whole, for example, marketing, production, personnel training, planning. Structural variables will be discussed in detail below. Here we will focus on two basic concepts related to structure: the specialized division of labor and the span of control.
In most organizations, division of labor does not mean random distribution of processes among workers. A characteristic feature is the specialized division of work - assigning this work to specialists, that is, those who are able to perform it better from the point of view of the organization as a whole. IN this moment In all organizations, with the exception of the smallest, there is a horizontal division of labor along specialized lines. If the organization is large enough in size, specialists are usually grouped together within a functional area. How exactly to implement the division of labor in an organization is a question that relates to the most significant management decisions. The choice of functional areas determines the basic structure and, to a large extent, the capabilities successful activities. The efficiency and appropriateness of the way work is divided among people - from the top down to the very first level of the organization - in many cases determines how productive an organization can be compared to its competitors.
Equally important is how the vertical division of labor is carried out. The deliberate vertical division of labor in an organization results in a hierarchy of management levels. The central characteristic of this hierarchy is the formal subordination of individuals at each level. The number of people reporting to one manager represents the span of control. Span of control is an important aspect of organizational structure. If one manager reports big number people, we are talking about a broad span of control that results in a flat management structure. If the sphere of control is narrow, that is, each manager is subordinate to a small number of people, we can talk about a multi-level structure.
There is no perfect span of control. Many variables within the organization itself and in the external environment can influence it. Moreover, neither the span of control nor the relative "height" of an organization's structure is an indicator of its size.
Tasks. Another area of division of labor in an organization is the formulation of tasks. A task is a prescribed job, series of jobs, or piece of work that must be completed in a predetermined manner within a predetermined time frame. From a technical point of view, tasks are not assigned to the employee, but to his position. Based on management's decision about the structure, each job includes a number of tasks that are seen as a necessary contribution to achieving the organization's goals, it is believed that if the task is completed in the manner and within the time frame as prescribed, the organization will perform successfully.
The tasks of an organization are traditionally divided into three categories: working with people, objects (machines, tools, raw materials), and information.
Two other important points in the work are the frequency of repetition of a given gym and the time required to complete it. In general, we can say that managerial work is less monotonous, repetitive in nature and the time required to complete each type of work increases as one moves from the lowest level to the highest.
From a historical point of view, changes in the nature and content of tasks were closely related to the evolution of specialization. Specialization of tasks quickly found application in many simple operations. For a long time, there has been a tendency to expand specialization and thereby fragment all work into smaller operations: In our century, technological innovations and the systematic combination of technology and specialization of labor have made the specialization of tasks in-depth and complex.
Technology has a much broader meaning than traditionally believed. Most people view technology as something to do with inventions and machines. However, for some professionals, technology refers to the combination of skills, equipment, infrastructure, tools and related technical knowledge needed to bring about desired changes in materials, information or people.
Tasks and technology are closely related. Performing tasks involves using a specific technology as a means of converting input material into output form.
The influence of this variable on management was largely determined by three major revolutions in technology: the industrial revolution; standardization and mechanization; using conveyor assembly lines. As a result of these and more recent innovations, technology and tasks have become a major influence on efficiency.
5. People. Management achieves the organization's goals through other people. Therefore, people are a central factor in any management model.
Environmental factors refer to the force with which changes in one factor affect other factors. When organizing management, it is necessary to take into account factors of external influence as much as possible and consider a specific organization as an integral system consisting of mutually related parts.
External environmental factors in the management system in our management science, both in an earlier period and at the present time, have not been given enough attention. Consequently, the problem remains little studied, especially its factors such as: the importance of the external environment for management; definition of the external environment; relationship between environmental factors; complexity, mobility and uncertainty of the external environment; environment of direct and indirect influence; international environment. The complexity of the external environment refers to the number of factors to which an organization must respond, as well as the level of variability of each factor. If we take into account the number of external factors to which the organization is forced to react, then if it is under pressure from government regulations, frequent renegotiation of contracts with trade unions, several interest groups, numerous competitors and accelerated technological changes, it can be argued that this organization is in a more complex environment than, for example, an organization concerned with the actions of just a few suppliers, with no unions and slow technology change. Likewise, when we're talking about Regarding the diversity of factors, an organization that uses only a few raw materials, a few specialists, and does business with only a few firms in its country should consider the terms of provision less complex than an organization that has these parameters differently. In terms of the diversity of factors, an organization that uses diverse and different technologies that have undergone more development will be in more complex conditions. fast development than the organization to which all this concerns.
Environmental fluidity is the speed at which changes occur in an organization's environment. Many researchers point out that the environment of modern organizations is changing at an increasing speed. However, while this trend is general, there are organizations around which the external environment is especially mobile. It is believed that the most rapid changes in the external environment primarily affect such industries as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, electronics, aerospace, computer manufacturing, biotechnology, and telecommunications. This is influenced primarily by factors such as changes in technology and methods of competition. Less noticeable changes in the external environment are occurring in mechanical engineering, the production of spare parts for cars, the confectionery industry, the furniture industry, the production of containers and packaging materials, and canned food. In addition, the mobility of the external environment may be higher for some parts of the organization and lower for others. For example, in many companies, the research and development department faces a highly fluid environment because it must keep up with all technological innovations. On the other hand, a manufacturing department may be immersed in a relatively slow-changing environment characterized by a steady flow of materials and labor resources. At the same time, if production facilities are scattered across different countries world or the initial resources come from abroad, then manufacturing process may find themselves in a highly mobile environment. Given the ability to operate in a highly mobile environment, the organization or its units must rely on a more diverse range of information to make decisions. effective solutions relative to its internal variables. This makes decision making more difficult.
Environmental uncertainty is a function of the amount of information an organization (or person) has about a particular factor, as well as a function of the confidence in that information. If there is little information or there is doubt about its accuracy, the environment becomes more uncertain than in a situation where there is adequate information and there is reason to believe that it is highly reliable. As business becomes an increasingly global enterprise, more and more information is required, but confidence in its accuracy decreases. Thus, the more uncertain the external environment, the more difficult it is to make effective decisions. In connection with these characteristics, the following main types of external environment can be distinguished:
A changing environment characterized by rapid change. These could be technical innovations, economic changes, changes in legislation, innovations in the policies of competitors. Such an unstable environment, which creates great difficulties for management, is inherent in the Russian market.
- A hostile environment created by fierce competition and the struggle for consumers and markets. Such an environment is inherent, for example, in the automotive industry of the United States and countries Western Europe and Japan.
- A diverse environment is inherent in global business. A typical example of a global business is McDonalds, which operates in many countries. With diverse cultures and gastronomic tastes of consumers. This diverse environment influences the company’s activities and its policy of influencing consumers.
- Technically challenging environment. In such an environment, electronics, computer technology, and telecommunications are developing, which require complex information and highly qualified service personnel.
External environment in strategic management is considered as a combination of two relatively independent subsystems: the macroenvironment (industry or immediate environment) and the microenvironment (remote environment). The microenvironment is considered to include all interest groups that directly influence or are directly influenced by the core activities of the enterprise. These include shareholders, suppliers, local organizations, competitors, customers, creditors, trade unions, trade and other organizations. The macroenvironment includes general factors that do not directly affect the short-term activities of an enterprise, but can influence its long-term decisions. This is the government, the economy, natural factors, scientific and technological progress, socio-demographic environment. Changes in the macroenvironment affect the strategic position of the enterprise in the market and affect elements of the microenvironment.
The political component of the macroenvironment must be studied first of all in order to have a clear understanding of the intentions of government authorities regarding the development of society and the means by which the state intends to implement its policies. The study of the political component should focus on finding out what programs various party structures are trying to implement, what lobbying groups exist in government bodies, what attitude the government has in relation to various sectors of the economy and regions of the country, what changes in legislation and legal regulation possible as a result of the adoption of new laws and new norms regulating economic processes. At the same time, it is important to understand such basic characteristics of the political subsystem, such as: what political ideology determines the policy of the government, how stable the government is, how much it is able to carry out its policies, what is the degree of public discontent and how strong are the opposition political structures in order to use this discontent to seize power.
The study of the social component of the macroenvironment is aimed at understanding the impact on business of such social phenomena and processes as: people’s attitude to work and quality of life; existing customs and beliefs in society; values shared by people; demographic structures of society, population growth, level of education, mobility of people or readiness to change their place of residence, etc. The importance of the social component is very important, since it is all-pervasive, influencing both other components of the macroenvironment and the internal environment of the organization. Social processes change relatively slowly. However, if certain social change, then they lead to many very significant changes in the environment of the organization. Therefore, the organization must seriously monitor possible social changes.
Analysis of the technological component allows you to timely see the opportunities that the development of science and technology opens up for the production of new products, for improving manufactured products and for modernizing the technology of manufacturing and marketing products. The progress of science and technology brings with it enormous opportunities and equally enormous threats for firms. Many organizations are unable to see the new prospects that are opening up because technical capabilities to bring about fundamental change are predominantly created outside the industry in which they operate. By being late with modernization, they lose their market share, which can lead to extremely negative consequences for them.
When studying various components of the macroenvironment, it is very important to keep in mind the following two points.
Firstly, it is that all components of the macroenvironment are in a state of strong mutual influence. Changes in one of the components necessarily lead to changes in other components of the macroenvironment. Therefore, their study and analysis should be carried out not separately, but systematically, tracking not only the actual changes in a separate component, but also understanding how these changes will affect other components of the macroenvironment.
Secondly, the degree of influence of individual components of the macroenvironment on various organizations different. In particular, the degree of influence manifests itself differently depending on the size of the organization, its industry, territorial location, etc.
The study of the organization's immediate environment is aimed at analyzing the state of those components of the external environment with which the organization is in direct interaction. At the same time, it is important to emphasize that the organization can have a significant influence on the nature and content of this interaction, thereby it can actively participate in the formation additional features and in preventing the emergence of threats to its further existence.
The analysis of buyers as components of the organization’s immediate environment primarily aims to compile a profile of those who buy the product sold by the organization. Studying customers allows an organization to better understand which product will be most accepted by customers, what sales volume the organization can expect, to what extent customers are committed to the product of this particular organization, how much the circle of potential buyers can be expanded, what awaits the product in the future, and much more. .
The analysis of suppliers is aimed at identifying those aspects in the activities of entities that supply the organization with various raw materials, semi-finished products, energy and information resources, finance, etc., on which the efficiency of the organization, the cost and quality of the product produced by the organization depend.
Studying competitors, i.e. those with whom the organization has to fight for the resources that it seeks to obtain from the external environment in order to ensure its existence occupy a special and very important place in strategic management. This study is aimed at identifying the strengths and weaknesses of competitors and, on the basis of this, building your competitive strategy.
Analysis of the labor market is aimed at identifying its potential in providing the organization with the personnel necessary to solve its problems. The organization must study the labor market both from the point of view of the availability of personnel with the required specialty and qualifications, the required level of education, the required age, gender, etc., and from the point of view of the cost of labor. An important area of studying the labor market is the analysis of the policies of trade unions that have influence in this market, since in some cases they can severely limit access to the labor force necessary for the organization.
3. System properties
organization social system
The organization is characterized by the following principles of design, development and existence: complexity, formalization and a certain ratio of centralization to decentralization. Complexity allows us to consider an organization as a set of its elements and the relationships between them. Formalization refers to pre-developed and established rules and procedures that regulate the behavior of employees and intra-company relationships. The relationship between centralization and decentralization is determined by the levels at which management decisions are developed and made in the organization. The accepted ratio determines the nature and type of the established organizational management structure. Organizations are designed in advance to form a structure subordinated to the achievement of established goals. There is no universal organization that can achieve different goals without changing the structure. When designing an organization, the following properties are taken into account:
- organization is an organism rather than a mechanism;
- she acts rationally, organically and purposefully;
- it has an established goal (mission), in the name of which people unite and carry out their activities. There are only two types of missions: making a profit and bringing selfless benefit to society. The mission defines the strategic goals of the organization: survival, growth, stabilization and change.
Open systems, however, have some specific features. The first of them is the presence of interdependence between the system and the external environment. The second feature is the adaptability of the organization. It reflects changes in the external and internal environment. Therefore, the basis for building an organization is the prerequisites for its changes not only of an economic, scientific, technical, political, but also of a social and ethical nature. In this sense, an effective organization cannot be static. The third feature is feedback, which is of fundamental importance for the functioning of organizations as open systems. Here, feedback is understood as the introduction of information or means into the system (after the sale of part of the product) for modifying production or establishing the release of new products. The internal environment of an organization influences the effectiveness of its activities no less, and in certain periods of the life cycle even more than the external environment. One of the most important parameters of the internal environment is the behavior of groups and individuals in an organization (which is the content of the discipline “ Organizational behavior"). The organization is characterized by a cyclical nature of functioning. If the system does not receive energy and new inputs from the external environment, then over time it may shrink. An open system is capable of reconstructing itself, maintaining its structure, avoiding liquidation, and even expanding, because it has the ability to receive energy from the outside in greater quantities than it gives out. The constant influx of resources into the system and the constant outflow of results ensure its certain dynamic balance.
Conclusion
An organization is a consciously coordinated (managed) social entity (i.e., it consists of people and their groups interacting with each other) with certain boundaries, functioning on a relatively constant basis to achieve a common goal. The structure of the organization determines how tasks should be distributed, what the chain of command should be, what the formal coordinating mechanisms and patterns of employee interaction should be. Using a systematic approach, a comprehensive analysis of the structure of the organization is provided. A system is a set of interconnected and interdependent parts, arranged in such an order that allows the whole to be reproduced. Internal relations parts are a special characteristic when considering systems. In every system there is integration (to maintain separate parts in one organism and form a complete whole) and differentiation. Organizations break down into separate parts (component elements) and at the same time are themselves subsystems within a larger system.
There are open and closed systems. The second concept - closed systems - appeared in physics; it denotes a system that is self-restraining, and the main feature is a significant disregard for external influences. An ideal closed system would be one that does not receive energy from external sources and does not provide energy to the external environment. The closed organizational system is rarely used.
An open system enters into dynamic interaction with the world around it. Organizations obtain raw materials and human resources from the outside world and depend on clients and customers consuming their products. Financial institutions, labor, suppliers, customers are all part of the external environment.
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O-differentiated and mutually ordered association of individuals and groups acting on the basis of common goals, interests and programs. A system is a collection of components and their connections that function as a single whole. Typically, a system contains sets of causal relationships between components. Resources (suppliers), Consumers - Government agencies - competitors, creditors - trade unions - Cultural environment - economic system.
When changes occur in one component, it causes a chain of changes in other components. A system is open if it interacts with the environment. Although organizations can be considered as independent systems, they are subsystems within a larger system and are influenced by many environmental factors. Depreciation of production facilities, obsolescence of technology, the need to replenish raw materials and materials, turnover and change of personnel - all this is an incomplete list of problems, the solution to which is a necessary condition maintaining the viability of the organization. Inadequate interaction with the external environment inevitably leads to disruption of functioning, disintegration into parts or complete destruction.
At the same time, an organization can not only avoid collapse, but is also capable of significant growth, constantly reproducing received resources, improving organizational processes and structure, etc. In other words, it can not only consume, but also reproduce resources received from the outside.
Modern managers should know that within the framework of new management thinking, any production system is considered as sociotechnical, since in today's industrial production two subsystems constantly interact:
a) technical and economic, including not only machines, equipment and equipment, all types of technology, etc., but also management knowledge, organizational structures, methods production planning, job development, technical techniques and work skills, qualification level and
workforce training, its professional composition;
b) social, including all forms of moral and material incentives for work, management style, participation of workers and employees in the decision-making process, opportunities for career advancement, organizational culture and etc.
Western researchers identify six characteristics of a sociotechnical system, which in modern conditions are key to success in competition and at the same time characterize the level of development of new management thinking:
organizational philosophy based on the understanding by company employees of their goals and the purpose of the entire enterprise, their constant readiness share with the administration full responsibility for the results of economic activities;
organizational management structure that provides ordinary workers and employees with real rights to participate in management;
a new approach to the design of jobs and the role of the performer in the decision-making process (instead of specializing the worker in the effective performance of one particular operation, which implies a deep technological division of labor, there is a demand for workers capable of performing a wide range of production operations or functions);
A new layout of equipment that would meet the needs of the command-brigade form of labor organization and ensure acceleration of material flows in production. It is based on a cell form instead of the workshops and lines used in the traditional approach;
New forms and methods of training and retraining of personnel, a more flexible personnel policy aimed at guaranteeing employment. Training should be based on mastery of a wide range of professions, as well as on the acquisition of knowledge that gives workers the opportunity to perform many functions, understand not only purely production, but also organizational, economic and other aspects of their work, master related specialties and master the so-called professions of the future ;
New criteria in evaluation economic efficiency use modern technology and making investments in the development of production (remember: spending money to maintain or improve a production system with ineffective management is a waste of money).
Organizational goals.
Any organization usually has one or more formal goals. In addition, it may have informal, implicit goals that are a direct or indirect consequence of specific decisions and actions. CO is ideal models the results of its activities. In other words, these are specifically formulated ideas about the desired states that we would like to achieve. The CO system is complex and diverse, and to simplify understanding of the target structure, the concept of a “goal tree” is often used. The main thing is hierarchy and subordination. Any C of a lower level must clearly follow from a higher one, and the entire target system must be mutually consistent. At certain stages of the development of O and at certain moments of its activity, the Cs may seem contradictory, but with proper formulation they should still work for the long term. Typical examples of such an apparent discrepancy: investments in risky projects (money is invested with an unclear result), an advertising campaign (also with an unclear result). Mission - reflects the meaning of the creation and existence of O, its role and significance in the surrounding world - intentions and directions of development --- formation of its image --- increases the level of motivation - stimulates them to achieve OC. Functional goals are the expected results of activities in functional areas of activity that are carried out by any company, regardless of the structure, set and grouping of divisions. Marketing C - winning positions (shares) in the market. ---Innovative - development of new technologies, methods and techniques of work, new products and services. Production -- quantitative and qualitative parameters of manufactured products (services) are set - in terms of volume, structure, dynamics. ----Social. -- social obligations to its members and to interested groups. – external --- (in the field of ecology, in solving problems of unemployment and other social problems). ---- Financial. ---- profit, profitability, costs, etc.
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