Vikings lived in the area. Ragnar "Leather Pants" Lothbrok. Why European states were unable to repel the pagans of the north

Who were the Vikings and why was everyone afraid of them? You will learn where the Vikings lived in this article.

Where did the Vikings live?

The period of the 8th-11th centuries is rightly called the Viking era. But who are they, these warlike people? The Vikings, or as they were also called the Normans, belonged to the group northern peoples who came from Scandinavia.

Modern countries where the Vikings lived are Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The Vikings lived in coastal areas, so their life and way of life in general are closely connected with the sea. Even the origin of the name means "dwellers of the gulf coast." Although in other foreign countries these warriors were called by other names. For example, in Spain they were called madhus, which in the local language means “pagan monsters”; in Ireland the Vikings were called Finngalls, that is, “bright strangers”; in France, Nordmanns or Norsmanns - “people from the north.”

They instilled fear and horror in their closest neighbors, and then throughout Western Europe. And all because of frequent campaigns for the purpose of robbery and robbery, where the people gained fame as cruel warriors. So, from the end of the 8th century, the Vikings for the first time left their native lands in search of new territories rich in food and fertile lands. The detachments quickly attacked other countries, killed people, robbed and burned cities, stole food, livestock and other property. That is why the Vikings became famous as cruel and ruthless robbers.

For many years they carried out raids along the northern coast of France and the British Isles. As a result, Viking settlements appeared on the coasts of Scotland, Ireland and England in the 9th century. Moreover, in 1013 and 1016, under the leadership of the leaders Sven Forkbeard and Knut the Great, they managed to capture all of England, albeit for some time.

"Vikings" history message about a warlike tribe is outlined in this article.

Viking Report

In Rus' they were called Varangians, in France Normans. They called themselves Vikings and lived in the territory of modern Denmark, Norway and Sweden in the period 800 - 1100 AD.

They rushed across the seas, capturing settlements and plundering them. But, nevertheless, they discovered the islands of Greenland and Iceland. Leif the Happy, leader of the Vikings, landed on the island of Newfoundland (North America) in the year 1000.

Some Scandinavians did not leave their lands. They raised livestock and hunted in the forests; they sowed rye, millet and oats on poor lands. But most of them spent almost their entire lives on voyages, military campaigns and raids. They are armed with battle axes. Their rowing wooden boats were strong, fast, light and maneuverable. The Vikings traveled many miles on them. The ship served as a home for them for a long time. They even buried noble warriors in boats.

Usually, on campaigns, the Vikings braided their hair and beard in pigtails so that the wind would not tangle them. They brought live cattle and dried meat with them for food. A distinctive feature of their boat was the wooden carving of a dragon on the bow of the ship.

Raiding on settlements, the Vikings did not allow them to come to their senses local residents. Everything was lightning fast. Coastal villages were burned after the plunder. Returning home, they gave part of the loot to their leader, the king. He used these funds to build a large family castle. Prosperous, wealthy Vikings were distinguished by their ancestral fortresses.

Viking settlement

Often they remained to live in the occupied territories and married local women, mixing with other nationalities. The conquerors colonized the lands of France, Britain, and Iceland. They founded the first settlements on the island of Greenland. They reached the North American continent, but due to clashes with local Indians they were unable to settle there. It is noteworthy that the Varangian Rurik was the first prince of the Russian lands and the founder of the future Kievan Rus.

• They didn't actually wear horned helmets, as shown in the films.
• The Normans were very clean. During excavations, archaeologists found razors, tongs and combs. They bathed once a week, much more often than other inhabitants of the European continent.
• Girls of their people got married at 12 years old.
• Almost 6,000 years ago, the Vikings developed the first primitive skis, which acted as a means of transportation.
• They specially bleached their hair and beard with caustic soap with a high alkali capacity.

We hope that the report on the Vikings helped you learn a lot of interesting information about this tribe. You can leave your message about the Vikings using the comment form below.

Norway, a fabulous country with amazing and heart-melting natural landscapes, a large number of rivers and lakes, amazing beauty waterfalls and wide bays with sandy beaches.

One of the fascinating natural phenomena of Norway is the Fjords. Fjords - narrow roads in the mountains that were formed during the Ice Age: the mountains seemed to have parted under the force of moving ice. Although maybe they parted under the power of the Vikings living on Norwegian soil at that time. Maybe that’s why the Scandinavian peninsula, where Norway is located, is considered the birthplace of the Vikings.

Who are the Vikings and from what country do they originate? And where is the homeland of the Vikings?

Very little information has reached our times about the Vikings, because only at the end of their era did writing appear. And writing came to them with the adoption of Christianity. And this was in the 11th century. Therefore, to this day, the story of the existence of the Vikings is known only from the Scandinavian sagas.

Vikings are Scandinavian sailors. They lived on barren, cold land, so they had to master the art of sailors. Because of hunger, they began to sail and rob ships. Develop and move to new lands due to the large number of people.

In general, Viking from Old Norse means a man from the bay or a man from the port. This was also the name given to people who left their lands for trade or maritime robbery.

From Wikipedia you can find out that the homeland of the Vikings is Sweden, Denmark and Norway. In Eastern Europe, European historians believe that the composition of the Vikings is not fully understood, but suggest that they could have been Swedes.

It is known from Scandinavian mythology that around 800 the Vikings mastered ships and began to conquer the sea horizons, began to trade, and rob other people's ships.

In 982, Erik the Red, a cruel Viking who was expelled from Norway for murder, returned 3 years later and told about the land he met on his voyage. He named it Greenland.

In 985, 25 Viking ships set off to conquer Greenland. But on the long journey to the Green Country they had to face bad weather: storm and fog. Therefore, only 14 ships reached their destination. And Bjarni Herjelfsson's ship sailed to a land with mountains and forests. This was America. But Herjelfsson did not study this land, but went to conquer Greenland.

However, in the year 1000, Leif Erikson still continued the path of Herjelfson and went to America. He discovered new places and gave the cities their names: Gelluland - Baffin Island and Vinland-Newfoundland. But in America no one was waiting for them. Therefore, there were bloody battles with the local population.

Then Western Vikings from Denmark and Norway fought in Britain and France. In northern France they were called Normans, and the land is still called Normandy. But the tribes that lived on these lands were much more powerful, so the Vikings did not appropriate these lands, but settled with them.

Swedish Vikings traded with Kiev and Novgorod. Then they paved a trade route to Byzantium. They led their trade routes through the Aral, Caspian and Black Seas.

When political discord arose on the Novgorod land, they invited the ancestral Vikings to “Reign and own the Russian land,” as Nestor wrote in his chronicles.

The Vikings were very skilled weaponsmiths. They made sharp, reliable weapons. And, if you believe the myths, they checked the tip of the blade in the river. Having lowered the weapon into the river, they saw whether it could cut a hair. If this happened, then the sword was considered reliable and deadly.

The Vikings wore helmets with horns, many believe so. But perhaps this happened because they were considered minions of the devil and they wore horns to intimidate. Or it came from the Norse god Thor, who had wings on his helmet that could be mistaken for horns in battle.

There is also a theory according to which the homeland of the Vikings was Russia. The Vikings were mercenaries in the ancient Russian principalities and the ancestors of the Cossacks. Their God One is the supreme God of West German mythology. He is considered the god of war and the patron saint of heroes. It originates in the territory of the Russian steppes, present Rostov region, and only then takes his people to Norway.

There is a legend that when Odin decides to look at the human world and opens the door to Asgard, a rainbow appears in the sky. Maybe that's why there are rainbows so often in Norway.

Vikings are the special forces of the ancient world.

In France they were called Normans, in Rus' - Varangians. Vikings were the name given to people who lived in what is now Norway, Denmark and Sweden from about 800 to 1100 AD. Wars and feasts are the two favorite pastimes of the Vikings. Swift sea robbers on ships that bore sonorous names, for example, “Bull of the Ocean”, “Raven of the Wind”, raided the coasts of England, Germany, Northern France, Belgium - and took tribute from the conquered.

Their desperate berserker warriors fought like mad, even without armor. Before the battle, the berserkers gnashed their teeth and bit the edges of their shields. The cruel gods of the Vikings - the Aesir - were pleased with the warriors who died in battle.

But it was these ruthless warriors who discovered the islands of Iceland (in the ancient language - “ice land”) and Greenland (“green land”: then the climate there was warmer than now!). And the Viking leader Leif the Happy in the year 1000, sailing from Greenland, landed in North America, on the island of Newfoundland. The Vikings called the open land Vinland - “rich”. Due to clashes with the Indians and among themselves, the Vikings soon left and forgot America, and lost contact with Greenland.

And their songs about heroes and travelers - sagas and the Icelandic parliament, the Althing - the first people's assembly in Europe, have survived to this day.

The beginning of the Viking Age is considered to be 793. This year there was a famous attack by the Normans on a monastery located on the island of Lindisfarne (north-east of Great Britain). It was then that England, and soon the whole of Europe, learned about the terrible “northern people” and their dragon-headed ships. In 794 they “visited” the nearby island of Wearmus (there was also a monastery there), and in 802-806 they reached the Isles of Man and Iona (west coast of Scotland)

Twenty years later the Normans collected large army for a campaign against England and France. In 825 the Vikings landed in England, and in 836 London was sacked for the first time. In 845, the Danes captured Hamburg, and the city was so devastated that the episcopate located in Hamburg had to be moved to Bremen. In 851, 350 ships again appeared off the coast of England, this time London and Canterbury were captured (and of course plundered).

In 866, a storm carried several ships to the shores of Scotland, where the Normans had to spend the winter. The following year, 867, the new state of Danelaw was formed. It included Northumbria, East Anglia, part of Essex and Mercia. Danlo existed until 878. At the same time, a large fleet attacked England again, London was captured again, and then the Normans moved on to France. In 885, Rouen was captured, and Paris was under siege (in 845, 857 and 861, Paris was already sacked). Having received the ransom, the Vikings lifted the siege and retreated to the northwestern part of France, which in 911 was transferred to the Norwegian Rollon. The region was named Normandy.

At the beginning of the 10th century, the Danes again tried to capture England, which they succeeded only in 1016. The Anglo-Saxons managed to overthrow their power only forty years later, in 1050. But they did not have time to enjoy freedom. In 1066, a huge fleet under the command of William the Conqueror, a native of Normandy, attacked England. After the Battle of Hastings, the Normans reigned in England.

Map of Viking raids on England

In 861, the Scandinavians learned about Iceland from the Swede Gardar Svafarsson. Soon after, in 872, the unification of Norway by Harald Fairhair began, and many Norwegians fled to Iceland. According to some estimates, between 20,000 and 30,000 Norwegians moved to Iceland before 930. Later they began to call themselves Icelanders, thus distinguishing themselves from the Norwegians and other Scandinavian peoples.

In 983, a man named Eirik Raud (Red) was exiled from Iceland for three years for murder. He went in search of a country rumored to have been seen to the west of Iceland. He managed to find this country, which he named Greenland (“Green Country”), which sounds rather strange in relation to this snowy and cold island. In Greenland, Eirik founded the settlement of Brattalid.

In 986, a certain Bjarni Bardsson sailed from Iceland, intending to get to Greenland. He stumbled upon unknown land three times until he reached the southern coast of Greenland. Having learned about this, Leif Eiriksson, son of Eirik Raud, repeated Bjarni's journey, reaching the Labrador Peninsula. Then he turned south and, walking along the coast, found an area he called “Vinland” (“Grape Country”). Presumably this happened in the year 1000. According to the results of work carried out by scientists, Leif Eiriksson's Vinland was located in the area of ​​​​modern Boston.

After Leif's return, Thorvald Eiriksson, his brother, went to Vinland. He lived there for two years, but in one of the skirmishes with local Indians he was mortally wounded, and his comrades had to return to their homeland.

Leif's second brother, Thorstein Eiriksson, also tried to reach Vinland, but he was unable to find this land.
There were only about 300 estates in Greenland. The lack of forest created great difficulties for life. The forest grew in Labrador, which was closer than in Iceland, but everything needed had to be brought from Europe, due to the very difficult conditions of navigation to Labrador. Settlements existed in Greenland until the 14th century.

Travel map of Eirik the Red and Leif Eiriksson

Viking History

VIKINGS - (Normans), sea robbers, immigrants from Scandinavia, who committed in the 9th-11th centuries. hikes up to 8,000 km long, perhaps even longer distances. These daring and fearless people reached the borders of Persia in the east, and the New World in the west.
The word “Viking” goes back to the Old Norse “vikingr”. There are a number of hypotheses regarding its origin, the most convincing of which traces it to “vik” - fiord, bay. The word “Viking” (lit. “man from the fjord”) was used to refer to bandits who operated in coastal waters, hiding in secluded bays and bays. They were known in Scandinavia long before they became infamous in Europe. The French called the Vikings Normans or various variations of this word (Norsmanns, Northmanns - literally “people from the north”); The British indiscriminately called all Scandinavians Danes, and the Slavs, Greeks, Khazars, and Arabs called the Swedish Vikings Rus or Varangians.

Wherever the Vikings went - to the British Isles, France, Spain, Italy or North Africa - they mercilessly plundered and captured foreign lands. In some cases, they settled in conquered countries and became their rulers. Danish Vikings conquered England for some time and settled in Scotland and Ireland. With common effort they conquered a part of France known as Normandy. The Norwegian Vikings and their descendants created colonies on the North Atlantic islands of Iceland and Greenland and founded a settlement on the coast of Newfoundland in North America, which, however, did not last long. Swedish Vikings began to rule in the eastern Baltic. They spread widely throughout Rus' and, going down the rivers to the Black and Caspian Seas, even threatened Constantinople and some regions of Persia. The Vikings were the last Germanic barbarian conquerors and the first European pioneer seafarers.

Exist different interpretations reasons for the violent outbreak of Viking activity in the 9th century. There is evidence that Scandinavia was overpopulated and many Scandinavians went abroad to seek their fortune. The rich but undefended cities and monasteries of their southern and western neighbors were easy prey. It was unlikely that there would be any resistance from the scattered kingdoms of the British Isles or the weakened empire of Charlemagne, consumed by dynastic strife. During the Viking Age, national monarchies gradually consolidated in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Ambitious leaders and powerful clans fought for power. Defeated leaders and their supporters, as well as the younger sons of victorious leaders, unabashedly embraced unfettered plunder as a way of life. Energetic young men from influential families usually gained prestige through participation in one or more campaigns. Many Scandinavians engaged in robbery in the summer and then turned into ordinary landowners. However, the Vikings were not only attracted by the lure of prey. The prospect of establishing trade opened the way to wealth and power. In particular, immigrants from Sweden controlled trade routes in Rus'.

The English term “Viking” comes from the Old Norse word vkingr, which could have several meanings. The most acceptable, apparently, origin is from the word vk - bay, or bay. Therefore, the word vkingr translates as “man from the bay.” The term was used to describe the marauders who took refuge in coastal waters long before the Vikings became notorious in the outside world. However, not all Scandinavians were sea robbers, and the terms “Viking” and “Scandinavian” cannot be considered synonymous. The French usually called the Vikings Normans, and the British indiscriminately classified all Scandinavians as Danes. The Slavs, Khazars, Arabs and Greeks who communicated with the Swedish Vikings called them Rus or Varangians.

Definitions

VIKINGS (Old Scandinavians), Scandinavians - participants in maritime trade, predatory and conquest campaigns at the end of the 8th - mid-11th centuries. to European countries. In Rus' they were called Varangians, and in Western Europe - Normans (Scand. Northman - “northern man”). In the 9th century captured Northeast England in the 10th century. - Northern France (Normandy). Reached North America.
Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius

About three centuries from 800 to 1050 AD. e. Viking warriors sailed their ships, terrorizing Europe. They sailed from Scandinavia in search of silver, slaves and lands. The Vikings mainly attacked Britain and France while they were invading Russia. The Vikings explored many unknown lands while sailing the vast Atlantic Ocean.

"The influence of the Vikings on the formation of the Anglo-Saxon state."

Early medieval Europe lived in fear of the invasion of warlike northern barbarians. Everywhere they were called differently: in France - Normans, in England - Danes, in Ireland - Finngall and Dubgall, in Germany - Askemann, in Byzantium - Varangs, in Rus' - Varangians, in Scandinavia they were called Vikings, so that period which researchers prefer to neutrally call the early Middle Ages, is also called the Viking Age

Despite the fact that the British called the Vikings Danes, among those attacking English lands there were not only them, but also Vikings from other areas of Scandinavia. An example is the famous Olaf Tryggvasson (or, in English transcription, Trygvasson - Great-grandson of the Norwegian king Harald Fairhair. For simplicity, I think we can combine both of them under the general and generally accepted term Normans.

The Norman raids, initially predatory, took on a completely different character from the 60s of the 9th century. Their main goal is to seize territories. It is difficult to unambiguously identify the reason for such a powerful aggressive and colonization movement of the northerners. Some (J. Brønsted, for example), following the idea put forward by J. Steenstrup a hundred years ago, believe that this was a consequence of overpopulation due to polygamy, others - that most likely this happened due to the beginning of the desire of individual Scandinavian kings to unite under with its power the scattered possessions of independent leaders. Some obeyed them and became their jarls, some fought stubbornly, and some rushed overseas in search of a new homeland. And the restless sea wanderers reared all of Europe. From the 830s, and especially from 840, the coastal regions of France began to be periodically subjected to invasions by the Normans.
Since the mid-50s, their aggression has been growing, and they are moving more and more decisively into the interior of the country.

The hearts of Christians were filled with horror when northern barbarians broke into churches and killed bishops, blood poured directly onto the altar - it was greatest desecration, which shocked those around him. Such sudden and unprecedented misfortunes were incomprehensible to the mind, but the wisdom of the church hierarchs knew no bounds - the answer was found: the Lord was angry and decided to punish his people, you just need to wait until heaven changes anger to mercy and that’s it! But the Normans did not leave...

During my work, I came across only one very detailed periodization of the Viking invasions. Soviet researcher of the Viking Age G.S. Lebedev gives his chronology of the spread of northern aggression:

Stage 1 - 793-833. G. S. Lebedev begins the Viking era with the sack of Lindisfarne. Most large enterprise This period he considers the raid of King Godfrey on Friesland in 810.

Stage 2 - 834-863. During this period, G. S. Lebedev notes changes in Viking tactics: Strandhugg appears - the seizure of livestock and other food in the war zone, as well as the construction of intermediate bases on the coastal islands. The number of armies during this period was especially high and reached 77 thousand people, as if the entire combat-ready population rushed to rob their neighbors. Fleet formations range between 100-150 ships, which is somewhere between 6-10 thousand warriors. The most famous figure of this period is the famous Ragnar Lothbrok and his sons.

Stage 3 - 864-891. During this period, the Vikings made a large-scale attempt to conquer England, and the Danish Law Region was formed.

Stage 4 - 891-920. This time, according to G.S. Lebedev, was characterized by a high wave of emigration: Iceland was discovered in 877. In addition, the 890s are the time of activity of Hrolf the Pedestrian, whom historians associate with Rollo, who received the Duchy of Normandy as a fief in 911.

Stage 5 - 920-950. During these years, a fierce struggle for Northumbria flared up in England between the Danes who had settled there and the heirs of the Wessex king Alfred.

Stage 6 - 950-980. With this thirtieth anniversary, G.S. Lebedev begins the era of Viking kings.

Stage 7 - 980-1014. Kings Sven Forkbeard and Olaf Tryggvason are again waging a large-scale campaign to conquer England. In 1000, in the “Battle of the Three Kings” in the waters of the Sound, Olaf heroically fell in battle, and Sven won the English throne at the end of 1013, although he died on February 2, 1014. During the same period in 982, Eric the Red discovered Greenland, from 985 to In 995, the expeditions of Bjarni Herjulfson, Leif Erikson and Frigdis, the daughter of Erik the Red, took place to the shores of North America.

Stage 8 - 1014-1043. These are the years of the reign of the Danish dynasty in England: Cnut the Great and his sons Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut.

Stage 9 - 1043-1066. The final stage in the chronology of G. S. Lebedev. In 1041, Magnus Olafson united Denmark and Norway under his rule, and on September 25, 1066, the last Viking king, Harald Hardrada, died in England at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.

The Viking Age began and ended, according to Lebedev, on English soil. Not a single researcher writing about these tragic times denies himself the pleasure of quoting or at least mentioning the entry in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which captured the appearance of the Normans off the English coast in the minds of the Anglo-Saxons as a terrible event, accompanied by mysterious and terrifying signs: “793. This year terrible phenomena took place in Northumbria and greatly frightened the inhabitants: there were unimaginable flashes of lightning and terrible dragons soared in the sky, and soon a severe famine began, and after that in the same year the pagans devastated and destroyed God's church in Lindisfarne."

And another text paints a slightly different picture, but also accompanied by a terrible event: "787. In this year King Beothric married Idburg, the daughter of Offa. And in these same days three ships first appeared: and Reeve rode there and tried to force them to go to the king's manor, because he did not know who they were, and they killed him. These were the first ships of the Danes to come to England." Both passages are imbued with horror of a new enemy, who was to have a great influence on the development of the Anglo-Saxon state.

Khuskarly

We can more or less confidently assume that during the reign of Cnut in England, warriors acted as the king’s guard throughout the kingdom, whose organization still remains a mystery to historians, but who arouse great interest and are covered in legends - the housecarls.

"1018. This year all England paid that tribute. The total was 72,000 pounds, in addition to which the people of London paid 10,500 pounds. And then part of the army went to Denmark, and forty ships remained with King Canute, and the Danes and the English came to an agreement in Oxford by Edgar's Laws" (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).

It is believed that the crews of these remaining ships formed the basis of the royal guard, which was the object of very close attention and study.

The housecarls were the king's servants and played a key role in battles, being the core of the army. The general view that scholars have reached regarding the housecarls, and which has only recently been questioned again, is that they were professional warriors whose organization was created within the royal environment during the reign of the Danes.

They were paid regular salaries. Thus, the housecarls formed a kind of military elite.
English historians viewed the Housecarl Guard as something like military vigilantes, and considered them a purely English formation.

Norwegian historians trace the origins of this institution to the famous Viking brotherhood in Jomburg (10th century).
Others, on the contrary, claim that this organization was borrowed from Norway and housecarls existed there 100 years before the pirate brotherhood in Jomburg:
huscarl is a Norwegian word, and one of the oldest in the language. In the Eddas it sometimes means a servant, and sometimes a follower, an ally.
But when we discover the courtly poetry of the first half of the 11th century, the latter meaning predominates.
This means that housecarl is a general designation for a member of the royal entourage.

Despite the fact that the sagas give different dates for the founding of the guard: Jomsviking Saga and St. Saga. Olaf - until the death of Sven Forkbeard; Knutlingasaga - immediately after his death, first in Denmark and then in England; and finally, the medieval Danish historians Sven Aggeson and Saxo Grammaticus attribute the organization to Cnut, which is accepted by all historians.

According to Sven Aggeson, anyone who had a double-edged sword with a hilt set in gold could become a guardsman, “and the rich warriors were in such a hurry to get the appropriate swords that the ringing from the forges forging swords was heard throughout the land.” The selection was most likely made in 1018, when Cnut, after the conquest of England, sent most of the army back to Denmark.

In any case, in 1023 the guard already existed. Sven Aggeson describes the laws by which Knut's military squad was governed. Housecarls were placed at the king's tables according to fame for military exploits, excellence in service, or nobility of birth. Moving to a lower place meant disfavour.

In addition to daily maintenance and entertainment, housecarls received a monthly salary. To pay, tribute was collected from all over the country for the maintenance of the army, the so-called. "army money"

It is possible that the housecarls collected this tax themselves. An example would be when they sacked the city of Worcester during the reign of Cnut's son Harthacnut. The bonds of service were not permanent, but could only be broken on New Year's Day. All quarrels had to be resolved by an oath of two housecarls in a kind of council of the guard, where the king was also supposed to be present. Those who were found guilty of minor offenses (for example, not taking good care of a comrade's horse) were moved to lower places at the royal table. If anyone was accused of such offenses three times, he was to be given the very last and lowest place at the table, where no one was to communicate with him under any pretext, and the feasters could throw dice at him with impunity. If disagreements arose over land and mining, the oaths of six housecarls, chosen from the detachment to which the disputants belonged, were required, but the power to resolve the dispute belonged to the council. Whoever kills his comrade may lose his head or end up in exile: “he must be expelled from the royal possessions and declared an outlaw; and must be expelled from all the lands over which Cnut rules,” Sven Aggeson tells us. Betrayal was punishable by death and confiscation of all property of the traitor. If the king celebrated someone, he received a magnificent blade with a golden handle for free. In general, it seems that it was a tradition for Scandinavian kings to give a sword to someone who entered their service.

It is believed that there were about 3 thousand people in the guard. Apparently, if Knut stocked up on a golden handle for each housecarl, then no treasury would be enough. Therefore, it is most likely that housecarls were mainly recruited from noble and wealthy families.
On the New Year, namely on the seventh day of the Christmas holidays, the guards had the right to leave service and receive their salary. On the same day, the most worthy were presented with gifts; Reshuffles were made in the guard.

This custom also comes from Norway and dates back to the time of St. Olaf. Norwegian kings usually only New Year they held a feast where they ate and drank with their guards.

There is an assumption that the housecarls in some cases could serve as the king's council.
In addition, it is likely that during the time of Cnut the housecarls became a new stratum of the English nobility. In addition to regular payments, they seem to have been allocated land. By receiving land, housecarls “actually ceased to be mercenaries, becoming landowners holding land on the terms of military service.”

As a military organization, little is known about the guild. Saxo Grammar writes that in the summer the housecarls were abroad, guarding the kingdom; in winter - they were quartered throughout England. He also says that the housecarl could have had his own home.
From the history of Sven Aggeson it follows that the guard was divided into four formations, and they in turn were divided into smaller units. But regarding this question modern sources remain silent.

And finally, historians who adhere to this (so-called traditional) point of view on the Housecarl Guard express different points of view regarding its death. Some believe that the last housecarls were disbanded in 1051. Others agree in principle, but believe that the Housecarls were restored by Harold, the last king of Anglo-Saxon England. And everyone else who turned to this plot is convinced that the guard existed until 1066, when William the Illegitimate led the last victorious invasion of England in history.

The housecarls were the only ones in Harold's army who did not retreat after the king himself was killed. The entire guard died in this battle and was never restored.
The time of the Vikings is over.

"Round Viking forts in Denmark."
Trelleborg.

The round concentric forts of Denmark are probably the most impressive and unusual phenomenon Viking Age.
The first fort found was Trelleborg - it was excavated by archaeologists about 60 years ago. It is located on a cape between two rivers and in order to create the foundation for such a strictly geometric fort, it was necessary to move great amount land.

Trelleborg consists of a circular main fort and outer fortifications. The main fort is 134 meters in diameter, surrounded by a rampart around the circumference, has four entrances connected by paths and dividing the internal territory into four equal parts.
Each quarter contains a block of four longhouses arranged around a courtyard.

In the outer fortifications, also surrounded by a rampart, there were 15 more buildings built in parallel, and a cemetery.
Trelleborg's longhouses (there were about 30 of them) were almost 30 meters long and were all made of wood. Much wood was also used to strengthen the fortifications of the main inner fort, which was surrounded by wooden palisades both outside and inside.
Trelleborg was built around 980, during the reign of Harald Bluetooth, who is also considered the builder of other major structures of the Viking Age.

The size of the fort and its strict geometric plan, in which nothing seems to have been left unattended, indicate that Denmark already had a strong royal power at that time, which could mobilize significant resources for such construction.
The military functions of Trelleborg, like other similar forts, most likely combined with administrative and commercial ones to form a stronghold of royal power throughout the country.

This is confirmed by finds in the burials of Trelleborg. These are mainly the graves of young men, but sometimes there are burials of women and children, which suggests that families lived in the fort.

Situated on a small cape jutting out into a wide river valley, Fort Fyrkat is almost identical to Fort Trelleborg. Both were built according to the same strict geometric plan - a round shaft with four gates, connected by laid paths so that they divide the internal area into four equal parts. On the territory of each quarter there was a block of four buildings that made up a square with a courtyard.

Reconstruction of the internal structure of the fort.

Fyrkat differs from Trelleborg only in size - Fyrkat is somewhat smaller and has no external fortifications.
Both forts were built at about the same time - around 980. Burials related to Furkat indicate that it was inhabited by men, women and children.
Only one of the four buildings in each quarter was later used as a residence.

Archaeological finds indicate that other buildings were used as forges, storerooms, stables, and workshops for gold and silversmiths.

Near Fyrkat in Vorbasse, the remains of a thriving Viking Age farm have been found.

"Restoration" of ships

Naturally, the ancient ships that sailed a thousand years ago were not preserved “alive” in Scandinavia. The legends mention many ships, each with its own name and special properties; there is some information about the master shipbuilders and how the Vikings treated their ships. Alas, the stories are terse, as they always are when we are talking about something unremarkable, something that people see before their eyes every day. Those who told and then wrote down tales about ancient and recent events did not think at all about how they would be read in a thousand years by people belonging to a completely different type of culture, people who would find everything that was a wonder to the ancient Viking. it goes without saying.

The scientists, of course, were not going to give up. In addition to legends, they had other sources of information, in particular rock paintings, of which the Scandinavians were great masters since primitive times. Drawings dating back not only to the Viking Age, but also to the Bronze and even Stone Ages, contain many images of boats and ships. Scientists accumulated various information, gradually piecing it together, like pieces of a broken mosaic, into something like a whole picture. It happened, however, that the most comprehensive answer to many questions came from... GRAVE BURNS.

But why, one might ask, did the ancient Scandinavians bury a ship in the ground? The Vikings believed that, once in the Abode of the Gods, the soul of a heroic warrior would indulge in the joys of war, but the myths did not mention afterlife voyages on ships. The heavenly squad of the Father of the Gods was imagined more like a detachment of horsemen, hurrying to the battlefield. Moreover, burial in a boat was recorded among peoples for whom navigation did not have the same comprehensive meaning as for the Scandinavians - for example, among the Slavs. And the ancient Celts carried the deceased to the burial place on dry land in a boat. Although they were not such born sailors as the Scandinavians. What's the matter? Comparing the grave goods - the property that was placed in the grave with the deceased - from a variety of tribes, scientists came to the conclusion: this equipment is not so much characteristic of a merchant warrior, craftsman, hunter, or whatever else the deceased was during his lifetime, but rather of a TRAVELER. According to ancient people, it was possible to get to the other world without any magical tricks, you just had to make a long enough journey. The Scandinavians, when burying the deceased, with certain rituals, put special funeral shoes on him and tried to tie them tightly so that they would not fall off during the long journey. And what is characteristic: almost every religion mentions a WATER OBSTACLE, which a person traveling to another world must overcome. For Scandinavian mythology, this is a furious mountain stream carrying stones and pieces of ice or a bottomlessly deep sea strait - that is, something inherent specifically in Scandinavian nature. That is why it was highly desirable for the deceased to have a reliable “watercraft” with him on the afterlife journey. Initially, a small boat was used for this purpose, when they began to build and actively use large ships, it is quite natural that they were considered suitable for the afterlife journey of a noble person.

This is how the warships of the Viking leaders sometimes ended up inside the mounds, under a layer of dense blue clay that did not allow atmospheric oxygen to reach the wooden structures. Which helped preserve them for science.

Anyone who wants to learn more about these ships, as well as others not described here, is recommended to consult the book “Viking Ships” by Jochen von Firks, published in Rostock in 1979 and translated in St. Petersburg in 1982.

ship tree

Having studied the vessels from Gokstad and Oseberg in every detail, experts at one time believed that OAK was the favorite material of shipbuilders. The statement wandered from book to book that ash, beech, birch, pine, spruce, linden, willow and even alder were also used, but only insofar as... This opinion persisted until they began to build copies of ancient ships. It was then that it became clear that the Gokstad and Oseberg ships were not “serious” sea vessels - rather, both of them served as something like royal yachts on which the king or, in the case of the Oseberg boat, the dowager ruler took walks. It is also possible that both ships were lined up for a ceremonial burial. One way or another, in a real sea voyage, both ships would have had a bad time. Although the sizes and contours of both are maintained in the best traditions of their time.

Experienced sailors who were given the opportunity to try out the recreated Viking ships were shocked by the flexibility and elasticity of the hull on the waves, especially in a storm. The ship literally “flowed” from crest to crest, while its sides “breathed” under the pressure of the waves so that at first the crew’s hair stood on end: they were about to crack! Only later did the sailors realize that this was not a disadvantage, but an advantage... And scientists again turned to the ancient chronicles that told about ship affairs, and found there a mention of the elasticity of the hull. It turns out that the Vikings knew very well that this was how ships of this type should have been built. There was also an explanation that they gave for the phenomenon that frightened modern sailors: the ship, they say, bends along the waves, like a fish or a seal, and therefore moves faster. This explanation is not at all as naive as it seems at first glance. People understood. that it is better to resist the pressure of forces not by blunt mechanical strength, but by elasticity and flexibility, by redistributing the resulting loads... In the course of further tests, it turned out that the requirements that the sea places on ship sides are better met not by oak, but by ash. The oak is too cruel; During sea trials, in conditions of a fierce storm, it also happened that oak parts broke, but ash parts survived. Then they again turned to the ancient annals and found out that the inhabitants of the European coasts, frightened by the attacks of the Vikings, often called the formidable newcomers “askemanni” - “ash people”, because “ask” translated from the ancient North means “ash tree”. “Askami,” according to the same annals, was sometimes called the Viking ships themselves. Here you can return to the section on the Creation of the World and remember that the World Tree, which connected the Nine Worlds, was an ash tree, the first man was also carved by the Aesir Gods from an ash tree, and his name was Ask. And in songs and sagas the courageous warrior was called the “ash tree of battle”... And it is no longer possible to know what came from what: the tree from mythology or vice versa...

The shipwrights of the Viking times were not only well versed in what type of wood to make this or that part of the vessel from, but also how in the best possible way use that particular tree or part of it. For example, they knew that for the most important parts it was better to take wood from that part of the trunk that during the life of the tree was facing north: it received less sun and heat, and, therefore, the wood here was more fine-grained and dense. In addition, a tree that has grown in a dense area, and therefore has been stretching upward towards the light all its life, has no lower branches, the wood fibers in it are even, therefore, such a trunk can make an excellent log for a keel or several long, even boards. A tree that grew in an open place, having a dense crown and powerful lower branches, could be cut into boards for the bow or stern (the boards in these places should have a natural curvature), or into beams, again with a natural bend, for frames, stems and other parts that are supposed to combine elastic flexibility with considerable strength. There were specific requirements for oars, for deck planks, for masts, for blocks, rollers and many other ship parts and accessories. Selected wood was used everywhere, and what was not suitable for one thing was used for another...
How much wood did it take in total to build one ship? Experts have calculated: for construction warship twenty to twenty-five meters long, it was necessary to cut down at least eleven meter-thick trees with a trunk length of about five meters and another fifteen to eighteen-meter thick one - to the keel. This gave fifty to fifty-eight cubic meters of wood of the required quality.

It would, however, be a great mistake to assume that the choice of wood was determined solely by its “consumer” characteristics. When cutting down a tree, especially a “noble” tree covered in legends, the ancient man understood perfectly well that he was killing a living creature that had the same rights to life as himself. Before using the ax, he blamed the tree for a long time, explaining to it what urgent need brought him to the forest. When it came to cutting, a treat was placed on the side - for example, a piece of bread and butter - so that the tree soul, tempted by the delicacy, would temporarily leave the trunk and not experience unnecessary torment. Subsequently, having committed MURDICIDE, a person subjected himself to cleansing rites similar to those that accompanied the murder of an enemy.

In addition, the tree should not have fallen with its top to the north, in which case it was not taken. The fact is that the north was considered the center of evil forces, the sun “died” there, there was a home of cold, death and darkness. Even the Scandinavians were suspicious of the east. Viewed from Norway, there were inhospitable mountains with glaciers, landslides and rockfalls. It's no coincidence that the Norwegian equivalent of "go to hell" was "to the north and the mountains!" In a word, before taking a tree with its top to the north or east to build a ship, the ancient Scandinavian would have thought three times. After all, he was going to trust the ship with his life, which means he had to put into it only the best and brightest, kind to the Gods and obedient to man!

Cutting into boards

Having finally cut down the tree, they cut it up immediately, without leaving it to age. Modern shipwrights prefer seasoned wood, but the ancient craftsmen knew what they were doing. According to experts, they were guided by two considerations: firstly, raw wood is easier to process, and secondly, when aged it dries out and can crack. Rot, as researchers write, did not threaten the ship's planks at all: the Vikings built open-type ships with a well-ventilated hold.
In modern industry, logs are cut into boards with special saws. The Vikings did it differently: they split the prepared log lengthwise into two halves using wedges. Then - again and again in half. As experiments have shown, approximately twenty identical boards up to thirty centimeters wide came out of a trunk about a meter across. Primitive technology? The Vikings didn't know the saw? They knew it very well. And a saw and a hacksaw.

Simply, as scientists write, modern technology woodworking is focused on quantity, but in ancient times quality was the cornerstone. Especially in such a vitally important matter as the construction of a ship. The boards obtained from logs split by wedges had whole line advantages over sawn ones. They are stronger, less susceptible to drying out, and do not warp or crack as much. Of course, because the wedge acts along the fibers, in a way that is “more convenient” for the log being split, and the saw cuts and tears at random. In addition, the chipped boards on one side turned out to be somewhat thicker. It is easy to see that when joining the side boards cross-cut (a favorite technique of the Vikings), this, at first glance, disadvantage turned into an advantage. The thicker part made it possible to make a cutout in it for the tightest fit of the adjacent board.

Tools

Woodworking tools used by the Vikings to build ships have also become known to scientists for the most part after excavating ancient graves. Experts are unanimous that the choice of these instruments is very wide and in in capable hands sufficient for all necessary operations. The study of the found sets, a careful examination of the surviving images, as well as traces left by various tools on wooden parts, allowed us to conclude that the most important tool was, undoubtedly, the AXE. The ancient masters wielded it truly masterfully. "Incredible!" - the researchers exclaim, noting that even the final finishing of the side and deck boards was sometimes done with an axe, although there were also more seemingly suitable devices: adze and scraper.

Several types of axes were used, depending on the type of work. In one ancient image, four types of axes were found at once. Some felled trees, others cut off branches, others smoothed the boards, and the fourth carried out final processing after fitting the boards to the body. This predilection for the ax is by no means accidental and is not distinctive feature namely the Vikings, based, they say, on the fact that while acting with their “favorite weapon” - an ax - in battles, they preferred it in peaceful construction... The fact is that the saw is shaggy and loosens the wood fibers, while the ax is the opposite , smoothes and flattens. A wooden part, hewn with an ax, absorbs moisture much less than a sawn one, which means it rots less and lasts much longer... To drill holes, something like a ROLLER was used: a sharpened iron “spoon” on a wooden handle with a cross so that it could be rotated. In use were also KNIVES of various shapes and sizes, CHISLES and CHISLES, including semicircular and shaped ones, a wide variety of CUTTERS, as well as HAMMERS and wooden KLATTERS.

Shipwrighting skills

Did the Vikings use blueprints? No diagrams or drawings have yet been found, but it would be wrong to state in advance that they were not made at all. What if something similar is being excavated literally at this time on the Scandinavian Peninsula or in Iceland? Let us accept for now that science has not yet found the answer. Shipbuilding experts only speculate that the Vikings may have used some kind of level to measure the angle of the planks, as well as templates to determine the best contours.

But what is known for sure is that there were craftsmen of the highest qualifications who were even capable of building an extremely stable and high-speed ship “by eye.” Such a master was accompanied by a whole team various specialists: woodworkers, board makers, figure carvers and blacksmiths, as well as a number of auxiliary workers. Every self-respecting Scandinavian could build a boat or small vessel for coastal fishing alone, or, at worst, with an assistant. But when a wealthy person needed a large and high-quality combat or merchant ship, they invited a good craftsman.

The Vikings spent their entire lives on ships and, naturally, were very good at them. Everyone considered himself a great expert in shipbuilding, so conflicts between the master and the customer, between different craftsmen inevitably arose. Everyone decidedly “knew what was best” and insisted on their own. Sometimes remarkable courage was required from the master, especially if the ship was built for a high-ranking person and, moreover, tough and quick to kill. However, history shows that such masters had enough courage. For example, ancient legend about how, at the very end of the 10th century, his famous ship, later called the “Great Serpent”, was built for King Olav Tryggvi’s son:
"...The builder of the ship was called Torberg Strohala. But many others helped him - some pulled together boards, some hewed, some hammered nails, some brought in timber. Everything in the ship was done very carefully. The ship was long and wide, with a high side and large forest. When they were already making the side of the ship, Thorberg needed to go home for some reason, and he stayed there for a long time. And when he returned, the side of the ship was already ready. That same evening, the king and Thorberg with him went to see how it turned out ship. Everyone said that they had never seen such a large and beautiful ship. Then the king returned to the city. Early in the morning the next day, the king went to the ship again, and Thorberg with him. And the craftsmen had all come earlier, but did not begin to work. The king asked why they didn't start. They answered that the ship was spoiled: someone walked from bow to stern, cutting the side with oblique blows. The king came up and saw that it was true. Then he swore that whoever, out of envy, spoiled the ship so much, would pay with death if he finds it. And whoever names this person to me will receive a large reward from me. Then Torberg says:
- I can tell you, king, who did it.
“From no other person,” says the king, “I could not expect that he knows this and can tell me.”
“I’ll tell you, king,” says Thorberg, “who did it.” I did it.

The king answers:
“Then you must make sure everything is the same as before.” Your life depends on it.

And so Torberg came up and trimmed the side so that all the oblique scars disappeared. The king and all the others began to say that the ship was much more beautiful from the side planed by Thorberg. And the king ordered him to do the same with the other side and said that he was very grateful to him..."
Let us pay attention to one phrase in the passage just given. The board, which was given a better shape from the point of view of navigation, became, according to experts, MUCH MORE BEAUTIFUL. What an eye, what experience and instinct one must have to determine the quality of a vessel by the nobility of its lines!

The ancient masters considered it a special “chic” to build a ship in such a way that, while rowing, it could carry shields on its sides. A ship with shields along the side became a “calling card” of the Viking Age, and for good reason. But not everyone knows that the shields were not “nailed to the sides according to custom,” but were held in place by a special strip on the outer (or inner) side of the side. The oars were not inserted into the oarlocks, but passed through special holes - “rowing hatches”. For battle, ships usually converged on oars; if at the same time it was possible to keep shields on board (that is, if the ship was built in such a way that the shields did not block the holes for the oars and did not interfere with rowing), they served until the very moment of hand-to-hand combat additional protection rowers

Side handlebar

Quite a few remakes of Viking ships have been built to date. The very first voyage on a recreated copy of the Gokstad ship took place in 1893. Since then, similar ships have sailed along all the known historical routes of the ancient Scandinavians: around Europe, along Russian rivers, and to America across the Atlantic Ocean. And even further: enthusiasts sailed around the world. And in Denmark, every summer a “Viking festival” is held, the program of which certainly includes a “Viking regatta” - races on rebuilt ancient ships that gather for the holiday from all over Scandinavia. In a word, considerable experience has been accumulated. And what is typical is that modern “Vikings” always speak in superlatives about the maritime qualities of their ships. Moreover, the ship behaves better the closer the replica is built to the ancient model, the more accurately they try to observe every little detail.

One of these “little things” turned out to be the SIDE STEERING ROW. Looking at the pictures and drawings, it is easy to see that the rudder of the Viking ships was not located along the center line of the stern, as we are used to, but on the side, on a special mount. And trial modern voyages prove that even with fierce winds and the strongest waves, the ship was easily controlled by ONLY ONE PERSON using this side rudder! However, despite all the physical ease of steering a ship, this is a very responsible task, requires a lot of attention and concentration and is therefore very tiring. And, taking into account that, unlike the oarsmen, the helmsman could not even warm up by rowing on a cold and damp night, they tried to make his life easier by at least setting up a special seat at the stern. It was located above the usual benches, so that the heads of the comrades did not obscure the helmsman's view.

Mast

The Viking ship did not look particularly "slender". Thus, the Gokstad ship, with a hull length of more than twenty-three meters, had a mast height, according to scientists, no more than twelve meters; as will be shown below, the considerable area of ​​the sail was achieved mainly due to the width. But how many people now know that the masts on Viking ships were made... REMOVABLE

The Normans often used ships for burials. According to their beliefs, one could get from the World of the Living to the World of the Dead after a long journey, as well as by overcoming a water barrier (you only had to walk along a straight road for a long time and you would undoubtedly end up in THAT world). It was for this reason that the Scandinavians buried their dead, especially noble people, in ships prepared for long journeys. And that's why many of the Viking ships known today were found in burial mounds.

In January 1880, in order to keep themselves busy and get rid of boredom (and also having heard a lot about treasures found in Viking burials), the sons of the tenant of a small estate in Gokstad (Norway) began to excavate a hill that bore the proud name “Royal”. In May, excavations continued, but under the leadership of the Oslo museum archivist Nikolajsen. This is how the Gokstad ship appeared before human eyes.

The ship from Gokstad served as the grave (according to the assumptions of scientists and the Yngling Saga) of King Olaf. It was fully equipped for sailing with oars, sail, anchor and provisions. On each side there were 16 round shields about 1 m in diameter, painted black and yellow. The tomb was plundered, but, nevertheless, many interesting things were found. For example, quite unexpectedly, the remains of a peacock were discovered in the stern area.

After restoration, the ship was exhibited at the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo.

Main dimensions of the vessel:

Maximum length - 23.3 m
Maximum width - 5.2 m
Maximum height - 2.1 m

The ship from Gokstad is often called the most beautiful of all Viking ships found. It has been reproduced many times in replica ships, from "Vikingr" (1892) to "Mother Earth" ("Gaia" 1998). Some of them you can find in Replicas.

This ship was found in 1903 in Norway by Professor G. Gustavson. On November 5, 1904, the excavations were completed, but the adventures of the ship were just beginning. According to Norwegian law, the ship belonged to the owner of the land where it was found. The owner of the Useberg estate set a price, but it turned out to be too high for the museum. Meanwhile, rumors began to spread about the possible sale of the vessel abroad. To prevent this, the Norwegian parliament hastily passed a law prohibiting the sale historical values outside of Norway. In the end, the ship was bought by the owner of a neighboring estate, and “as it lies there” was donated to the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo, where it is now located.

Firstly, traces of robbers were found in the tomb. which, leaving 14 wooden shovels and three stretchers, apparently completely cleared bow ships and took away all the items made of precious metals. However, they did not reach the stern, and archaeologists managed to discover an equipped galley with two boilers for cooking, frying pans, spoons, knives, axes and an intact hand mill for grinding grain. In addition, objects intended for women were found in the tomb, namely: a large spinning loom and two small ones suitable for making ribbons, fragments of hollowed out boxes and wooden buckets, remains of woolen fabric and silk ribbons, as well as the remains of a carpet.

It is not surprising that with such a set of objects, scientists discovered two female skeletons, whose age was determined to be 50 and 30 years. Older. was probably Queen Asa. This corresponds to Yngling, a saga in which Snorri Sturlasson in the 13th century. described the history of the Oslo Fjord with the districts of Østfold and Vestfold.

The saga says about the fate of Queen Asa:
"Gudrod was the name of Halfdan's son, who after him became king. His wife's name was Alfhild. They had a son Olaf. When Alfhild died, Gudrod sent his messengers to Agde (southwestern Norway) to the king who ruled there. His name was Harald Rotlip The messengers were supposed to ask to give his daughter Asa to the king as his wife, but Harald refused them.The messengers returned back and informed the king about the refusal.

Soon after this, Gudrod put to sea with a large army and arrived at Agde. The army came completely unexpectedly and landed on the shore. At night it reached the estate of King Harald. When the latter discovered that the enemy was standing against him, he went out to the enemy with the people he had with him. A battle took place, but the forces were too unequal, and Harald and his son Gird died.

King Gudrød captured great booty. He took King Harald's daughter Asa with him and married her. She had a son from him named Halfdan. In the autumn, when Halfdan was one year old, King Gudrød went to "feed" around the country. He arrived on his ship in Stiftlesund. There was a great feast there, and the king drank heavily. In the evening, when it got dark, he left the ship. When the king was at the end of the gangplank, a man ran up to him, pierced him with his spear, and he died. The man was immediately killed. The next morning, when it was dawn, they recognized him - it was Queen Asa's servant. She did not deny that the servant acted on her advice... After the death of his father, Olaf became king. He suffered from a leg disease and died from it. He was buried in a hill in Gjorstad."

The following is reported. that soon after the birth of her grandson, Harald Fairhair, who in 872 established dominance over all of Norway, Queen Asa died at the age of 50 years. Therefore, it is likely that Queen Asa is buried in Usenberg, and King Olaf is buried in Gokstad (in the saga - Gjorstad), since during excavations there the skeleton of a lame man suffering from gout was found.

Model of the ship from Useberg

Oak was used to make the ship. A special pine plank was made along both sides, on which shields could be fixed. 15 pairs of oar holes were made in the sides. The ship also had a mast and sail.

Main dimensions of the ship:

Maximum length - 21.44 m.
Maximum width - 5.10 m.
Maximum height - 1.58 m.

The vessel from Ouseberg testifies to the high level of shipbuilding and navigation of the Normans. But this ship was still not suitable for sailing on the open sea, like, for example, the ship from Gokstad.

In 1921, in the north of the Danish island of Als in a small peat bog An ancient altar was found. As it turned out later, this was the oldest altar in Scandinavia (dating back to the 4th-3rd centuries BC). For two years, in 1921-1922, excavations were carried out by employees of the National Museum of Denmark. The results exceeded all expectations: 8 single-edged swords were found (the oldest steel weapon found in Scandinavia), 50 long shields, 140 spear tips various shapes, 30 bone spearheads, wooden plates, boxes, vessels, bronze needle, etc. Among the most interesting finds was a boat, which, unfortunately, was severely damaged during excavations. Those parts of the boat that were preserved are exhibited at the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.

The boat was made of linden. It was propelled by strokes and could carry a crew of 25 people (armed and equipped) - about 2200 kg (at the rate of 90 kg per person).

Model of a rook from Hjertspringa

Basic dimensions of the rook:

Maximum length - 15.3 m
Maximum internal length - 13.28 m
Maximum width - 2.07 m
Maximum height - 0.78 m

The Hjertspringa boat ("Stag's Leap") is one of the ancestors of the classic "Viking ships". Mentions of such ships can be found in Tacitus's book "Germania", written in 98 AD. It talks about the Swion tribe, whose ships had a bow on each side, thanks to which they could land on either side. In addition, images of similar ships have been found in Bohuslän, Sweden.

In 1863, during excavations in the Nydam swamp near the village of Östresottrup near Alsenzund, the remains of three ships were found. One of them is quite well preserved, and it is this vessel that will be discussed. The ship is exhibited at the Museum of Prehistoric and Early Culture of Schleswig at Gottorp Castle. It dates back to the second half of the 4th century. Eight bronze clothing pins, brooches, found on the ship near the stem played a significant role in dating. The swamp near Nydam was found to have been a place of sacrifice for nearly three centuries. Particularly numerous finds were made in 1863 and later, 30 years later, 106 swords, 552 spearheads, 70 steel and bronze shield umbos, arrow and spear shafts, as well as numerous jewelry were discovered.

The ship, which had lain for so long in the swamp, broke up. The oak planks of the cladding lay separately from each other, and only separate parts remained of the frames. Therefore, reconstructions of this ship are interesting. The open boat has 30 places for rowers. There was no device for carrying a sail, and the ship, judging by its stability, could not carry a sail. The vessel is built on a keel plank of almost 15 meters and a width of 0.56 meters in the middle. The keel itself, cut from this board, is 180 mm wide and only 20 mm high. In the middle of the keel board between the 10th and 11th frames there was a small through hole, closed from the ingress of sea water with a wooden plug, through which the accumulated water was drained when the ship was pulled ashore. Oarlocks made from fork knots were tied to the top board of the sheathing, made overlapping. The oarlocks had holes through which a leather strap passed, holding the oar. To steer the ship, a large rudder, about 3.3 meters long, with a specially shaped head, hung on the starboard side. Perhaps it was held only by a cable attached to one of the frames and passing through the gunwale from above, otherwise the rudder would have been completely free. The oars found ranged in length from 3.05 to 3.52 meters.

The vessel's own weight is approximately 3300 (according to other assumptions, slightly more than 3900) kg. Payload, i.e. the weight of the crew of 50 people with weapons and food should have been almost 5000 kg. With a total weight of 8800 kg, the vessel's draft was 0.5 m, and the freeboard was almost 0.6 m.

Stern end and rudder.

The ship from Nydam dates back to the second half of the 4th century. Eight bronze clothing pins, brooches, found on the ship near the stem played a significant role in dating.

The swamp near Nydam was found to have been a place of sacrifice for nearly three centuries. Particularly numerous finds were made in 1863 and later, 30 years later, 106 swords, 552 spearheads, 70 steel and bronze shield umbos, arrow and spear shafts, as well as numerous jewelry were discovered.

The ship, after lying in the swamp for so long, broke up. The oak planks of the cladding lay separately from each other, and only separate parts remained of the frames. Therefore, the reconstructions of this ship made by S. Engelhard in 1865, H. Shetelig and F. Johannessen in 1930 and H. Akerlund in 1961, who published their drawings, are interesting. Of these, the most important is Johannessen's drawing. Main dimensions of the vessel from Nydam: maximum length 22.85 m, maximum width 3.26 m and side height 1.09 m.

The open boat has 30 places for rowers. There was no device for carrying a sail; judging by the stability of the vessel, it could not have carried a sail.

The vessel is built on a keel board almost 15 m long and 0.56 m wide in the middle. The keel itself, cut from this board, is 180 mm wide and only 20 mm high. In the middle of the keel board between the 10th and 11th frames there was a small through hole, closed from the ingress of sea water with a wooden plug, through which the accumulated water was drained when the ship was pulled ashore. The ends of the keel board were only 280 mm wide. The stems were attached to them using two wooden dowels and a horizontal plate attached from below.

Both stems, made of oak, are almost identical; the well-preserved stem, made of one piece of wood, has a length of about 5.4 m. In the lower part, the stem is processed so that sheathing boards can be riveted to it).

The cladding is made overlapping - in clinker: there are five boards on each side. The cladding boards are made of oak, have no knots and are solid with a length of 20 m and a width of over 0.5 m. Only the top belt is composite. On the well-preserved left side, the joint is between the 13th and 14th frames. The boards are butted to each other at right angles, and are held together only by a reinforced gunwale.

The boards overlap each other by 70 mm. Steel rivets with blade washers (quadrangular washers) are installed on the keel board at a distance of 150 mm, on the upper chords - at 160-180 mm, and near the stems - at 110 mm. To seal the cracks between the boards, wool soaked in an adhesive mass was used.

The keel board, and other boards, had clamps made as one piece with the board. There are 19 frames attached to the clamps, which were installed only after the skin assembly was completed. Restoration work showed that the frames, up to the 3rd, were made from one piece of pine bark (krivuli) and had a different cross-section. On the top board there is only one clamp to which the frame is attached; At the same time, this clamp served as a support for the jar, probably secured with wooden dowels. The rowing cans additionally had vertical supports mounted on the frames.

Oarlocks made from fork knots were tied to the top plank of the sheathing. The oarlocks had holes through which a leather strap passed, holding the oar.

To control the ship, a large rudder about 3.3 m long with a specially shaped head hung on the starboard side. How the rudder was connected to the ship is unclear. Perhaps it was held only by a cable attached to one of the frames and passing through the gunwale from above, otherwise the rudder would have been completely free.

The oars found ranged in length from 3.05 to 3.52 m.

Rocks were found on the ship, which caused confusion. Initially they were mistaken for ballast, but a ship from Nydam would need it when sailing on water. Ballast made of stones with a total mass of almost 1000 kg on a ship located on the shore was clearly unnecessary. Therefore, it was assumed that the found stones were somehow connected with the sacrifice. Such a ship was very valuable at one time, so the ceremony of its burial was not entirely ordinary. Probably, stones were loaded onto the ship that reached the swamp, and weapons and other sacrificial gifts were added to them. Then ropes were tied to the stems, with the help of which the ship was pulled into the swamp, where, with an open hole on the keel board, under a load of stones, it slowly sank.

Johannessen estimates the dead weight of the vessel from Nydam at 3300 kg, and Timmerman, using a 1/10 life-size model, estimates it at just over 3900 kg. The payload, i.e. the mass of a crew of 50 people with weapons and food, was supposed to be almost 5000 kg. With a total weight of 8800 kg, the vessel's draft was 0.5 m, and the freeboard height was almost 0.6 m. The origin of the vessel was from Nydam, which represented spoils of war and found on the site of the settlements of the Angles and Saxons, is not fully understood.

Why are the weapons in the chest and not hanging on the wall? You see, I often have guests, and where there are guests, there is a feast. And at a feast where there is a lot of beer, anything can happen! When the weapon is out of sight, the worst thing you can do is knock out a couple of teeth.
The Scandinavians have used the spear since ancient times. This is evidenced by numerous finds dating back to the beginning of our era and earlier.

During the Viking Age, the most common type of weapon was the heavy spear, which was different from its counterparts from other countries. The northern spear had a shaft about five feet long with a long, up to 18-inch wide, leaf-shaped tip. With such a spear it was possible to both stab and chop (which the Vikings, in fact, did with success). Of course, such a spear weighed a lot, and therefore it was not easy to throw it, although this also happened (if we look at the myths, Odin fought with the spear Gungnir, which always returned to the owner after a THROW). One can imagine physical fitness a person capable of throwing such a spear. However, there were special throwing spears similar to European darts. Such spears were shorter, with a narrower tip.

The shape of the spear tip could vary depending on its purpose. For example, there are descriptions of copies resembling a European halberd.

The next step is the axe. a relatively small hatchet on a long (about 90 cm) handle. A second successful blow with the ax was usually not required, and therefore the ax also had a moral impact on the enemy. It didn't take much imagination to imagine what could be expected from the axe. On the other hand, the ax is good in attack, but in defense it has many disadvantages. Even a spearman is able to disarm a warrior with an axe, catching it at the junction of the blade and the handle and pulling it out of the owner’s hands.
I would like to note: I have almost never seen any mention of double-edged axes, so I doubt their spread (if they existed at all). there is no doubt about the popularity of ordinary axes, not only among ordinary Hirdmanns, but also among the leaders (it is unlikely that the nickname of Eirik Haraldsson, the son of the famous Harald Harfagr (Fair-Haired) - Eirik Blodex (Bloody Ax) arose out of nowhere.

It is believed that one of the factors in the Norman victory at Hastings was more advanced weapons. William's army was armed with iron axes, while the Anglo-Saxons took to the battlefield with stone axes. But it should be noted that stone axes were also valued by the Vikings. The reason for this was the age of the weapon, which gave reason to consider it endowed with magical properties. Such weapons, carefully preserved, were passed on from generation to generation.

Perhaps the most common weapon in Europe was the sword. He did not bypass Scandinavia either.
The first northern swords were similar to the Scramasaxes - single-edged blades, long knives rather than short swords. However, they soon “grew” noticeably, and then completely turned into the weapon that is now known as the “Viking sword.”

The Scandinavian sword of the period IX-XII centuries was a long, heavy double-edged blade with a small (almost symbolic guard).

The fighting technique of the Scandinavians was not very different from the fighting technique of other European peoples of that time. It should be remembered that in the early Middle Ages, and especially in the Viking Age, there was no special art of fencing. A wide swing, a blow into which all the warrior’s strength was invested - that’s the whole technique. The Vikings did not have piercing blows, which, accordingly, left its mark on the weapon. This was specifically expressed in the curve that often ended with a Scandinavian sword.

The Vikings have always been famous for the art of decorating their weapons. Which, however, was not surprising. The Scandinavians endowed weapons with personality, and therefore it is quite logical to try to distinguish them from other weapons. Often a weapon that faithfully served its owner was given a name that was known to people no less than the name of its owner. So sonorous names arose, like “RaunijaR” - the testing one, “Gunnlogi” - the flame of battle... Axes were laid out with gold and silver patterns, scabbards and hilts of swords were also decorated with gold and silver, the blades were covered with runes.

One of the most beautiful ways to decorate swords was the following: when making a blade, copper and silver wire were forged alternately into the hilt, which made the sword “striped.”

Authentic Viking armor was truly Spartan in its simplicity - just look at the 10th century helmet and remains of chain mail found in Gjermundby, Norway. This round helmet is the only well-preserved Viking Age helmet found so far; It is known, however, that the Vikings also went into battle wearing conical helmets.

Since time immemorial, landowners of all categories - from freed slaves who owned tiny pieces of land, to jarls who had huge lands, and even kings who controlled their own plots - gathered in local assemblies known as "causes". There, local leaders were elected, laws and regulations were adopted regarding property, sheep theft or blood feud. However, there was a new force in the life of the Vikings, incomparably more influential than any governing body, and filled this life with special content.

Drergeskapur occupied a central place in the Viking moral code. This concept includes a number of qualities that were considered mandatory both for society as a whole and for those who could be considered heroes in the eyes of their compatriots. Self-respect, honor, and an impeccable reputation were placed above all else, and they could only be built on the solid foundation of selfless loyalty to family and comrades. All aspects of life were determined by customs; hospitality and offerings, oaths and vengeance, good deeds for the benefit of society, such as building bridges or temples.

Leaders were required to demonstrate courage. fortitude, loyalty to friends, truthfulness, eloquence and zest for life, along with a willingness to face death fearlessly and without hesitation. All these qualities, and countless others, are reflected in the ancient Scandinavian poem "Havamal", which literally means "Word of the Highest." The poem sets out the entire code of conduct of the Viking Age, from simple moral teachings to discussions about in the truest sense eternal glory.

The least significant, although necessary, were the rules for guests. “Whoever stays too long as a guest abuses the hospitality of good hosts,” teaches “Havamal,” “begins to stink.” If the mentioned guest, in addition, has enough to spare, having been tempted by ale, the poem reminds that drinking and riding are incompatible: “There is no heavier knife for a rider than immoderate libations.” The final stanzas of the poem are devoted to the highest concept of the code of honor, linking together an impeccable reputation during life with the honorable fate of falling to the death of the brave, having proven oneself a hero:

A shield was almost a mandatory attribute of a warrior at all times. From century to century, from people to people, shields changed shape, structure, appearance, but their purpose did not change - to provide the warrior with a convenient and reliable means of personal protection. Naturally, the Scandinavians, in whose lives war occupied a significant place, did not leave the shields unattended.

From the first to the tenth centuries, round shields became firmly established in Scandinavia. There were two types of such shields - flat and convex. All shields that have survived to this day were composite (however, there is evidence of bent shields - in this case it is easier to make them convex), that is, assembled from individual boards. For reinforcement, such a set could be two-layered, with the layers applied crosswise, which again imparted strength. In the center of the shield there was always an umbon - a metal hemisphere designed to protect against direct blows - the enemy's weapon would slide over it, losing power.

In addition to this, the umbon protected the hand, since the most common mounting of a shield on the hand among the Scandinavians was a fist mount. A handle passed under the umbo, by which the warrior held the shield. This type of mounting is convenient because the shield is easy to reset, which is important. On the other hand, you need to have a well-trained hand in order to successfully defend yourself. However, there were shields with a “traditional” mount on the arm.

Often the edge of the shield was upholstered with a strip of thick rawhide, and sometimes it could even be covered with leather on the front side. Although such shields have never been found, references to shields covered with leather are very common in literary sources of that period. As for all the shields found, the painting was applied directly to the wooden surface.

Traditionally, shields were made from linden wood, although other woods such as alder or poplar could also be used. These types of wood were chosen due to their lightness and low density. In addition, this wood does not peel as easily as, for example, oak.

The size of round shields varied from 45 to 120 centimeters in diameter, but the most common were shields with a diameter of 75-90 centimeters.

At the beginning of the eleventh century, the lower edge of the shield began to extend downwards to protect the legs. This change gave rise to the development of the “drop” shield. Moreover, like their predecessors, round shields, “drops” existed both flat and convex, with the latter clearly predominant. There is still debate about attaching such a shield to the hand, whether it was a fist shield or not. The fact is that if the shield is held under the umbo, then the lower, elongated part of the shield acts like a pendulum, making it difficult to work with the shield.
These shields were about 1 - 1.5 meters in size.

Both round shields and “drops” could be worn in a traveling version, on the back. For this there was a special belt, or just a wide strip of leather. It was much more convenient even for a foot warrior to carry a shield this way, not to mention a horseman.

The shields were painted differently, depending on the taste of the owner. The shield could be painted entirely in one color, or in segments. Common designs were the cross and the solstice - the sun wheel. In addition, the umbon and reinforcing stripes were often decorated with silver and gold.

This game was known in northern Europe long before chess appeared there. In Scandinavia, this game was known already in the 3rd century AD. Subsequently, the Vikings brought it to Greenland, Iceland, Wales, Britain, and the Far East, all the way to Ukraine.

Playing board options.
A straight cross indicates the “king”, and an oblique cross indicates the corner cells.

This game was played on a board with an odd number of squares, from 7x7 to 19x19, depending on the version of the game. The central square was called the “throne”; no pieces other than the king could stand on it, as well as on the corner squares of the board. At the beginning of the game, the king's figure was placed on the throne. The rest of the whites were positioned around him. Black always has the first move. Players make moves one by one. All pieces move in any direction, just like rooks in modern chess. A player can move any one piece of his color to any distance. Pieces cannot "jump" over others. On small boards, pieces can pass through the throne; on large boards, only the king can do this. White is trying to take the king to one of the corner squares. If they manage to place the king on an open straight line to one of these squares, they announce "Raichi" (Check), if on two straight lines at once - "Tuichi" (checkmate). If their next move is to stand on the corner square, White wins. If a black player accidentally opens a passage for the white king, white can take advantage of this immediately.

If a piece in its move pinches an opponent's piece between itself and another piece or between itself and a corner square, the opponent's piece is considered eaten. More than one chip can be eaten at a time.

Black loses both chips
However, you can place your piece between two enemy ones. In this case, it remains in the game.

The white chip is in no danger. At least. Bye.

The king is considered captured when he is surrounded on four sides. In this case, the corner cells, the throne and the sides of the board can be considered as sides. When the king is in danger of being captured by the next move, Black warns White (check to the king). Black wins if the king is captured. The king can be captured along with one white piece, being surrounded by black on all sides.

In all these cases, Black wins

White wins by moving his king to one of the corner squares. Black - if they managed to capture the king. Since the forces are unequal, it is considered good form to play two games in a row, exchanging sides. In this case, the number of chips eaten is counted. If the score is 1:1, the winner is the one who has eaten more chips from the opponent.

Viking cuisine
"Porridge"

Basic recipe: a glass of grains and two glasses of liquid (water and/or milk) per person. You can add more liquid to compensate for the evaporation that occurs when cooking porridge over an “open” fire. You can use chopped and crushed grains; the largest kernels must be soaked overnight, otherwise they will take too long to cook.
Recipe: porridge for the Viking family.
For 4-6 servings, take:
- 10-15 glasses of water
- Two glasses of “chopped” wheat grains. Pre-soak them overnight so they aren't so hard to chew.
- Two glasses of barley
- A full handful of wheat flour
- A handful of chopped nut kernels
- 3-4 tablespoons of honey
- A good portion of slices of apples, pears or...

1. Place the wheat, flour and barley in the cauldron. Pour 10 glasses of water into it and put the boiler on fire.
2. Stir the porridge evenly and remove the pot to dispel the heat. If the porridge starts to thicken too much, add more water.
3. After about half an hour, add honey, nuts and fruit. Now the porridge should be cooked until the fruits are still juicy and the porridge has already reached the desired consistency. This will take 15-30 minutes.
4. Serve the porridge warm, adding cold cream if desired.

"Meat and fish soup"

Of course, you shouldn’t stuff all the known vegetables, herbs and seasonings into one pot. While taking inspiration from the many widely available books on edible plants, don't use everything you find while wandering around. Always make sure you are putting edible plants in your basket!
Recipe: Meat stew.
For 4-6 servings, take:
- 8-12 glasses of water
- Half a kilo of meat (pork, beef, lamb, chicken, game)
- Salt
- 3-5 cups of plants: nettle top leaves, young dandelion leaves, wild chervil, watercress, wild marjoram, dill, plantain, angelica, wild onion, caraway, thyme or whatever else nature has to offer given time of the year

1. Place the meat in the pot. Pour water in there to a level that covers the meat, and put the pot on the fire. To dispel the heat, remove it from the heat for short periods every 5-10 minutes.
2. After the water boils, you need to cook the meat for another hour. It is necessary to ensure that the meat is always covered with a layer of water.
3. While the meat is cooking, wash and chop the plants (greens). They will need to be added to the stew when it is ready.
4. When the meat is cooked (becomes soft), remove it from the cauldron and cut it into pieces the size of the spoon you plan to use to eat the stew. Then return the meat to the pot.
5. Add salt as desired and serve.
6. The stew can be served with bread. If you want to prepare a more satisfying stew, you can add pre-soaked wheat grains, wholemeal flour, or the stew can be flavored with pea flour

"Wheat bread"

This bread is called "potter's bread" because it was baked on pieces of ceramic products or, if the estate was richer, on 10-15 centimeter frying pans over coals. Recipe: Bread.
All measurements are given in glasses. A glass in this case is equivalent to approximately 90 grams of flour:
- 7 cups wholemeal or premium wheat flour
- 3 cups of liquid - this can be whey or milk
- 1 egg
- a pinch of salt (optional)

1. Flour, liquid, egg and salt must be mixed long and thoroughly. If necessary, add flour or liquid. The result should be a homogeneous thick dough.
2. Divide the dough into small balls and then turn them into flatbreads. 3. Bread is baked over high heat on broken pieces of ceramic products or a frying pan for 2-3 minutes on each side.
The resulting loaves should be slightly brown and, when lightly tapped with your fingernail, should give the impression of being hollow.
To obtain "shards" you can use well-fired red clay pots (apparently the type that were used for a kiln) or, for example, a ceramic vase of the Japanese Sogetsu school...
- Sweetened bread can be obtained by adding honey to the dough.
- Adding roasted stinging nettles will add a spicy flavor.
- You can also add chopped nut kernels and boiled acorns to the dough.

Hot nutritious drinks.

"Delightful Apple Drink"

To prepare we will need:
- Water
- Apple slices
- Apple tree leaves
- Honey

1. Fill a container with water, add slices of unpeeled apples, and add apple tree leaves.
2. The drink should be boiled over a fire. When it starts to boil, add honey to taste.
3. Serve hot. Apples can be replaced with pears. Berries will add flavor. If you wish, try different mixtures of berries and fruits.

"Drink from plants"

Plant drinks can be obtained from many plants. The drink is prepared by adding plant leaves or flowers to boiling water and boiling for a few minutes.
The best drinks can be obtained from the leaves:
- stinging nettle;
- mint;
- hawthorn;
- wild raspberries;
- strawberries; and colors:
- elderberries;
- linden;
- yarrow;
- chamomile.

Housekeeping in the Viking Age

"The daily life of a Viking family, day after day, year after year, was a continuous struggle to maintain life: to ensure that everyone had a roof over their head, everyone was warm and had something to eat. For a long time, it was easy to get food, but a lot of time was spent preparing it, and it was also necessary to take care of the long winter in advance: to collect, dry and store the food.

We don't know exactly what foods were prepared during Viking times, but we can say a lot about what ingredients and utensils they used to cook. Many dishes, cauldrons, knives and other kitchen utensils have survived to this day. By carefully studying clay pots, ceramic lids, ashes from fireplaces and layers of earth in houses, it becomes possible to find food remains and determine their source of origin. In addition, it should be said that some human remains found in swamps are so well preserved that their stomachs and intestines can be examined to see what their last meal consisted of. We can also say with certainty what plants and wild animals existed in Viking-era Scandinavia, and at the same time imagine that most of these flora and fauna were part of the Viking diet, provided that the latter could get the former.

Food Components

The most important of the crops grown was grain. Barley, wheat, rye and buckwheat were also among the plants grown. Viking-era grains looked a little different than they do today—they had more stems and fewer grains. Grain grew just as well in those days as it does now, and, accordingly, became the food that was easy to stock up on for the winter. It is not difficult to see - it is easy to show that the Vikings shoved grain/flour into most dishes: porridge, soup and meat and, what will seem most strange to you, bread.
Vegetables were also grown in some places. Some comrades grew green peas, horse beans, garlic, angelica, hops, parsnips and carrots. Eggs, milk, meat and fat for daily cooking were obtained from birds and cattle, the same ones that are bred now. Only they were smaller - well, the movement of young Michurinites did not flourish among the Vikings, they had no time for that!!! Meat from domestic animals was not included in the daily diet then, so fish, poultry and game eggs were welcomed as an addition to porridge.

During the Viking Age, most of the country was covered with oak forests, spruce forests and beech thickets. Therefore, Viking women collected seeds, berries from bushes, hazelnuts, mushrooms and even acorns for their “hog” husbands. After a long winter, the attribute of which was eating grain crops, the soldiers wanted vitamins and fresh vegetables, but where could they get them in the spring? Don't be surprised, the Vikings leaned on the grass! No, not hemp - in the fields and meadows you could get fresh roots and various ferns. True, it is not known for certain how widespread this practice of filling the body with vitamins was.

Using clay pots for cooking over an open fire

And so the fire is lit, and the pot is placed on it so that the handle does not touch the flame. Clay does not conduct heat well, so you need to constantly move it so that the pot warms up evenly. I note that the heating does not proceed from the bottom to the edges as in an iron cookware: only those parts that are directly affected by the fire are heated, so in these places the food being prepared can burn!

A wooden spoon can be safely left in the pot (as long as it is out of reach of the fire) while the food simmers slowly, and must be stirred regularly. But don't leave the spoon hanging over the edge of the pot - it doesn't belong there! The pot must be at least half full of food, otherwise it may crack due to the difference in temperature between the bottom and the edges of the pot. If food needs to be salted, do it immediately before serving. If salt is added during the cooking process, it will corrode the pot and make it porous and brittle. Hot stones for cooking (for boiling water, some kind of tea or soup) need to be placed in the water carefully, using damp wooden tongs or ceramic shards.

Cooking tools and kitchen utensils

A fire pit, a home fireplace, combined with an iron pot or clay pot were the most important devices in the Viking Age. It was in them that dinners were prepared from what the family had at their disposal at that time. In addition to the hearth, a pit was sometimes made in front of it, in which meat and fish were cooked over coals removed from the hearth. Iron skewers were also in use, however, there is much evidence that most food of that era was boiled.

Water or soup could be heated using small stones heated over a fire—“cooking stones.” If they are placed in a liquid, they quickly give off heat and cool, after which the stones are removed and placed back into the fire. After several uses, the stones began to crumble and were thrown away. These fire-heated stones were found in abundance around Viking Age houses, in fireplaces and around them in roasting pits. By the way, you should not make cooking stones from flint - it will explode right in the fire.

Clay pots were used for many purposes and were mainly used for storing and cooking food. It is worth noting that at that time in the kitchen they used spoons and ladles made of wood and bone and knives made of iron. Forks were used only when cooking in large cauldrons - to fish out pieces of meat. Large ceramic shards were used to scoop out ashes, remove stones for cooking, or for baking bread.

Grinding grain in millstones, which replaced primitive presses in the Iron Age, was a cumbersome and difficult job. Strength and patience were needed to grind the grain into flour.

Viking women

Just like everyone else, men and women of the Viking Age needed the basic things to live: food, clothing and a home. Pets played an important role in their daily lives. Perhaps the most important animal for them was the horse. The Vikings' view of the world was shaped by their daily life a red thread, and the Law said what can be done and what cannot be done. It was a dull life for the sake of the process of life itself. Although, the Vikings played games, enjoyed music, poetry, sports and crafts: wood carving and metal work.

The Vikings lived in large family groups. Children, fathers and grandfathers lived together. When the eldest son took over the farm, he simultaneously became the head of the family and responsible for its welfare. He needed to get as much food as the family needed. His wife, the mistress of the estate, had to carefully ensure that there was enough food stored for the long and dark winters. She made butter and cheese, dried and smoked meat and fish for later storage, and also had to understand herbs in order to make medicine for the sick and wounded. Livestock was the responsibility of the mistress, and when her husband went on a raid or trade, or went hunting, the woman remained in charge of the estate. In a rich family, she had servants and slaves to do housework. A visible sign of the housewife's authority were the keys to the storerooms on her waist. When men went on long hikes, fished or hunted, women remained in charge of the estate. This led to them playing an important role in society.

Marriage

The girl was married off at the age of 12-15 years. At this age, she could already do housework on the estate. But, nevertheless, she hoped for help from the older women in the family. The wedding was agreed upon between families and was seen as an alliance between two families with mutual aid and protection. The girl herself did not have the opportunity to say anything.

Dowry

The bride brought linen and wool clothing, a spinning wheel, weaving tools, and a bed to her husband's family as part of her dowry. A girl from a richer family could have as part of her dowry jewelry made of silver and gold, livestock, a farm, or even an entire estate. Everything that she brought with her continued to be her property and did not become part of her husband’s estate. Her children could receive this property through inheritance.

Divorce

After marriage, a woman did not fully become part of her husband's family. She remained part of her own family, and if her husband mistreated her or the children, if the father of the family was too lazy to feed the family, or if he offended his wife's family in any way, then divorce followed. To do this, the woman had to invite several “witnesses” and, in their presence, first go to the main entrance and from there to the couple’s bed and declare herself divorced from her husband.

Children

Toddlers and infants automatically remained with their mother after divorce. The older children were divided between the spouses' families depending on their wealth. With rights to property, inheritance and divorce, Viking women were freer than most of their European counterparts at the time.

Women from poor families

On small farms there was no clear division of labor between men and women. Without servants or slaves, everyone had to sacrifice what they could for the sake of the family's survival in the harsh Scandinavian climate.

Slaves

Slaves had no rights other than the right to be the property of their master. They could be bought and sold, the owner or mistress could do whatever they wanted with the slaves. A master could kill one of his slaves without it being considered murder by the public. If any other free man killed someone's slave, he only had to compensate the owner for the value of the deceased as compensation. The price was approximately equal to the cost of a head of cattle. When a slave gave birth to a child, it automatically became the property of the owner. If a slave was sold pregnant, the newborn became the property of the new owner.

Things and their common features in various Scandinavian countries

In the 11th century, Bishop Rimbert, in his biographical work “The Life of St. Ansgarius,” speaking about the Scandinavians, notes that “... it is their custom that any public matter depends more on the unanimous will of the people than on royal power.” And although this source focuses mainly on Sweden, the above quote can be applied to all Scandinavian peoples of that time.

The development of the Scandinavian countries followed different paths. If in Norway in the 10th century. Through the efforts of King Harald Fairhair, a fairly extensive state with a strong centralized power had already appeared, then on the island of Gotland, for example, there was complete internal self-government, although the Gotlanders were subordinate to the Swedish king; as for Iceland, until the middle of the 13th century - i.e. before the subjugation of Norway - it is the clearest example of self-government based on Things. However, despite such differences in government structure, in all these regions the Things continued to play an important role for a long time.

The reason for such a widespread practice of tings seems quite simple. Only in the 9th century did the first Scandinavian states appear; Before this, Scandinavia was fairly homogeneous even in language, not to mention organization, and was ruled mainly by Things - an ancient form of self-government.

Thing organizations of the Scandinavian countries were similar to each other and often served as a reflection of the administrative division. Thus, on Gotland there were the following types of ting: ting hunderi (ting of a hundred), ting of setunga (ting of one-sixth), ting of tridyunga (ting of a third); The supreme body of Gotlandic self-government was the Althing (Thing of the entire island), which concentrated all power on the island with all its aspects: court, taxes, military affairs, foreign and domestic politics, legislation. It is characteristic that the higher the ting was, the greater the fines it could impose for violations (settung - no more than 3 marks, tridyung - 6, althing - 12 marks). In Iceland there was a division into quarters: each quarter united three Thing districts with local Things, and all quarters constituted an Althing, at which laws were passed and trials were carried out in all cases that could not be decided by local Things. Sources indicate the existence of a similar system in Norway, where the general Thing was called Gulating. In Gulating, the court was carried out by 36 judges: "twelve from the Firdir county, twelve from the Sogn county and twelve from the Hardaland county."

Both local and general Things had a number of common features in organization and conduct. "Egil's Saga" gives us short description Gulating: “The place of the court was a flat place, surrounded by hazel stakes. There was a rope stretched between the stakes. It was called the boundary of the court. And the judges sat in a circle.... these judges heard the litigation.” As a rule, the place of the ting was a fairly large space, often with an elevation from which it was convenient to speak in front of a large number of people. The Icelandic sagas mention the Rock of Law, from which lawsuits were declared and speeches were made by the plaintiff and defendant at the Althing; in addition, there are references to various other toponyms (for example, Gathering Gorge), which gives reason to believe that the Althing occupied a fairly large area. Each group of Thing participants or even an individual family had its own dugout (in the “Saga of Egil” - tents), which indicates both the duration of the Althing and the invariability of its location. Local tings most likely were not so long.

The course of the trial at the Thing and its features

As the chapter “On the Thing” of “Gutalaga” says, almost any Thing should begin no later than noon - “...courts are judged and oaths are taken no later than sunset.” Apparently, these were the customs not only in Gotland, since the Scandinavians usually associated night with dark, evil deeds. As for the form of the trial, sources, including laws, talk mainly about murder trials, limiting themselves in other cases to indicating the amount of the fine. However, it is not surprising that such attention is paid to murders. For a very long time in the Scandinavian countries there was a custom of revenge, when the injured party preferred to take the life of the offender instead of his money, often without paying attention to the decisions of the Thing. The Saga of Njal, for example, tells of the enmity of two clans, which stretched out a bloody string of murders over several years, despite the fact that for each killed both clans paid vira, hoping that the neighbors would be satisfied with this. In an effort to prevent such cases, laws establish strict procedures for summoning the defendant to the meeting, appointing witnesses, etc. Failure to comply with these rules (and even more so independent reprisals) could lead to the fact that the plaintiff himself risked finding himself in the position of a defendant. "Gutalag" gives us a striking example of such a law: this is the chapter "On the murder of a person." It talks about the so-called "circle of peace", which can be carried out by a person who has committed murder, and which grants him immunity until trial; the same immunity is given by the church and the priest's house.

Following the Westgotalag, immediate revenge for the murder was allowed. The heirs of the murdered man had the right to immediately, “in his wake,” hack the murderer to death. Then one person was pitted against another, and no fines had to be paid by either party. If immediate revenge did not take place, then the killer had to immediately announce the murder at the nearest meeting; if he did not do this, then the heir could obtain immediate deprivation of peace (outlawry). If the murder was announced, the case was opened only at the third meeting after the murder, because Before this, the killer could reach an agreement with the injured party by paying a viru. At the third ting the heir had to bring charges; if there were several murderers, he had the right to accuse up to six people, designating them as accomplices, advisers and those present. After this, the Thing appointed an endag - presumably a fixed day for hearing the case (endag is also mentioned in Norwegian sources in this sense). At the endag, the heir, with an oath, had to introduce six Thing witnesses to confirm his accusation and accuse the murderer, so to speak, to his face: “You directed the tip at him, and you are his true murderer.” At the next Thing, called segnarting, the heir had to confirm that at the endag he had fulfilled everything prescribed by law, and then they had to pass a verdict and sentence the murderer to deprivation of peace. Even at this stage, the killer had a chance to negotiate with the heir to pay the penalty. All participants in the crime, except the one who was designated as the murderer, had the right to defend themselves against the prosecution.

In the "Saga of Njal" there is a detailed description of such a lawsuit, so it makes sense to follow the course of the trial according to this source in order to notice the characteristic features of the processes at the Thing - especially since in Iceland the Things received, perhaps, the greatest development.

First, the plaintiff had to announce the murder charge to nine immediate neighbors of the murder scene - they became witnesses for the prosecution. At the Thing, the plaintiff (or the person to whom the plaintiff, for one reason or another, handed over the conduct of the case in front of witnesses) took an oath that he would honestly conduct the case, and announced the accusation. By the way, charges in all cases were brought on the same day, so at the Althing it often took the entire first day. Only after all cases were charged did trials begin.

I call you to witness that I accuse (name of the defendant) of inflicting on (name of the murdered) a wound to the viscera or bones which proved fatal and from which (the murdered) died at the place where (the accused) unlawfully attacked ( killed). I say that for this he should be outlawed* and banished, and no one should give him food or give him any help. I say that he should lose all the goods and half of it should go to me, and the other half to those people from the quarter who have the right to the goods outlawed. I announce this to the court of the quarter, in which, by law, this charge must be considered. I declare this by law. I announce this from the Rock of Law so that everyone can hear. I declare that (the accused) is to be tried this summer and declared an outlaw.

* in this case, the plaintiff demands the most severe punishment - expulsion and outlawry, after which, in fact, anyone on the territory of the country could kill the accused without the threat of trial. As sources show, such sentences were quite rare, because the court also took into account the defendant’s arguments

The rest of the wording was no less complex, from the announcement of witnesses to the verdict. And the abundance of such difficulties could not but affect the course of the process. The party against whom the accusations were brought tried in every possible way to find fault with the slightest inaccuracy in the plaintiff’s speech and, on this basis, declare the litigation untenable - this was considered legal. Therefore, for example, in the same “Njal’s Saga” the plaintiff further clarifies:
- I call you to witness that I protect myself from having my case declared illegal if I express myself incorrectly or make a slip of the tongue. I reserve the right to correct all my words until I have stated my case correctly. I call you to be a witness for yourself or for others who will need or benefit from this testimony.

Prosecution witnesses and judges took an oath, after which the witnesses confirmed that the accusation was announced correctly. These same witnesses would then decide the case. However, unlike "Gutalag", in the Icelandic Althing the killer in any case had the right to defense. Thus, he had the right to remove “unauthorized” neighbors, that is, people who were related to the plaintiff and were thus interested in the verdict. Neighbors who “were not sitting on their own land” were also considered unauthorized, i.e. did not own land property. In this case, it was possible to bring a counter-charge of improper conduct of the case, because According to the law, it was necessary for nine people to make a decision. However, as Njal's Saga shows, if a majority of the neighbors remained, they could still make a decision, and the plaintiff paid a fine for all those absent; The accusation of improper handling of the case was considered at the next meeting.

One should not, of course, think that the final verdict was made by the plaintiff’s neighbors. The neighbors only announced their decision to the judges, who had the final say. In this regard, perhaps, attention should be paid to the Thing judges themselves.

Until the 12th-13th centuries there was practically no existence in Scandinavia written laws and all the provisions had to be memorized. This was the duty of the lagmans, the “keepers of the laws,” in Sweden and Norway, and of the law-speakers in Iceland. They most often served as judges or could provide advice in the event of a complicated case, even if they did not participate in the trial. As the Vestgotalag says, “...a lagman must be the son of a bond,” i.e. a freeborn man who owns land. It also says that the Landsting, the Thing of the entire district, acquired its powers only if the lagman was present at it - this was a guarantee that the laws would be observed. Apparently, similar regulations were in effect throughout the entire region under consideration. The Icelandic sagas speak of law-speakers with great respect. Having such a person on your side during litigation often meant the success or failure of the entire case. Therefore, the legislators had to be absolutely neutral; winning them over to your side with money or gifts during the Thing was illegal.

However, there were not so many lagmans to deal with all the cases, especially at the Althing, so the bulk of the judges were bonds, who also performed a kind of administrative function. In Iceland they were called godi. This name, which also denoted a pagan priest who extended spiritual power to his area - godord - was preserved in Iceland even after the adoption of Christianity. Courts of quarters were formed from the godords, with three dozen judges in each quarter. These judges not only made a decision, but also ensured that the order of the case was followed. Sometimes during the trial, each side appointed six judges to make the final decision, who together decided the case. The same order is described in the Norwegian "Njal's Saga".

In "Njal's Saga" the defense managed to cheat. Immediately after the accusation was announced, the accused (who, by the way, committed a serious crime) urgently transferred to the godord of another ting, after which the lawsuit was declared untenable, because it should have started in the court of another quarter. This gave rise to charges of mismanagement of the case, which were transferred to the fifth court.
The Fifth Court is a body that apparently took place only in Iceland, and shows that the Thing continued to develop as a legal body. The same "Njal's Saga" tells that Njal, who was one of the best experts in the laws, proposed to Skafti, the chief legislator of Iceland in 1004, to organize another court, in addition to the four courts of quarters, which would deal with cases "... about all sorts of disorders at the Thing, about perjury and false testimony,... about those who gave bribes..", as well as "..unresolved cases on which the judges in the courts of the quarters could not reach an agreement." Judging by the complexity of the trial process, there were enough such cases. For the new court, new godords were established, and the court was to include the best experts in the laws in the quarters, twelve from each quarter. In order to ensure that the legal number of judges - thirty-six - was not violated, each side had to remove six judges from the court before discussing the decision. In this case, the defender could not remove his judges, then the plaintiff had to remove all twelve. It is characteristic that even this detail could greatly influence the outcome of the case. The “Saga of Njal” describes a case when the accusing party, having all the evidence and evidence in hand, did not bring the required number of judges (who even passed a verdict) and because of this lost the case.

Thus, as can be seen from the above examples, ting legal proceedings were quite developed. However, one cannot help but notice that the intention to limit in every possible way ancient custom blood feud through various legal measures provided the participants in the process with a lot of reasons for “hook-making” (an interesting example is given in the “Saga of Hrafnkel Godi” - the accused could not deflect the accusation from himself only because because of the crowd he did not hear the speech of the accuser). Couldn't solve the problem either forceful solution disputes.

The relationship between power and law at the Thing

Despite the desire to resolve disputes through legal means, the old customs, especially in Iceland, were still too strong. However, even in the united Norway of King Harald, there were cases when litigation was resolved, for example, by a duel. In particular, “The Saga of Egil” talks about a property dispute between two bonds, and while the trial was going on as usual - witnesses were brought in, oaths were taken - one of them, Egil himself, said:
“I don’t need vows instead of property.” I propose another law, namely, to fight here, at the Thing, and let whoever wins get the goods.
Egil's proposal was legal, and common in former times. Each then had the right to challenge the other to a duel, be it the defendant or the plaintiff.

The same custom can be traced from other sources. So, in “Gutalag” in the chapter “On the world of the Thing” it is said that any violations of the world of the Thing were strictly prosecuted, be it a blow with a fist and, of course, murder, but “...except for the case when a person was killed out of revenge.” The Westgotalag, in turn, generally equates murder at the Thing to a “crime,” that is, to a crime that cannot be atoned for by a fine. In such cases, the person was expelled from the country.

Speaking about Norway, it is necessary to touch upon such an important problem as the relationship between the Things and centralized power, which began in IX through the efforts of King Harald Fairhair. “The Saga of Egil” shows that the king observed customs, tried not to interfere with the course of the trial, and did not even have weapons (although, of course, a fully prepared squad was at his camp). However, now both sides no longer addressed the judges, but the king. It is even more significant that before hearing the evidence in the case, the judges ask the king whether he will forbid listening to them. Finally, when the matter concerned one of the king’s relatives (and everything was not going in favor of the relative), his warriors “... ran to the place of trial, broke the hazel poles, cut the ropes stretched between them and dispersed the judges. A loud noise arose at the Thing, but all the people there were unarmed." Thus, the king felt his strength and, if necessary, made it clear that power did not belong to the Thing. At the same time, he preserved the institution of Things, because, firstly, they took on an important judicial function, and secondly, they were an old and familiar tradition, the destruction of which could turn too many against the king.

The situation is somewhat different in Sweden, as can be judged by the Westgotalag, a law written in the 13th century. Although by this time Sweden was already formally a single kingdom, in reality it represented two federations: Svealand and Götaland, which, in turn, were divided into many lands - lands. Therefore, the Things here had greater independence from the kings. Thus, the West Götalag says that if the king wants to carry out justice, he must appoint a commission. At the Thing, the elected lagman always judges.

Speaking about Iceland, we should first outline some of the features characteristic of this island at that time. The active settlement of Iceland is associated primarily with the activities of the same Harald Fairhair, although it supposedly began before him. "Egil's Saga" says:
King Harald appropriated in each county the hereditary possessions and all the land, inhabited and uninhabited, as well as the sea and waters. All bonds had to become holders of land dependent on him... He forced everyone to choose one of two things - either go to his service, or leave the country... Lumberjacks and salt miners, fishermen and hunters - they were all also obliged to obey him. From this oppression, many fled the country, and many vast, still empty lands were then settled... At the same time, Iceland was discovered...

There was no centralized power in Iceland, because... First of all, people settled there who were not happy with this kind of government. Therefore, this country remained the territory of free community bondsmen, who were complete masters of their estates, and who knew no other laws other than the decrees of the Thing. However, there were some nuances here too. The richest households, as a rule, had greater support in their disputes at the Thing; the same can be said about people vested with godi power. The already mentioned “The Saga of Hrafnkel Godi” tells about a bond who entered into a lawsuit with a very influential person - Hrafnkel Godi himself - and tried to find support from other influential people:

But everyone repeats one thing: no one considers himself so indebted to Himself* as to enter into litigation with Hrafnkel Godi and thereby endanger his own good name. They also add that almost everyone who competed with Hrafnkel at the Thing met the same fate: Hrafnkel forced all of them to abandon the case that they had started against him...

*bond's name
And even after Sam was able to find support and even get Hrafnkel declared an outlaw, Godi comes to his home and “... lives as if nothing had happened.”
Often, revenge was still carried out (there are many similar examples in the Icelandic sagas), despite the decision of the Thing - or, conversely, because of its decisions. A very interesting example is the litigation described in Njal's Saga. When, due to formal errors, the accusing party lost the case, all its supporters took up arms and, right at the Thing, began to kill their opponents, who responded in kind. Only the next day, thanks to the appeal of all the judges and the efforts of all neutral participants in the Thing, the warring parties made peace.
It was decided to transfer the case to twelve judges, and as a sign of this, everyone shook hands with each other... Murders on both sides were equated to each other, and for those that turned out to be more than this, a penalty was imposed...

Skalds

Poets were called skalds in Scandinavia. Good skalds, who easily folded vises and nids, were very highly valued and respected by the Normans. and for a reason. Another One in “Speeches of the High One” said that runes were given to people by the Gods and filled with magic. A person who simply KNEW all twenty-five runes already owned a considerable magical power. What then can we say about the skalds, for whom runes served as a tool for work?

Rarely did any of the kings (not to mention simple bonds) allow himself to offend the skald, because he could take revenge. And not with a sword or an ax, but with a blasphemous verse. After such revenge, the offender’s luck could turn away (and what could be worse?), he could get sick and even die, especially if the skald was really “who tasted the Blood of Kvasir,” as the Ases often listened to. The sagas describe a case when a king cruelly insulted a skald. He immediately responded by folding the nida. As a result, the king fell ill, and nothing could cure the disease. He had to send for the same skald and ask for his forgiveness with numerous gifts.

The second “type of activity” of skalds was vises - praises, generously rewarded by listeners. For a good deal, a skald could get anything: from a ring, a rich cloak or an ax lined with silver, to a ship loaded with gold.

But, no matter how tempting it may sound, not everyone could become a skald. This required a special gift, and anyone familiar with Scandinavian poetry will understand me. The skald was obliged to compose kennings, thanks to which Scandinavian poetry has that unique (albeit somewhat peculiar) beauty and “flavor”.

The Saga of Harald and the Troll

Harald Earl
Collected for a hike
Your most faithful people.

Armed them
And sat me down
Fourteen strong boats.

Harald Earl
The squad said:
"With you I'm invincible!

We are with you, as before,
Let's go along the coast
Leaving only fire and smoke!"

The squad screamed
Knocked swords
Attracting the attention of the gods.

And everyone was tall
Blue-eyed, fair-haired,
And everyone has helmets - WITHOUT horns!

The skalds sang
About the crucible of the blizzard,
Good luck to the earl,

The oars flashed
The splashes sparkled
The sides of the ship creaked...

And it was this year
Have a good trip,
They found a lot of prey.

Having fought to the fullest,
Having washed myself with blood,
We touched our native land.

Having parted with weapons,
Helmets in a semicircle,
We hugged our loved ones.

Everyone grew up just the same
Blue-eyed, fair-haired,
But there was no jarl among them.

"As soon as we left the fjord,
Troll vile face
She came at us from the water.

We used axes and bows,
And Mjolnir was called from Thor's hands,
And the troll is neither here nor there!

Meeting a troll is a bad omen
Since childhood, we all know perfectly well about this,
But the earl did not dare to turn around.

He only shouted: “Alone! Look at this!
Now I’ll chop the enemy into cutlets!”
Swinging his ax, he fell overboard.

The water was seething and the foam was boiling -
Then our Harald fought skillfully with the troll,
The skald took a sip of beer, and everyone fell silent.

"And that battle lasted, probably an hour,
When the water finally subsided,
Only the shield of the painted wave was rocked...

No troll, no jarl - that was the ending! "
The skald, summing up, shook his head.

People, envying the one who has gained fame,
Remember the troll who destroyed the jarl!
Trolls, and you, going to the seas,
Remember the jarl, the troll slayer!

The Saga of the Unfortunate Viking

I lie there staring at the stars
Indulging in melancholy and sadness.
I would want to eat sooner or later,
If only the waves weren't rocking so hard.

The sail is torn to shreds by the wind,
All the provisions were eaten up by mice,
And the day turns to night,
And the waves are getting higher.

My longship named "Raven"
He groans loudly, but does not give up.
But I know for sure that soon
He will drink plenty of sea water.

I'll sink to the bottom with him,
First waving his weak arms,
I will sing sagas to the dumb fish,
Yes, I will play tavlei with crabs.

The skalds will compose beautiful songs
About the brave Helgs and Eiriks,
About the ship that they decided to call “Titan”,
Unable to swim to shore.

Well, maybe I’ll swim there,
I’ll breathe in the smell of cheese with my free breasts,
And I’ll tell you: “What a troll!
(Here I hit the mast painfully!).

I will say: “I managed, I swam!
You are crying your eyes out with joy!"
I hear splashing - exhausted,
The shark is circling overboard.

I'll probably grow a beard,
I'll braid it in two braids,
Get stuck in it in case of hunger,
There will be bread and pieces of sausage.

I will kill the jarl who
He told us that there would be land there.
And after that I’ll go to the mountains -
I can't survive next to the sea.

No, not to the mountains, there might be trolls there,
I've been afraid of trolls since childhood.
If there is Odin's will,
I can put up with the proximity of the sea too

The Saga of Leif Bardsson and the Trollin

The West Fjord was in darkness,
Between him and the long range of mountains,
Keeping silence and sleepy peace,
In the valley stood Leif Bardsson's courtyard.

The troll descended from the mountains to the valley
And on the grass washed by the rain,
She rushed to Leif's house,
Covering yourself at night like a cloak.

Silently creeping up to people's homes,
The troll girl sat down near the door.
“Come out, Leif, my dear, quickly!”
Hiding her eyes out of shyness, she sang.

"I've been watching you for a long time,
You struck me to the very heart.
Without you, I will melt like an iceberg,
And no world without you is dear to me!

Twelve mills will be yours,
I made their wings golden
And the millstones are made of fiery copper!

This magic blade will be yours,
Seeing him, the enemies run as fast as they can,
He will lead you to victory!

Accept twelve horses as a gift from me,
To surpass them, there is no horse in the world,
The country raised them as marvelous elves!

I'll also give you a shirt,
It’s not a shame for a king to wear one,
It is made of the finest silk!

Please, Leif, darling, give me the answer,
What else do you need from me?
Just answer me “Yes” or “No”
Tell me, do you agree to become my husband?

"I would accept your gifts,
If you were human.
But you are the mistress of the mountain,
Your year will be a century for people!

Leif answered, looking east,
Where, young and pure,
Warming the Norwegian land with my breath,
The sun rose brightly.

“Oh, no, I died! Why did I come!
And the blood is already running cold in my veins..."
Then the sun touched her; just a rock
Reminded me of the poor troll.

That rock still stands today
In the valley that is proudly called Troll,
Lying behind a long chain of mountains,
Near the Westfjord.

The saga of the king and beer

There was a great feast
In the king's house
Everyone was having fun
Except for the king.

Brows furrowed,
He looked from under his braids.
About excess beer
The red nose spoke.

Kühn Bergthor,
Sitting next to me
Twitched - as if
Burned her with his gaze

Konung. Slowly
Rose from the throne
He looked around the hall,
Laughed hard:

"What, have fun,
Without knowing grief?
Think, I...that...
I don't understand?

After all, each of you
Whether he is my friend or my brother,
My place
I would be glad to borrow!

On my kyuna
You glance;
Probably, they desired
And the seas of support!"

"The king is drunk!"
There was a whisper.
"A troll did this
Thoughts are a swamp!"

What did you hiccup say?
Well, repeat it!"
The king roared towards the wall,
Where is the lari?

Trotted
A little drunk
But suddenly I stumbled
About the earl's leg.

After the flight -
It didn't last long -
King in the cauldron
Landed in a pub.

All the idle people
He froze in amazement.
The king gurgled...
And it never surfaced again.

Have less beer
He drank
Maybe the end of the saga
I would be different.

Benefits of beer
Not much at all.
To some it is
There is a road straight to Hel's house.

This is Horrible
I've said it more than once.
The skald of his words
He just repeated it.

The Saga of Harald Hardraad

Young people who lived according to a code of honor, who had known navigation since childhood, turned their gaze to foreign shores, where they were ready to commit bloody but heroic deeds, not disdaining either robbery or profit, gaining their reputation, but leaving behind a terrible memory. Even in their early youth, Viking boys were expected (and encouraged) to exhibit the fighting spirit of Havamal.
The sagas tell how Olaf, the Norwegian warrior king, once sat his three little half-brothers on his lap and began to scare them with terrible grimaces. The older ones, Guttorm and Halfdan, trembled with fear, and three-year-old Harald boldly looked into the eyes of the formidable monarch and pulled his mustache with all his might. Olaf was delighted: “One day you will become an avenger, kinsman.”

The next day, Harald once again proved that Viking blood flows in his veins. Olaf asked his brothers what they wanted more than anything in the world. Guttorm, stretching out his little hands to the sides, wished to have more land than the ten largest neighboring landowners in order to grow a lot of wheat. “There will be plenty of grain,” the king agreed. “Well, what about you, Halfdan?” Halfdan dreamed of vast herds of cows: “And when they come down to the lake to drink, there will be so many of them that they will surround the entire lake with a dense ring.” “Well, you will live in grand style,” said the king. What did little Harald want? “I want an army!” he declared, “so large that my warriors will eat all the cows of brother Halfdan in one sitting!” Olaf laughed and said to the baby's mother: "You are raising a king." As it turned out, Olaf was right. When the boy grew up, he became King Harald Hardraade and died during the invasion of England in 1066, shortly before the successful campaign of William the Conqueror.

Song of the "unbrave" skald

The squad goes into battle again,
Again the screams, the ringing of axes.
I, having thrown on my embroidered cloak,
I don’t get into battle, I’m for peace!

I don't feel like fighting
I don't like killing...
Oh, the arrow found Gerrod -
We need to crawl further.

So what am I talking about? Ah, about the battle,
Where the judgment of war takes place.
If the judge is sharper than a razor,
The trial is always tough.

Who? I'm not worthy of honor
Die with a sword in your hand?
Having seen how a true warrior,
The sparkle of Valhalla in the distance?

It hurts! I'm in no hurry!
I'm not a warrior, I'm a poet.
I want - please, no laughter! -
Live for many more years.

People fall like pine trees
Under the blow of an axe.
There's a berserker with an evil look
Rushing here... I have to go!

***
He who tasted the honey did not leave,
My head flew off my shoulders.
Didn't even add a year
This fiery speech!

Song of the Vikings

Again the steel of the helmet cools my forehead,
Salty splashes fly into your face.
They call us Vikings, which means hardly
We have a way back...

They fear us and hate us,
We are never welcome anywhere.
And it will be so as long as our eyes see
The trail of alien ships on the water...

Odin and Thor were forgotten on the shore,
If you don't want to believe in Valhalla, don't believe it!
The one who takes a life will not be called a thief,
The wind is fair to both us and death!

And not everyone will see old age -
We have been given a different fate:
The sail will be the funeral pyre,
And the wave will be our mound...

Odin and Thor were forgotten on the shore,
If you don't want to believe in Valhalla, don't believe it!
The one who takes a life will not be called a thief,
The wind is fair to both us and death!

They say, “scratch a Russian and you will find a Tatar.” With the same confidence we can say: “scratch a Russian and you will find a Varangian.”

Scratch the Viking...

Vikings are not a nationality, but a vocation. “People from the bay” - this is how this warlike word is translated from the ancient Norse language - caused a lot of trouble to the civilized world at the turn of the second millennium. Sea nomads kept Europe in fear - from the British Isles to Sicily. In Rus', statehood appeared largely thanks to the Vikings.

Among the Vikings, Scandinavian-Germans predominated. Notoriety about them spread from the Caspian to the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the Vikings were the Pomor Slavs and the Curonian Balts, who kept the entire Baltic in suspense in the 8th-9th centuries.

According to the Roewer genetic laboratory, published in 2008, up to 18% of Russians are descendants of people from Northern Europe. These are owners of haplogroup I1, common for Norway and Sweden, but atypical for Russia. “Descendants of the Vikings” are found not only in northern, but also in southern cities.

In Rus' the Scandinavians were known as Varangians, Rusov And kolbyagov. At that time, in the West only the name was in use Normans –"northern people"

Rus

According to one hypothesis, the Rus were a Swedish tribe. The Finns still remember this and call them ruotsi, and Estonians - rootsi. Ruothi Swedish Sami call themselves. The Komi and eastern Finno-Ugric tribes already call the Russians themselves - rot's, roots. This word is in both Finnish and European languages goes back to the designation of red or red color.

We say “Russians”, we mean “Swedes”. In this form they are mentioned in the documents of Byzantium and European states. “Russian names” in documents and contracts of the 9th-10th centuries turned out to be Scandinavian. The customs and appearance of the Rus were described in detail by Arab historians and are suspiciously similar to the lifestyle and appearance of the Swedish Vikings.

For the “people from the bay,” the Russian lands did not offer much scope for sea voyages. And yet wealth eastern worlds attracted the most adventurous. Settlements of the Rus are spread over the main water arteries– Volga, Dnieper, Western Dvina and Ladoga.

Ladoga is the first Scandinavian city in Russia. Legends mention it as the Aldeygjuborg fortress. It was built around 753, located opposite a successful Slavic trading fortress. Here the Rus mastered the Arab technology of making money. These were eyed beads, the first Russian money for which you could buy a slave.

The main occupations of the Rus were the slave trade, robberies of local tribes and attacks on merchants. A century after the founding of Ladoga, the Arab Caliphate and Europe learned about the tricks of the Rus. The Khazars were the first to complain. The raids of the Rus harmed their traditional craft - with the help of extortions and duties, they “skimmed the cream” from trade between the West and the East. In the 9th century, the Rus were the most hated tribe. They defeated the Byzantines on the Black Sea and threatened to cause a “storm in the desert” for the Arabs.

Varangians

The Varangians are mentioned in Russian chronicles, first of all, not as a people, but as a military class of “overseas” origin. Under the name “Varangs” (or “Verings”) they served Byzantium and helped guard its borders from the raids of their own fellow tribesmen - the Rus.

“The Calling of the Varangians” is a vivid example effective management. The overseas prince no longer served the interests of clans, tribes and clans, pursuing an independent policy. Chud, Slovenes, Krivichi and everyone were able to “pause” the constant strife and occupy the Varangians with matters of national importance.

The Varangians adopted Christianity when it had not yet become mainstream in Rus'. Pectoral crosses accompanied the burials of soldiers back in the 9th century. If we take the “baptism of Rus'” literally, then it happened a century earlier - in 867. After another unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople, the Russians, changing tactics, decided to atone for their sins and sent an embassy to Byzantium with the aim of being baptized. Where these Rus ended up later is unknown, but half a century later Helg visited the Romans, who, by misunderstanding, turned out to be a pagan.

Gardar and Biarmland

In the Scandinavian sagas Rus' was called Garðar, literally - “fence”, the outskirts of the human world, behind which the monsters were located. The place is not the most attractive, not for everyone. According to another version, this word meant “guards” - fortified Viking bases in Russia. In later texts (XIV century) the name was reinterpreted as Garðaríki- “a country of cities”, which more reflected reality.

According to the sagas, the cities of Gardariki were: Sürnes, Palteskja, Holmgard, Kenugard, Rostofa, Surdalar, Moramar. Without possessing the gift of providence, one can recognize in them the familiar cities of Ancient Rus': Smolensk (or Chernigov), Polotsk, Novgorod, Kyiv, Rostov, Murom. Smolensk and Chernigov can argue for the name “Surnes” quite legitimately: not far from both cities, archaeologists have found the largest Scandinavian settlements.

Arab writers knew a lot about the Rus. They mentioned their main cities - Arzú, Cuiabá and Salau. Unfortunately, the poetic Arabic language does not convey the names well. If Cuiaba can be translated as “Kyiv”, and Salau as the legendary city of “Slovensk”, then nothing at all can be said about Arsa. In Ars they killed all foreigners and reported nothing about their trade. Some see Rostov, Rusa or Ryazan in Ars, but the mystery is far from being resolved.

There is a dark story with Biarmia, which Scandinavian legends placed in the northeast. Finnish tribes and mysterious Biarmians lived there. They spoke a language similar to Finnish, and mysteriously disappeared in the 13th century, by the time the Novgorodians arrived in these lands. These lands are described as reminiscent of Russian Pomerania. The Scandinavians left few traces here: in the vicinity of Arkhangelsk they found only weapons and jewelry from the 10th-12th centuries.

The first princes

Historians trust the chronicles, but they do not believe them and like to find fault with words. The “blank spot” in the evidence about the first Varangian princes is confusing. The texts say that Oleg reigned in Novgorod and took tribute from him, which is a contradiction. This gave rise to the version about the “first capital” of Rus' near Smolensk, where there was the largest Scandinavian settlement. At the same time, Ukrainian scientists are also adding fuel to the fire. They claim that they have found the grave of a “Varangian prince” near Chernigov.

The names of the first Russian princes sounded differently in the documents than in the Tale of Bygone Years. If there is almost no news about Rurik, then Igor “according to his passport” was Inger, Oleg and Olga were Helg and Helga, and Svyatoslav was Sfendoslav. The first princes of Kyiv, Askold and Dir, were Scandinavians. The names of the princes of Turov and Polotsk - Tur, Rogneda and Rogvolod - are also attributed to Scandinavian roots. In the 11th century, Russian rulers became so glorified that Scandinavian princely names were rather a rare exception.

The fate of the Varangians

By the X-XII century, the Rurikovich state had become very rich, and could afford to simply “buy” the Varangians needed for service. They were left in city garrisons and squads. Viking attacks on Russian cities would be pointless. It was easier to get a good salary for service.

In the cities, ordinary people often did not get along with the Varangians - there were clashes. Soon the situation began to get out of control and Yaroslav Vladimirovich had to introduce “concepts” - Russian truth. This is how the first legal document in Russian history appeared.

The Viking Age ends in the 12th century. In Rus', mentions of the Varangians disappear from chronicles already by XIII century, and the Russes are dissolving into the Slavic Russian people.