Answers to school textbooks
In plants, unlike animals, not the entire organism moves, but only its individual organs or parts thereof. For example, plant leaf blades slowly turn toward the light. The flowers of many plants close at night or before rain. The leaves of peas and beans fold in the dark and open in the light.
Quite fast movements are also known in plants. In tropical mimosas and wood sorrel, when shaken - for example, by the impact of raindrops - the leaves that make up the complex leaf of these plants quickly come together, and the entire leaf droops.
2. How do single-celled organisms move?
Single-celled animals move in different ways. For example, an amoeba forms pseudopods and seems to flow from one place to another. Protozoa, which have flagella and cilia, move differently. The ciliate slipper swims quickly, deftly acting with the cilia covering its body. By rowing with them, like micro-oars, she can move forward, backward, and freeze in place. At room temperature the cilia make up to 30 strokes per second, during which time the shoe travels a distance of 25 mm, which is 10-15 times the length of its body.
Many protozoa, as well as some bacteria, unicellular algae have a different mover - a flagellum (can be one, two or several). The movements of the flagellum - a long, elongated structure - are quite complex. It works like a propeller: making rotational movements, it seems to screw the animal’s body into the water and pull it along with it. In 1 second, euglena, for example, can move 0.5 mm.
3. How does an earthworm move?
An earthworm moves by alternately contracting circular and longitudinal muscles. At the same time, body segments either compress or lengthen. The movements of the worm begin with the contraction of the circular muscles at the anterior end of the body. These contractions take place segment by segment, moving in waves throughout the body. The body becomes thinner, the setae - dense outgrowths on the ventral side of the worm's body - protrude, and the worm, resting the setae of the rear segments on the soil, pushes the anterior end of the body forward. Then the longitudinal muscles contract, and a wave of contractions again runs throughout the body. Relying on the bristles of the anterior segments, the worm pulls up the rear part of the body.
4. Name the features of the aquatic habitat.
The water environment offers greater resistance to movement than the air environment.
And when diving to depth, the pressure on the body increases. Therefore, the body shape of animals living in water must be streamlined. Oxygen dissolved in water can only be absorbed thanks to special respiratory organs - gills.
5. What swimming adaptations are found in aquatic animals?
Fish have devices such as fins for swimming. Whales and dolphins use their tail to move, this is their main organ of movement.
Some aquatic animals also use such unusual methods of movement as jet propulsion. For example, a clam scallop, sharply bringing the shell doors together, pushes a stream of water back out of it and, thanks to this, moves forward in jumps.
Waterfowl swim using membranes on their toes. In the mallard duck they are located between the three front fingers. When swimming, the membranes stretch and act like boat oars.
6. How are the tail fins of fish and whales different?
In whales, unlike fish, the caudal fin is located not in a vertical, but in a horizontal plane. This allows whales to quickly dive and surface.
7. How do squids move?
Squids use jet propulsion to move. Pushing back a powerful stream of water from the body cavity, they move forward in leaps and bounds.
8. What animals can fly?
Animals that can fly are insects, birds, bats.
9. List the structural features of birds associated with flight.
The main adaptation of birds to flight is the transformation of the forelimbs into wings. Large feathers on them form the most perfect aircraft. In addition to the wing, the bird has whole line other flight devices. This is a streamlined body shape, a light skeleton (most bones are hollow), well-developed flight muscles, air sacs that reduce body weight and provide better oxygen supply to the lungs during flight.
10. Who are walking animals?
Walking animals are animals that, when walking, rely on limbs - legs. These include most vertebrates and arthropods.
11. What types of movement in four-legged animals do you know?
The movements of quadrupeds are extremely diverse. Among walking mammals, depending on how they rest on their feet, they distinguish between plantigrade walkers, those that rely on their entire foot when walking (bears, people), toe walkers, those that rely on their toes when walking and running, which significantly increases their running speed (cats, dogs ), and ungulates that run on the tips of one or two toes - they run the fastest (horses, deer, roe deer).
12. How do plantigrade animals move?
Plantigrade animals rest on their entire foot when walking. This is how a man and a bear walk.
13. What type of cat movements are they?
The cat's movements are of the digital type. When walking and running, the cat rests on its toes, which significantly increases its running speed.
14. How do ungulates run?
Ungulates (horses, deer, roe deer) run on the tips of one or two toes. This method of transportation is the fastest.
Swimming, crawling, walking, jumping, flying - which type of movement is cooler?
Locomotion, that is, the ability to move from one place to another, is one of the most important characteristics of the vast majority of animals and plays a huge role in their lives. Thanks to active movement from place to place, a rapid change in living conditions occurs, which leads to the improvement of the entire organization of animals, primarily their nervous system and sense organs. Animals capable of rapid movement are easier to defend against unfavorable conditions existence, from various enemies. In addition, due to movement, the species spreads, the capture of new territories with slightly different living conditions, and this contributes to the manifestation of variability - a prerequisite for the emergence of new subspecies and species.
Depending on environmental conditions and lifestyle, in the process of evolution, animals have developed a certain method of movement: swimming, crawling, climbing, walking, running, jumping, gliding, flying.
Land-based four-legged animals move in a particularly diverse manner. The vast majority of them can not only walk, but also run, jump, swim, and some glide. They have observed different kinds walking (gait): very slow, fast or slow rice-like step, fast trot, jump, amble, gallop.
Slow view moves- This is a step in which the animals take turns very slowly leaning on three or four legs, bringing one of them forward. This is how turtles move, for example. They cover approximately 400 m per hour. But among reptiles there are animals that move very quickly. These include many lizards - residents open spaces(steppes, deserts, semi-deserts). Such lizards do not crawl on their belly, but run on legs outstretched with the belly raised high.
Due to the speed of movement, some of the lizards received appropriate names: sand lizard, fast lizard. Agamas, sandy, takyr and other round-headed fish belong to the fast-running species. terrestrial species iguanas, real lizards and others. They are characterized by trotting, and some of them, when running fast, raise their forelimbs and move only on their hind limbs (some iguanas, American running lizards).
The most quick look movement is a gallop. It is characteristic of some mammals: almost all ungulates, predators, sciurids, lagomorphs. The champion among them is the cheetah. Catching up with prey, he a short time develops enormous speed- about 112-115 km/h. He needs only two seconds for his run to reach 70 km/h, and he runs 650 m in 20 seconds.
One of the ways of movement of some four-legged animals is long and high jumps. And this method of movement has its own record holders. In the long jump, kangaroos stand out, particularly the great gray and great red. Although the forelimbs of these animals are so developed that they can rely on them when grazing, jumping on their hind limbs is their main method of movement. These giant animals have extremely developed muscles on long and narrow hind limbs with strong claws, which gives them the ability to make incredible jumps. Sometimes they can jump 12 m in length, while reaching speeds of up to 50 km/h, but not at for a long time. Tree kangaroos can jump 15-18 m, but not in length, but from top to bottom, from one branch to another.
Long jump It also happens to some good runners - predators and ungulates. The well-known “sprinter” pronghorn can make a jump of up to 6 m in length while running, and the black-footed antelope can jump more than 10 m. Long jumps are made by all representatives of the cat family, including large ones - lynx, leopard, tiger, lion, cheetah jump for considerable distances. distance (cheetah up to 9 m).
Each class of vertebrates has its own champions. Thus, in the class of fish, such animals can jump out of the water to a considerable height. freshwater fish, like grass carp and silver carp. The height of their jumps reaches 4 m, and the length is 8 m. In the amphibian class, the African giant frog Goliath jumps 4 m. Of the birds, penguins can jump out of the water onto an ice edge up to 2 or more meters high.
Legless animals, such as snakes, can also move on the ground at a certain speed. The ability to move in the air is inherent in many animals, even typical aquatic inhabitants. Thus, flying fish live in tropical and subtropical seas.
Planning flights amphibians can do, among reptiles the best glider pilot is considered flying Dragon. Some mammals also make gliding jumps, in particular woolly wings, the inhabitants of tropical forests Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Philippines. Their flight membrane is covered with hair and connects the neck, limbs and tail. They are champions among glider pilots. Jumping from the top of a tree, woolly wings spread their legs wide and extend their tail, which stretches the flight membrane, and then, almost without reducing their height, they can fly up to 130-140 m. Significantly inferior to woolly wings are flying rodents, which are very similar to squirrels. Maximum distance their flight is 30-60 m.
Real flight- This is active movement with the help of wings. Thus, insects began to move first. They are characterized by the presence of two or one pair of wings and highly developed muscles. In the best flyers, such muscles account for 15-25% of body weight. Among insects, the speed record holder is the rocker headstock: per second it flies 32 m, therefore, 114 km/h. There are known facts when Australian grandmas were caught in the open sea 900 miles from the mainland.
Among butterflies, the fastest flyers are hawk moths - large and strong nocturnal insects, the front wings of which are long and narrow and, together with the hind wings, are linked into a single flying plane. The flight speed of such hawkmoths as euphorbia, oleander, and death's head reaches 60 km/h. These butterflies can cover a long distance in a short time.
Flight- a typical method of movement for birds. Their entire organization is external and internal structure, physiology - are subordinate to flight. Petrels, albatrosses, vultures, and eagles can stay in the air for a long time, but this is due to soaring flight (passive), in which birds use the wind or ascending air currents, but they don’t flap their wings.
Among mammals, only chiropterans are adapted for real and long-term flight. Their peculiar wings are an elastic leathery membrane between the elongated four fingers of the forelimbs, which goes to the forearm, shoulder, sides of the body, covers hind limbs(without feet) and tail.
Swimming- most ancient look movement of living organisms, but it is inherent not only to aquatic animals that constantly live in water, obtain food in it, and reproduce in it, but also to many terrestrial animals. The ancient inhabitants of the seas – squids – are considered champions in swimming. Thanks to " jet engine» ‒ funnel ‒ they can reach enormous speeds ‒ up to 200 km/h.
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The concept of movement.
Movement is the main property of living organisms.
Movements are divided into three groups:
1. Amoeboid movement is inherent in rhizomes (amoebas), as well as in blood cells and leukocytes. This movement occurs due to outgrowths of the cytoplasm.
2. Movement using flagella and cilia is observed in protozoan animals.
3. Movement using muscles in most animals.
Amoeboid movement.
Movement of protozoa. Euglena green.
Movement using muscles.
Clam movement
Bird flight is movement in the air.
Types of swimming: on the water
Under the water
Jellyfish movement is reactive
Snake movement
The fastest animals are cheetahs. They can run at a speed of 120 km per hour
Kangaroo holds the record for long jump.
Slowest animal?
Answer the questions.
1. What three groups are movements divided into?
2. Give examples of each type.
3. What types of movements are carried out using muscles?
4. Name special methods of transportation
5. Which animals are the fastest and which are the slowest?
6. Record holders among animals.
7 Devices for movement.
Functions that ensure a change in the position of animals in the environment, in other words, their movement in space, are called locomotor. In addition to permanent characteristic features In the structure of the body, which were discussed above, there are also periodic changes in the appearance of animals associated with locomotor functions and accompanied by the movement of limbs and other parts of the body that take part in movement. The silhouette looks different, freely soaring over a mountain valley, descending towards the crown of a tree, or flying from place to place. Many animals can be recognized by a silhouette typical of body posture associated with movement: a monkey by its posture and tail position, aquatic birds (ducks, coots) by its method of swimming, by its method of crawling, etc.
Even though the movement seems simple property animals, in fact it is a very complex activity in which many biological, chemical and physical processes. The basics of locomotor activity are associated with the coordination of limb movement, precise orientation of the animal in space, ensuring sufficient intensity of muscle action, active supply of oxygen to tissues and many other physiological processes in the body. However, on motor functions animals are also influenced by a number of other factors related to structure, size and other external features their bodies. The most important role among them is played by the position of the center of gravity, on which not only the stability of the body at rest and when moving on a hard surface depends, but also the body posture in cases where the animal does not rely on its limbs, that is, when moving in water or in the air. Therefore, for example, for flying species, it is most effective to locate the center of gravity as close as possible to the line of connection of two shoulder joints. The proximity of the center of gravity to the limbs provides, as it were, an ideal “suspension” of the animal in the air, then to establish balance between the front and rear parts the body does not require additional muscle effort. For the same reasons, in aquatic vertebrates the center of gravity moves to the place where the lifting force is applied.
The main condition for body stability is such a position of the center of gravity in which the base of the perpendicular lowered from it falls on the surface limited by the edges of the supports (limbs). The greater the distance from the base of the perpendicular to the support and the less the center of gravity is raised above the support, the greater the stability of the body. In animals that walk on four limbs, maintaining balance is not difficult, and differences in the shape of their body can only affect the degree of stability. Important role What plays here is the distance from the base of the perpendicular to the supports, which varies widely for different animals. If the length of the body is taken as 100, then the ratio of the segments lying before and after the center of gravity is 66.7:33.3 - for, 56.1:43.9 - for, 55.5:44.5 - for large cattle, 51.5:48.5 - for the cheetah, 42.9:51.1 - for the kinkajou and 40.5:59.5 - for the red-headed mangabey. The situation changes significantly for animals with bipedal locomotion (only on the hind limbs), in which stability is much lower due to the small support area and high position center of gravity. These animals must maintain an upright body position by complex balancing, which does not always lead to success even in humans, whose very body structure is specially adapted for walking upright. Techniques for controlling the tail in bipedal mammals and the swaying gait in ducks and other birds, balancing movements of the forelimbs in gibbons, a special way of locomotion on the hind limbs in trained animals - all these are protective measures taken to ensure that when moving, the perpendicular, lowered from the center gravity, fell on the support area, equal in this case only to the area of one foot.
Even greater difficulties arise in cases where the animal moves from time to time in different directions! according to the density of the medium; Naturally, the position of the center of gravity should change accordingly. If during bipedal walking the center of gravity is located above the hind limbs, then when flying it should be moved far forward, and when swimming it should be above the center of application of the lifting force. This primarily applies to waterfowl, which use all these methods. Thus, ducks move their center of gravity by changing their body position and neck movements. While walking, their body is in a fairly straightened state, and when flying and swimming, the center of gravity is regulated by stretching or throwing back the neck. In birds with long legs, for example, in storks, herons or flamingos, both the neck and limbs are involved in moving the center of gravity. Characteristic changes of this kind are especially clearly visible during flight (the heron folds its neck in the form Latin letter 8, pulls it forward), in swimming birds (differences in the methods of diving and body position on the surface of the water in ducks, grebes, cormorants) and in other groups of vertebrates.
Movement methods can be divided into six types depending on the environment in which the animal moves and the participation different parts bodies: walking (walking, crawling on four limbs, trotting, running), crawling, digging, climbing, flying and swimming.
The main way of moving land animals can be considered walking, with various forms which we meet in all classes of vertebrates starting from . The original form of such movement is the crawling on four limbs of primitive tetrapods, which is sometimes thought to be a direct development of the movement of aquatic vertebrates. It is characteristic of the walking movement that only one limb always rises above the supporting surface, and the other three support the body; Moreover, the limbs move diagonally, that is, the right front is followed by the left back, then the left front and, finally, the right back. Simultaneously with the movement of the limbs, the axis of the body also deviates accordingly, a kind of wave-like movement occurs, caused by the fact that the foot and lower leg are located almost horizontally and, when moving in this plane, describe an arc. Some experts consider wave-like movement to be the initial type of movement, and the movement of the limbs only as its result. In mammals (except for), in birds, as well as in extinct lizards, which are characterized by a straightened position of all parts of the limbs along a line parallel to the longitudinal axis of the body, the wave-like movement disappears, but not completely. In this case, the methods of moving the limbs can be different, starting from one in which one limb first moves forward (the primitive movement of reptiles and tailed amphibians) or two (either on one side of the body for pacers or diagonally with a variable step), and ending with in different forms rapid movement, when only one limb rests on a hard surface, and sometimes all limbs may find themselves in the air for a short time. Ambling and variable stride were previously considered completely different types movements. Typical pacers include camels, elephants, bears and some breeds of domestic horse. However, both of these types of movement can occur (and smoothly transition from one to another) in animals of the same species and even in the same individual. The latter can be clearly seen in film footage of the movements of a tiger, lion, dog and others.
Of these four forms of walking movement, three, namely crawling on four limbs, walking and trotting, differ from one another only in speed, that is, in the frequency of movement of the limbs. The main characteristics of these three forms of movement remain unchanged, that is, in all cases there is symmetrical movement. In contrast, when running, these characteristics change: the movement becomes asymmetrical and often both forelimbs and both hindlimbs move simultaneously. In some phases of running, the animal's body does not touch the ground at all.
In addition to the four main forms of walking, animals may also encounter some of their modifications. The primary locomotor function either remains unchanged or receives secondary development as a means of communication between animals. We know very well how different a calmly walking dog looks and the same dog that sees another dog in front of it. A modified step is crawling itself - when the joints of the limbs are constantly in such a position that the animal’s belly moves directly above the ground. The trotting movement is characterized by the fact that one pair of limbs rises diagonally before the other pair rests on the ground. This movement can be observed in monkeys, mainly apes, which rest on the ground with the bent fingers of the forelimbs.
Body position when moving and the method of movement itself may be associated with unusual proportions of organs or their individual parts. This is clearly noticeable in giraffes, which, when moving quickly, must move unusually long neck, thus adjust the position of the center of gravity. Most strong influence The nature of movement is, of course, influenced by the very structure of the limbs. For example, animals with a long body and short legs, such as martens or stoats, cannot run in the strict sense of the word. Their main type of movement, referred to as “jumping run,” is characterized by fast jumps with a constantly bent spine.
Question 1. What are the main methods of movement of animals? What is their difference?
Found in animals different ways locomotion: amoeboid movement (using pseudopods), movement using flagella and cilia, and movement using muscles.
Question 2. What methods of animal movement can only be used in aquatic environment, and which ones - in different ones?
Amoeboid movement, as well as movement with the help of flagella and cilia, is possible only in the aquatic environment. And movement with the help of muscles can be carried out in various environments.
Question 3. Which animals are characterized by movement using flagella and cilia?
Movement with the help of flagella and cilia is characteristic of unicellular organisms - flagellates and ciliates, as well as some multicellular animals (for example, ciliated worms) and their larvae.
Question 4. Why can’t we say that there is a universal method of movement in any habitat?
Living environments (ground-air, water, soil, other organism) vary greatly in physical properties. All animals are adapted to move in their typical habitat; they are adapted to move in other environments to a lesser extent or not at all, so it cannot be said that there is a universal method of movement in any environment.
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