Symbiosis, or the cohabitation of two organisms, is one of the most interesting and still largely mysterious phenomena in biology, although the study of this issue has almost a century of history. The symbiosis phenomenon was first discovered by the Swiss scientist Schwendenter in 1877 when studying lichens, which, as it turned out, is complex organisms consisting of algae and fungus. The term "symbiosis" appeared in the scientific literature later. He was proposed in 1879 de Bary.

In a series of symbiosis, symbiosis involving algae is occupied. Algae is able to enter into symbiotic relations not only with each other, but also with representatives of various systematic groups of organisms of both the animal and plant kingdom (bacteria, single-cell and multicellular animals, mushrooms, moss, ferns, vote and coated plants). However, a list of such algae is very limited. From the extensive group of blue-green algae symbiosis with mushrooms (lichen symbiosis) are capable of installing representatives of no more than 5-7 genera, of which there are more often than others. Nostoca (Nostoc), Gleokapsa (Gloeocapsa), Scytonema (Scytonema) and stig imagonema.

An analysis of various symbiosis revealed an extremely diverse nature of the relationship between partners, a different degree of their influence on each other. One of the simplest cases is the settlement of some organisms on the surface of others.

As you know, plants living on other organisms, but feed on their own, call epiphyte. Epiphets include a large group of algae. Especially often algae is epiphylate on underwater plants and waterfowl, sometimes covering them with a dense flaw (Fig. 46). In the epiphylation between participants, very fragile and short-term relationships are established, which, however, can already be considered as symbiotic. Since the epiphytic algae and the owner have a rather weak effect on each other, epiphyticism in algae is considered to be the most primitive form of symbiosis. It is even believed to the category of "indifferent". With such a statement, it is difficult to fully agree. Epiphyts really do not cause direct harm to the body to which they are attached, but indirect damage is still applied. It is well known, for example, that the legs of waterfowl, spiders and bugs become less mobile, and the plants are very shaded by the epiphyts, unfavorable for photosynthesis. With an inwarding phenomenon, it is often necessary to deal with the dilution of aquarium plants that can be strongly caught by algae inhabiting them.

Unfortunately, the phenomenon of epiphyticism from a biological point of view is studied extremely weakly. It is possible that relationships are established between epiphet and its owner, the relationships are much more complicated than we usually imagine.

In addition to the surface attachment, algae can live in the tissues of other organisms as extracellular (in mucus, interclauders, rarely in the shells of dead cells - Fig. 47), and intracellularly (in the content of living intact cells - Fig. 48). Such algae by habitat are referred to as a group of plants. endophyt.

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Extracellular and especially intracellular tipophytes from among algae compared to zpigatites form more complex symbiosis - endosimbiosis. They are characterized by the presence of more or less close, constant and durable ties between partners. Zindosymbiosis can be identified only with the help of special cytological studies.

The largest group of single-cell green and yellow-green algae with single-cell animals is constituted (Fig. 48, 1). These algae wear the names accordingly ZOO Bohlorell and Zoocantelle. Of the multicellular animals, green and yellow-green algae form zindosymbizes with freshwater sponges, hydraces, etc. (Fig. 48, 2). Blue-green algae form from protozoa and some other organisms a peculiar group of endosimbiosis, called name syncianozov; arising from this morphological complex of two organisms called cyanom, and blue-green algae in it - cyseland (Fig. 48, 3).

The comparison of various endosimbiosis allows us to outline the consecutive levels of complication of the morphological and functional integration of partners. Thus, some zindosymbizes exist very short time, and then disintegrate, which is evidence of their primitiveness. An example of this can serve as the glossy colonial blue-green algae of the Voronikhinia (WORONICHINIA NAEGELIANA). Almost 50% of cases in the mucus surrounding the ballproof colonies of this algae, other Xerenelen algae live (Lyngbya Endophyotica and Synechocystis Endobiotica - Fig. 47,7). They intensively breed there, although they have an extremely pale, barely noticeable color. This is probably due to the appearance of the ability to dispose of already ready-made organic compounds, which are formed in abundance during the decay of the mucus.

Over time, the intensive growth of algae in the mucus of the reconofing leads first to suppress the cells, and then to the disorganization and the death of the entire colony, and therefore the symbiosis as a whole.

The question arises: how to penetrate algae in fabrics and cells of other organisms? Some organisms have special devices for this. Thus, in the small, floating ferns of the Azolla (Azolla) on the underside of the leaves, special cavities are located with narrow outdoor holes through which the mucus is distinguished. In these cavities, no matter what geographical point of the globe is growing azolla (in America, Asia, Africa or Australia), colonies are styled a strictly defined type of blue-green algae - Anabena (Anabaena Azollae). Over time, the cavity is closed and complete isolation of algae came there. Attempts to infection Azollas by representatives of other birth and even species of Snezelepel algae did not have success. This suggests that in the process of the occurrence of this symbiosis between participants, quite specific physiological interdependence is established. This conclusion is also confirmed by the fact that the azole-produced nitrogen compounds are fully absorbed by endosing anabene copies here, as a result of which they disappear with its free-lived representatives of this blue-green algae function of fixing the atmospheric nitrogen. In turn, Anabena additionally supplies the owner's tissue with oxygen and other products of its livelihoods.

Despite the specialization of physiological processes that exists in these symobiones, none of them undergo some kind of significant changes in its organization.

However, the situation is far from all endosimbitosis of this type. The endosimbiotic lifestyle of algae most often leads to partial or complete reduction of their cell membranes. For example, in the fabrics of the sea-green sponge-green sponge (ApLysilla) of features of a blue-green algae from the family of a fanokaps (APHANOCAPSA), the reduction of the cell membrane is expressed in reducing its thickness. Due to this, the protective properties of the shell decrease, but its permeability increases. The last quality undoubtedly improves the conditions of transport of substances between the cells of the sponge and the zindosimbitating algae there.

Endosimbiosis related to the category extracellularForming enough sustainable functional and morphological complexes. This trend is even more intensified from intracellular endosimbiosis. The mechanism of the penetration of algae inside the cells of other organisms without damaging and disturbing normal life remains unscrewed. Partly of the prerequisites for the occurrence of intracellular endosimbiosis can be laid in the preservation of certain organisms of a huge type of power in the cells. Of all known types of food, the holo-type type is considered one of the most ancient.

In organisms with a gold-free type of food, captured mining, among which they turn out to be algae, comes directly inside the cell and is digested there. However, individual captured individuals are likely due to the coincidence of favorable circumstances, it is sometimes possible not only to be preserved inside the host cells in the intact form, but also to develop adaptations to new, unusual living conditions and begin to multiply there. As a result, the relationship of a new type is established between the organisms - symbiotic. It is probably that specimens of moving single-cell algae evglen (Euglena Gracilis) in epithelial cells of the rear of the larvae of some types of dragonflies penetrate. Evglen cells remain green throughout the entire period of living together. These, however, lose mobility, but at the same time they are never incisive. Obviously, in the same way of an individual of single-cell green algae carteria (Carteria) in the epidermal cells of the Ceonvoluta Roscoffensis (Convoluta Roscoffensis). As it turned out, the cells of the carterity under the influence of a symbiotic lifestyle, although they undergo very significant changes (the shell is fully reduced, and the cells are surrounded by a thin plasma membrane - a plasma-plasma, stigma disappears, the internal organization of flavors is simplified), but do not stop photosynthesize. In turn, the worm acquires the ability to feed on the product of the vital activity of algae, which are produced in the process of photosynthesis. In particular, it can live within 4-5 weeks, without receiving any food from the outside. However, when the photosynthesis process stops (for example, if experience in the dark), dying and algae, and a worm. Moreover, the larvae of the worm, devoid of algae cells, is not able to conduct an independent existence. Artificial infection of algae fails.

Intracellular zindosymbosis are undoubtedly easier to be installed with those organisms whose cells do not have a tight shell throughout the life cycle or at least one of its stages. The penetration of symbiont inside the cells with rigid shells is possible only under the condition of their partial or complete destruction. The latter may occur under the action of specific enzymes produced by the organism entering into symbiotic relations. The strict specialization of organisms entering into symbiosis encouraged in some cases is likely to be explained by this circumstance. Unfortunately, all attempts to discover at least traces of such enzymes have not been crowned with success.

Some intracellular zindosimbitosis, as it occurs in the dragonfly larvae, periodically disintegrate and renew again; Others are continuously supported from generation to generation, since in these cases there are strong and long connections between the participants. The latter group of endosimbitosis, obviously could arise due to the loss of the phase in the life cycle of the host organism, which was favorable to penetrate the symbiount in its cells. From this point, it seems that two organisms two organisms begins. In such cases, the transition to a symbiotic method of existence is inevitably accompanied by a number of adaptive changes in both organisms. Sometimes the CTI changes are morphologically insignificant and symbiount can be found (for example, the Nostok in the geosphona, Fig.48.3), and sometimes they are so significant that symbiotizing algae cannot be identified with any of the free-lived algae.

Thus, in vacuoles of one of the types of Paramecium Bursaria (Paramecium Bursaria), single-cell green alga is invariably present. According to morphology and peculiarities, it can only be conditionally attributed to the transformation algae from the genus Chlorella (Ghlorella). It has been established that algae cells are divided regardless of parametion division. Each of the newly formed subsidiaries (motorhospurs) algae immediately lies in a special vacuole and in such a form in the future it is distributed between the subsidiaries of infusoria.

In some cases, there are so close interdependent relations between the symbilations that they cannot live outside the symbiosis. Obviously, they irreversibly lose the ability to independently produce a number of substances that are in finished form coming from algae symbiotic with them. The reality of such an assumption was fully confirmed in experiments with hydra, which it turns out, in the desired quantity it receives maltose from the cell symbiotizing green algae there, the systematic affiliation of which is accurately installed and failed.

Sometimes, unacceptable endosimbitosis leads to the formation of such a complex, the symbiotic nature of which is detected with great difficulty. It happened with two algae - cyanofora and glaucoccalism.

In 1924, a new algae for science was described, called Cyanophora Paradoxa, Table 5, 7). Later, a detailed study of this body has shown that the cyanofor is a symbiosis of colorless single-cell algae cryptomanone (Pyrrophyta Department) and an intracellular-green-green algae in it (Chrooccus) from the Cyanophyta department). The cells of the latter influenced by a symbiotic lifestyle are so strongly modified that they lose their typical appearance. This is mainly expressed in the strong reduction of the cell shell.

It decreases not only in thickness, but also by the number of layers included in its composition: instead of a four-sheep, typically characteristic of free-lived blue-green algae, it becomes two-layer.

Cysenels included in Glaukocystise (Glaucocystis Nostochinearum) are still undergoing more transformations - a very peculiar single-cell algae described at the end of the last century. Its systematic Topiene has not been able to determine exactly for a long time. Based on a blue-green color, it was first attributed to the Cyanophyta department. In the future, the identification of a number of signs, absolutely unusual blue-green algae (the presence of a morphologically decorated nucleus, painted taurus, reproduction through motorhospare), made it possible to attribute this body to green algae (Chlorophyta department). Only in the 30s of the current century it was finally established that glaucoccitis is an extremely peculiar shape of an endosimbiosis of bleaching single-cell algae, close to oocystis (ooCystis), and row-shaped blue-green algae, which has undergone such strong transformations that Systematic affiliation is not possible. Equally, it can be any modified representative from a number of generic single-cell rod-shaped blue-green algae. In symbios of this kind, glaucocci is still the only example of establishing such close relationships between partners. Blue-green algae (cyanoella) are located in the cells of glaucoccalism or streamlining in the form of two groups, or randomly, by chance.

Cysenel and free-lived blue-green algae in their fine organization are no different from each other. It is noteworthy that in cyanellah there is no inclusion of spare nutrients represented by various metabolic granules. Apparently, the need for it disappears, since cyaniallas get the substances they need directly from the host cell. At the same time, cyanine supplied in the host cells some products that are produced by them in the process of photosynthesis. This is evidenced by the presence in the cytoplasm of colorless cells of the body-owner of starch grains. The phenomenon is very unusual, since all chlorophyllon green plants have the only location of the localization of the starch grains are the plastic (chloroplast). In symbiosis conditions, its participants achieve, probably maximum specialization, by virtue of which symbiotizing blue-green algae takes on the functions of chloroplasts, but they do not become. In favor of the latter, there is a significant spiderman in the organization of Cyanalel and Land. The cells of the colorless symbilation of glaucocci is lost the ability to the independent formation of starch, which is formed there, obviously, with the direct participation of Cyanelle.

The study with the help of an electron microscope of Cianial, which is part of glaucoccalism, revealed them a strong degree of low reduction of the cell shell. It persists here in the form of a bare contour, which can be detected only under the condition of high quality fixation and material processing. A more careful study of Cyanalel showed that they are surrounded only by a thin (100 ± 10a) membrane, called a plasma. This degree of reduction of cellular cover is a unique phenomenon among the symbiosis of blue-green algae.

From the above characteristic of Cyanalel, it is clear that they are nothing but the cells of blue-green algae, devoid of spare substances and cell meters.

The division of Cianiall, as well as cells free-lived blue-green algae, is carried out by hauling in half. It is autonomously and is not timed to the reproduction period of the host cell. In each of his daughter cells, several cyaniall usually falls. This ensures the continuity of symbiosis. Unlike the organelle, the distribution of cyanoell between the subsidiaries of the owner is random, so their number varies greatly. There is no doubt that the division itself and the nature of the divergence of Cyanelle on the daughter cells is not regulated by the owner, which would be quite natural if they turned into organelles, but by the Cianials themselves, which preserved all cell properties. However, even in conditions of such a highly developed symbiosis, the example of which is glaucocci, both partners still retain their individual traits and autonomy. This is evidenced by their ability to separate existence outside the host cells. In a specially selected nutrient medium, isolated symbiontes behave like independent organisms. They are not only growing and developing and developing, but also multiply.

Among the symbiosis formed with the participation of algae, the highest interest is the symbiosis of algae with mushrooms, known as lichen symbiosis. As a result of this symbiosis, a peculiar group of plant organisms arose, called lichens. More details with them can be found in the relevant section of this volume.

Without going here in a detailed description of lichen symbiosis, it is necessary, however, to note his originality. In this symbiosis, there is such a biological unity of two organisms, which leads to the appearance of a fundamentally different third. At the same time, each partner retains the features of the group of organisms to which it belongs, and no one has a trend towards transformation into a part of the other.

While lichens is the only strictly proven case of one completely new organism from two. This fact served to search for synthetic forms in a wide variety of systematic groups of plants and animals. However, all the efforts attached in this direction turned out to be unsuccessful. Nevertheless, the assumption of the possibility of the existence of synthetic forms of organisms was so tempting that a new course appears in biology. Unlike the usual, firmly affordable views of biologists on the origin of organisms as a transition from a simple to differentiation of differentiation, a new idea of \u200b\u200bthe occurrence of a complex organism is originated from the simplest means of synthesis. Some biologists began to consider the vegetable cell not as a product of the gradual differentiation of the protoplast, but as a symbiotic complex, synthesized from several simple organisms. These ideas originated and received the most complete development in the works of our domestic scientists.

For the first time the assumption of an important role formative symbiosis (i.e., the symbiosis leading to the formation of new forms) in the evolution of organisms was expressed by Academician A. S. Famincin in 1907. Developing these thoughts further, K. S. Merezhkovsky in 1909 formulated the hypothesis of symbogenic origin of organisms and called it "Theory of Simbiogenesis". In the future, she gained wide fame among biologists. In the 20s, it was supported and developed on the well-known Soviet botanist B. M. Kozo-Polyansky. Nowadays, these ideas, already at a new level of biology development, were revived by the American researcher Sagan Margulis in its hypothesis of the origin of eukaryotic cells. In accordance with this hypothesis, such cell organelles such as mitochondria, basal bodies of flagella and eukaryotic cell plastides occurred from symbiotizing blue-green algae and bacteria in pixes. As the main argument, some features of similarities in the structure, structure and behavior of the listed organelles and prokaryotov are given. Undoubtedly, these facts deserve the most close attention. However, they are insufficient to justify the symbiogenesis hypothesis, since the similarities of similarity, as a limit, can appear in different structures or organisms and due to parallelism in evolution. Thus, the system of stigma - a flagella in golden, yellow-skinned and brown algae in appearance and functions very much resembles the retina sticks of animals, although the whole process of their embezzlement and the course of ontogenetic development suggests that there can be a speech about the generality of the origin of these formations.

The study of symbiotic organisms in the electron microscope shows that even such a highly developed symbiosis, as glaucocci, partners retain their individual traits and autonomy. Analysis of algae symbiosis with various organisms identifies a certain focus in the development of relations between partners, mainly through the maximum specialization of functions and caused by this circumstance of structural rearrangements while maintaining them as independent organisms; It goes against the positions of symbogenesis hypothesis. All this testifies to the fact that at present the hypothesis of symbiogenesis is at that stage of development, when logical constructions are clearly dominated by the facts.

Of course, symbiosis can lead to the creation of new organisms, which is confirmed by the emergence of such a kind of plant group as lichen. To deny the role of symbiosis in evolution is impossible. And yet it is obvious that this is not the only and not the main way of education of new forms of life. On the one hand, this conclusion brings the fact of the existence of just lichen, since they form an extremely specialized and separate group of organisms representing the blind branch of phylogenetic development. On the other hand, the large actual material is accumulated on the fine organization of the cell. It makes it possible to recreate the picture of the likely separation and complication of the organization of some cellular organelles in algae. By the way, it was the absence of such facts at one time just stimulated the origin of symbogenesis hypothesis.

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All components of the animal and plant world are in close relationships between themselves and enter into complex relationships. Some favorable for participants or are vital, such as lichens (are the result of symbiosis of fungus and algae), others are indifferent, the third is harmful. Based on this, it is customary to distinguish between three kinds of organisms relationships - it is neutralism, antibiosis and symbiosis. The first, in fact, does not represent anything special. These are such relationships between populations living on one territory under which they do not affect each other, do not interact. But antibiosis and symbiosis are examples that are found very often, are important components of natural selection and participate in the divergence of species. Let us dwell on them in more detail.

Symbiosis: What is it?

It is a fairly common form of mutually beneficial cohabitation of organisms, in which the existence of one partner is impossible without the other. The most famous case is a symbiosis of mushroom and algae (lichens). Moreover, the first receives photosynthesis products synthesized by the second. A algae retrieves mineral salts and water from gif mushroom. Life is impossible separately.

Commminasalism

Commminasalism is actually one-sided use in one type of other, without harmful effects. Can be carried out in several forms, but the main two:

All others to some extent are the modifications of these two forms. For example, entomacia at which one species dwells in the body of another. It is observed at the fish of Karapus, which are used as a housing of a cloak of the holoturi (species of iglozzy), but feed outside it with various small races. Or epibeees (some species live on the surface of others). In particular, the pre-boat feels feel well on humpback whales, absolutely not interfering with them.

Cooperation: Description and examples

Cooperation is such a form of relationships in which organisms can live separately, but sometimes combine for general benefits. It turns out that this is an optional symbiosis. Examples:

Mutual cooperation and collaboration in the animal environment is not uncommon. We present only some of the most interesting examples.

Symbiotic relationships between plants

Plant symbiosis is very common, and if you look closely to the world around us, you can see it with a naked eye.

Symbiosis (examples) of animals and plants

Examples are very numerous, and many relationships between different elements of the plant and animal world are still understood.

What is antibiosis?

Symbiosis, examples of which are found practically at every step, including in a person's life, in the composition of natural selection is an important component of evolution as a whole.

Lichens (liquidated mushrooms) - complex organisms, the body (tall) of which constantly consists of two components - mushrooms (micaobound) and algae or cyanobacteria (photobione) forming symbiosis, differing in special morphological and anatomical types, as well as unique physiological biochemical processes. The dual nature of lichens was opened in the 60s of the XIX century by scientist S. Schwenden. The cohabitation of photobionate and micaopte in lichen is mutually beneficial. Photobione supplies carbohydrate micaobion, gets water and mineral substances, drying, solar radiation.

Photobions of most lichen are green algae of 34 genera, in a smaller part - to zinobacteria (blue-green algae) out of 10 genera, as well as yellow-green algae from 1 genus HETEROCOCCUS, and brown algae from 1 Petroderma genus.

From green algae, algae from the genus Trebouxia (in 70% of lichens) is most often present as photobyons (in 70% of lichens), which is practically not found in free condition (according to other sources - very rarely found in a free state), from other types of algae are often presented free-lived algae of Tentepohlia genera And Cladophora.

From blue-green algae, cyanobacteria of generics of Nostoc and Anabaena is often present as photobones in lichens.

Being in Taloma lichen, photobionate usually exists in the form of individual cells or short threads, losing the ability to multiply with zoospores and sexual. It is multiplied by only the division of two or autocrats.

The lichen may include more than two partners. Quite often, three-component lichenss have one micaped and two photobiones (green algae - primary) and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), which is localized in special structures - cephalodia .

For example, lichen Peltigera Aphthosa. It has a single-cell green algae from the genus Coccomyxa in a layered photobione, and cephalodies are developing on the surface of the layers in the form of small tubercles, plates or scales with cyanobacteria from the genus Nostoc.

Micobiles of lichen are mainly mainly for silent mushrooms (more often discomotates, less often to pyrendomitzets and locoaaskomitsis). Such lichens are called temple lichens, for example, with peritiations - Dermatocarpon. sp. (leaf epipal), Verrucaria. sp. (precipitated epipal), with apotegments - types of clans of Xanthoria, Peltigera, Parmelia.

For silence lichens, specific types of thalms were formed (scale, sheets, bushy) and specific lichen substances (75 compounds were detected only in lichen). These are aromatic substances - compounds formed by a combination of phenolic units: quinones, triterpenoids, phenolcarboxylic acids (musty, Evernovaya), Deposits, Xantons, etc.).

Only only a few dozen species, mostly tropical lichens, micaobiontes refers to basidial mushrooms (athyl modo-like and agricultural hymenomycetes). Such lichens are called basidial. In this case, the symbiosis of the fungus and algae does not lead to the formation of new types of Talts, as in silent lichens, and to the formation of specific lichen substances. Mushroom and algae such lichens can exist separately. Basidial lichens repeat the shape of fruit bodies free-lived basidiomycetes and contain a layer of algae.

For example, basidial lichen Cora Pavonia (MICOPIONT - Thelephora.sp., Photobionate - Green Algae Chlorococcumsp.) Grows on the soil and has the form of large (up to 10 cm in diameter) of light gray plates carrying on the bottom of the gymnium. Other basidial lichen Multiclavula Mucida. (MICOPIONT - Clavulinopsis Sp., Photobionate - Green Algae - Coccomyxa. Sp.) Forms low mawal-like, similar to the rogaty mushroom fruit bodies that grow from a mushroom-algae film attached to rotten wood. Basidal lichen Omphalina Ericetorum It has a fruit body in the form of a hat mushroom.

Something a lichen is also a specific integrated symbiotic formation from GIF Mushroom GeoSiphon Pyriforme. (Zygomycota Division), inhabiting on the soil and in water. Inside the hyfe, the threads of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) are located from the genus Nostoc.

Fruit bodies in lichen micaopones are far from always. In some, they may never form at all, so there is a group of "imperfect lichens", which are described over 100 forms on different substrates. These are sterile layers that breed only by the sorties. Of the "imperfect lichens" the most common lepraria (Rod Lepraria). They form powdered (mild-sample) raids on different substrates: stones, rocks, trunks of trees, moss. Usually these whitish-gray raids ( L. Aeruginosa.), sometimes greenish yellow ( L. Chlorina.) or golden yellow ( L. Candelaria).

There are three basic concepts of the essence of lichen symbiosis:

2) Lichetic Association mutually beneficial, mutualistic (A. de bari);

3) Lichen - a single independent organism (J. Reinke, B. M. Kozo-Polyansky). However, the current level of knowledge does not give any reason to approve that the relationship between genetically different organisms can lead to a new independent organism of a special systematic category.

For two first concepts, lichen symbiosis is considered as one of the types of biotic relationships of organisms, i.e., as a association of two genetically separate organisms, which are based on trophic ties.

1) the use of a picture of photobionate photosynthesis products, which is accompanied by a movement of 40% and more (60%) carbon fixed in the process of photosynthesis;

2) the absorption of nitrogen, fixed by the lichen cyanobacteries, is also mainly a mushroom component, only 3% of nitrogen remains for the fraction of photobionate;

3) The presence of absorption gifs in the photobione is penetrating into the photobione cell directly to the protoplast (intracellular gautory), or introduced or pressed to its shell (intra-oral gautory) and servants to transfer nutrients from photobionate to micaobion. Most often, the mushroom receives a polyhydric alcohol ribbon from photobionate, less often glucose.

Symbiosis of animal mushrooms.Known symbiosis of mushrooms and public insects - tropical ants and termites that grow mushrooms in their nests and feed them. Himenomycetes from the genus Rozites, live in symbiosis with ants, but in anthills they are represented only by mycelium. Mycelium is constantly bodied and a head of swollen cells is formed on its short branches, which have ants feed. The female, detected in the marriage flight, takes with him the part of mycelium.

As other examples of symbiosis of animal mushrooms can be caused by yeast associations with xylophages, endosimbiotic groupings of yeast in the intestine of the diplod, complex zoomicrobial complexes, forming in the rotting tissues of some cacti, in the wandering spring eaters of trees, the population of debariomycetes in the nests of forest ants, cohabitation of septobazidial mushrooms and shields .

Symbiosis of mushrooms with higher plants. An example of such symbiosis is mikoriza - cohabitation of gif mushroom with roots of higher plants. It is formed by most plants, with the exception of water. Higher plant provides a mushroom with organic substances, and the mushroom supplies the plant with phosphorus, nitrogen, elements of mineral nutrition. Without the highest plant, the mushroom does not form fruit bodies.

The process of absorption of mineral substances mushrooms is carried out in two ways:

1) by increasing the contact zone between the roots and soil cells,

2) The fungus is able to translate into soluble insoluble or organic phosphate forms that are inaccessible to absorb immuncorride plants.

Mikoriza for the plant is polyfunional. Mesophille enhances the permeability of mesophyll with carbon dioxide, increases the concentration of chlorophyll in the leaves and stimulates photosynthesis, improves the water regime of plants, reduces the flow of heavy metals into the shoots of plants growing on the soils with a high content of easily accessible metals, helps to increase the resistance of plants to salinization on alkaline soils affects The structure of soils and the dynamics of populations of soil organisms.

Mushroom mushrooms are a special ecological group of mushrooms. Mycelium Mikoriznaya Mushrooms is concentrated, as a rule, in epibloma and mesoderm roots and does not occur in the endoderma, the central cylinder, and the rope of the root.

There are ectotrophic, endotrophic and ecro-endotrophic mycariza (Fig. 4-6).

For etototrofna Mycoriza Gifs Mushrooms will tear the root tip, forming an outdoor case with gifs, replacing the plant root hairs. There is no own root hairs the root in this case. Characteristic for wood plants. The main part of the ectomicorization agents - Basidiomycetes.

For endotrofna Mikoriza Gifs Mushroom penetrate the root tissue (for interclauders and intracellular) and only slightly goes out (the root is carrying normal root hairs). And the rugs of the mushroom inside the root are often formed by the Gif girls - vesicula and intracellular branching in the form of Gautory - armbusla . This type of mycorrhiza is called armbuscular Mikorisoy .

Endotrophic mycorrhosis is characteristic of most grassy plants, primarily for orchid. It is formed mainly by microscopic mushrooms from 120 species with non-silic minisses from the Zygomycota department (PR. Glomus (40 species), Acaulospora, Gigaspora, Sclerocystis, etc.), or mushrooms with cell micrifia from Ascomycota and Deuteromycota departments (r. RhizoCtonia). For most types of orchid, such mycorrise is bonded, for other grassy plants it is not so mandatory.

Transition type - ekteo endotrofna mikoriza. In this case, the gifs in this case are thickly fluttered the root outside and give abundant branches that penetrate the root. For interclausers and intracellular, forming vesicula and armpoth in the cells. In addition, the gifs of the fungus, passing between the cells of the risoderma, form a single-layer plexus - "Network of the target", having, possibly, for mushrooms, the value of the mechanism of their genotypic variability. The network has a guarantee. The abundance of the nuclei of freely located in the overall cytoplasm creates opportunities for the parasex process. In addition, it is obvious that the advantage of such a network organization for the nutrient exchange between the mushiba and the plant, as well as for the accelerated movement of substances inside the hyphae is obvious.

Outdoor free gifs of the fungus are widely diverged in the soil from the root, replacing it root hairs. Most trees. Such mycorrhiza form mainly macromycetes from the Basidiomycota department of a group of hymenomycetes (hats mushrooms). From the samples - types of type Tuber and Elaphomyces, encouraging symbiosis with a beech, oak. For most mycorrhis mushrooms, this symbiosis is required.

2.1 Mushroom relationships and algae in lichen body

In the 40s of our century, the German scientist F. Tobler noted that for germination the dispute of the Xaniorian walls requires additives of stimulating substances: extracts of wood bark, algae, plum fruits, some vitamins or other connections. It was assumed that in nature the germination of the fungus is stimulated by substances coming from algae.

After lectins were found in many lichens, substances capable of gluing proteins, some researchers decided that it was the lectins of mushroom gifs that could glue photobionate cells. However, the action of lichen lectins turned out to be so non-specific that they hardly play some role in the "recognition" of algae. True, M. Galloon and her colleagues were found in the walls of mushroom hypnia xanology of a wall protein, able to associate cells of the photobionate of the same lichen or his close "relatives" in the laboratory conditions. This allowed scientists to imagine a picture of the emergence of new layers of Xanioria wall in natural conditions. Numerous disputes that pumped out of the apoteces, getting to a favorable substrate, begin to germinate. If there is a suitable algae on the path, the protein "sticks out" it to the hyphaons and the brave of algae begins, i.e. the first stage of the lichen synthesis. If the algae met is not suitable for a mushroom partner, he simply "does not pay attention to it." As for algae, in recent years it has been shown that the lichen photobyong of the demanding is able to form such zyospores that leave the layer, they live freely and, it means that they are ready to meet with the "Mushroom Partner".

Liberately live in nature and other algae, acting as lichen symbiontes. Thus, in Japan on the crust of trees and on the stones, the algae Trentepsum, which was widespread by the only photobionet from lichens a whole family of graphic. The hypothesis about the new formation of lichen layers in nature has found an unexpected confirmation when German Lichnologists A. Hensen and X. The Kheretel met a plant in the subanctic islands of Prince-Eduard unknown earlier, not even a recognized lichens. In the crusts of the syneselen algae there were rounded tubercles. Attentive studying them under the microscope showed that they are filled with bags with disputes, or conidias. A. Hensen believes that this is a special kind of lichen, devoid of layers and has only fruit bodies. In her opinion, the formation of lichen occurs every time, by soiling the cells of algae gleokapsi mushroom threads. Lichen called Edwardylela amazing. This lichen is an example of the natural process of liquidation at the stage of its formation.

It is noteworthy that for the emergence of symbiotic relations, both partners should receive moderate and even poor nutrition, limited humidity and lighting. The optimal conditions for the existence of the mushroom and algae are by no means stimulate their reunification. Moreover, there are cases when abundant nutrition (for example, with artificial fertilizer) led to a rapid growth of algae in a layered, violation of communication between symbilation and lichen death.

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