A protective covering used to protect a person from various types of weapons, both close combat and ranged (for example, bows). Armor was used to protect both soldiers and war animals such as war horses (horse armor was called barding).
Armor has been used throughout history and was made from a variety of materials; Starting with the simplest leather armor, personal armor has evolved to armor. For most of military history the production of metal armor in Europe was the most technologically advanced process. The production of armor was responsible for the development of many technologies in the ancient world, such as wood working, mining, metal refining, vehicle production (such as chariots), leather working, and, later, decorative metal working. This production influenced the development of the Industrial Revolution, and influenced the commercial development of metallurgy and engineering.
Technologies armor were the single most influential factor in the development firearms, which revolutionized the battlefield.
Materials
Has been used for centuries big variety materials for the production of armor: hides, leather, bones, linen, wood, bronze, iron plates. The armor's resistance to penetrating impact depends on the thickness of the steel - 2mm thick steel can withstand 3 times more impact energy than 1mm thick steel.
Characteristics of armor
Since the 15th century most human body was protected by specialized steel elements, usually worn over linen or wool underwear, which were secured to the body with leather straps, clasps and ties. Chain mail protected areas that could not be protected by plate armor; for example, the back and knees. Known components of plate armor include the helmet, gauntlets, breastplate, and.
Complete for the elite armor was made individually. Most of armor was purchased “as is,” but some armor was customized for the individual owner. The cost of armor varied greatly depending on the era and place, and included both the cost of production and the cost of decoration of the armor. In the 8th century, chain mail cost 12 oxen; by 1600, a horse's armor cost 2 oxen. A typical full plate suit of armor cost approximately £1 in 14th century England, with a warrior earning around 1 shilling per day during the same period. Thus, the armor cost approximately 20 days of service. But plate armor was only available to those who could buy it: the nobility, landowners, and mercenary professional warriors who were the bulk of armies in the Medieval period. Lower ranking soldiers wore significantly less armor. Full plate armor made the wearer virtually invulnerable to sword blows, and also provided significant protection against arrows, clubs, and even early firearms. The edge of the sword could not penetrate the relatively thin plate (only 1 mm). Additionally, while arrows from bows and crossbows, as well as early firearms, could penetrate plates, especially at close range, later improvements in steel processing techniques and armor design made this method of attack much more difficult. As the pinnacle of development, the hardened steel armor was almost impregnable on the battlefield. Knights were more vulnerable to polearms such as halberds and blunt weapons such as maces or war hammers, the blows of which caused damage without piercing armor, and resulted in injuries such as fractures, internal hemorrhages, and/or traumatic brain injuries. Other tactics were aimed at striking between pieces of armor, using daggers, spears and the points of other weapons, hitting the eyes or joints.
Contrary to common misconceptions, well-made medieval “battle” armor (as opposed, primarily, to ceremonial “ceremonial” or “tournament” armor, popular with kings and nobles, is more later years), hindered its owner no more than a modern military equipment. It must be remembered that the knight had been trained to wear armor since adolescence, and he was able to develop the technique and stamina for running, crawling, climbing ladders, as well as mounting a horse without a crane. Full medieval plate armor supposedly weighed about 30kg, and was on average lighter than modern military equipment (up to 50kg).
History of armor
Many factors have influenced the development of armor throughout human history. The most significant factors in the development of armor include the economic and technological needs of production. For example, plate armor first appeared in Medieval Europe, when hammers powered by a water wheel made plate formation faster and cheaper. Likewise, modern militaries generally do not provide their soldiers with the best protection, as it would be extremely expensive. Throughout time, the development of armor has paralleled the development of weapons on the battlefield, and armorers have strived to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.
Mail armor
Chain mail is made of iron rings connected to each other, which can be riveted or welded. Mail is believed to have been invented by the Celts in Eastern Europe around 500 BC. As the Celts moved west, chain mail began to spread. Most cultures that used chain mail used the Celtic word "byrnne" or variations thereof, implying the Celts as the creators. The Roman army used chain mail throughout most of its history. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the infrastructure for making plate armor was largely lost in Europe, leaving chainmail to be the best armor available during the Early Medieval Period.
Transition to plate armor
Gradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the chain mail to protect vulnerable areas. By the end of 1200. the knees were thus protected, and two round discs called "besagews" protected the armpits. There are many known ways to improve the protection of chain mail, and in all likelihood, armorers experimented with various options for protection. Reinforced leather and pinned devices were used to protect parts of the arms and legs. The plate jacket appeared, armor made of large plates sewn onto a textile or leather jacket (sometimes quite long).
Early plate armor in Italy, and in other places in the 13-15th centuries it was made of iron. Iron armor could be carburized or tempered to produce a harder surface. Plate armor became cheaper than chain mail by the 15th century because it was less labor-intensive to manufacture, and labor became much more expensive after the bubonic plague epidemic in Europe in 1348-49, although it required more metal to produce. Mail continued to be used to protect those parts of the body that could not be adequately protected by plates, such as the armpits, elbows and groin. Another advantage of the armor was that the support for the spear could be mounted on the chest plate.
Probably the most recognizable style of armor in the world is plate armor, associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages.
Until about 1400, a full set of plate armor was developed in the armories of Lombardy. Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries due in part to their armor.
In the early 15th century, small "hand guns" began to be used on the battlefields of the Hussite Wars, in combination with gorod tactics, allowing infantry to defeat armored knights on the battlefield. At the same time, crossbows became powerful enough to pierce armor. Instead of eradicating armor as a class, the threat of firearms stimulated improvement protective properties armor This was a 150 year period in which better and more metallurgically advanced steel armor was used, due to the danger posed by firearms. Thus, firearms and armored cavalry were "menace and retribution" together on the battlefield for almost 400 years. By the 15th century, plate armor in Italy was almost always made of steel. In southern Germany, gunsmiths began to harden their steel armor only at the end of the 15th century.
Quality of metal used for manufacturing armor, worsened as armies became larger and armor was made thicker, requiring the removal of riding horses. If during the 14th-15th centuries armor rarely weighed more than 15 kg, then by the end of the 16th century the armor weighed 25 kg. The increasing weight and thickness of late 16th century armor gave a significant increase in strength.
During the appearance of the first pistols and arquebuses, firearms had a relatively low bullet speed. Full armor, or the breaches actually stopped bullets fired from short distances. The front gaps were actually zeroed in during testing of the armor. The point of impact of the bullet was often surrounded by an engraving to indicate it. This was called "proof". Armor often bore the manufacturer's insignia, especially if it was good quality. Crossbow arrows, if still in use, rarely penetrated good armor, as no bullet penetrated except those fired at close range.
In fact, rather than rendering armor obsolete, the advent of firearms stimulated the development of armor in its later stages. For much of the period, the armor allowed riders to fight while constantly in the crosshairs of arquebusiers without becoming easy targets. Full suits of armor were commonly worn by generals and royal commanders until the second decade of the 18th century. It was the only way, which made it possible to be safe at a distance from the battlefield from distant musket fire.
The horses were protected from spears and infantry weapons by steel plate "bard" protection. This gave protection to the horse and enhanced the visual impression of the mounted knight. Later, elaborately crafted bards were used in ceremonial armor .
During the Middle Ages, unchanged and the most important attribute knight's armor was a helmet. In addition to its main purpose ─ to protect the owner’s head, it also served to intimidate opponents, and in in some cases was a badge of distinction during tournaments and battles, where in the general “extras” it was difficult to make out who was who. For this reason, gunsmiths tried to endow each of their products with features inherent only to it, and often real works of art appeared in their workshops.
Helmets of the inhabitants of the Ancient World
The oldest prototypes of future knightly helmets, dating back to III millennium BC e., discovered during excavations of Ur ─ the largest city of the Sumerian civilization. Their appearance in that era became possible thanks to quite high level metal processing technologies.
However, helmets made of gold and copper were extremely expensive and unaffordable for most warriors. Therefore, the bulk of the warriors used special headdresses made of leather and linen, reinforced with copper plates only in the most vulnerable places.
The birthplace of iron helmets, which appeared in the 8th ─ 7th century BC, were two states Ancient World─ Assyria and Urartu. There, for the first time, gunsmiths began to abandon bronze and gave preference to a cheaper and more durable material - iron. Made in workshops steel helmets spheroconic shape, however, they were able to completely displace their bronze predecessors only in the 1st millennium AD. e.
Armor as a symbol of the era
Historians have noted a very paradoxical fact: the heyday of the production of knightly armor, and in particular helmets, occurred in the period of the Late Middle Ages, that is, the XIV ─ XV centuries, when chivalry itself had already lost its significance as the main fighting force.
Thus, numerous armor presented in various museums around the world and sometimes representing genuine masterpieces of weapons art, for the most part are only decorative attributes of the era and indicators of high social status their owners.
The appearance of steel helmets in Europe
The beginning of the widespread use of protective equipment made of iron in Europe is considered to be the Early Middle Ages, which, as is commonly believed, began after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. Combat helmets created in the early period of this era were distinguished by a characteristic feature - they were based on a frame made of thick steel strips, on top of which metal segments were attached. This design ensured their reliability and simplified the manufacturing process, but also significantly increased the weight of the product.
Only in the 6th century did European gunsmiths abandon the frame structure and switch to making a new type of helmet, riveted or soldered from several segments. Often the craftsmen supplemented them with nose guards - narrow, vertically located metal strips that protected the warrior’s face. This novelty was first used by the Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons, and only over the next two centuries did it become widespread among other European peoples.
The emergence of new helmet models
In the 12th century, knightly helmets with a cylindrical crown came into use, which were soon transformed into a new independent type, which received the name “topfhelm” for its characteristic shape, which translated from German means “pot helmet”. They survived until the 14th century.
Around the same period, another unique type of helmet appeared - chapels, which were metal caps with brims, the shape of which often varied depending on the taste of the master and the wishes of the customer.
Since the main advantage of chapels was their relative cheapness, they were used mainly by infantry and poor mounted knights. By the way, in the 15th - 16th centuries, one of the varieties of this type of helmet was used by the conquistadors - the Spanish and Portuguese conquerors of the New World.
Further developments by gunsmiths
The most widespread were the so-called cerveliers - iron hemispherical helmets that fit tightly around the head and resembled a modern helmet. They were deprived of any external protective elements, with the exception of the nose pads, but at the same time they had an important advantage: gaskets made of thick shock-absorbing material and covered with fabric were attached to their inside. They softened the blows the warrior received to the head.
Cerveliers remained in service with the largest European armies until the beginning of the 14th century, after which they were replaced by domed or hemispherical bascinet helmets, equipped with a chain mail aventail, and had many varieties. It is known that initially they, like the cerveliers, were intended to be worn under the larger topfhelm helmets, which were discussed above, but over time they received independent use.
Many authentic helmets of this type, equipped with visors of various designs, have survived to this day. Some of their samples are equipped only with nose guards or even have a design that does not provide for face protection. The common element has always been the chain mail frame, which protected the warrior’s neck and shoulders.
Knights sung by poets
Modern researchers receive information about knightly armor and its transformation over the centuries not only on the basis of those specimens that make up the collections of the largest museums in the world, but also from the literary monuments of the Middle Ages, among which French poems occupy a special place.
Their authors paid great attention to describing not only the exploits of the heroes, but also their armor, the decoration of which was sometimes both decorative and heraldic in nature. For example, knightly helmets often featured not only plumes of feathers, but also rather complex designs in the form of horns and crests of fantastic animals, as well as elements of the family coats of arms of their owners.
The appearance of helmets equipped with a visor
An important stage in the history of defensive weapons was the appearance in the first quarter of the 13th century of helmets that completely protected the head and were equipped with only narrow slits for the eyes. The effectiveness of this design prompted gunsmiths to further develop it, and about a century later knightly helmets, equipped with a visor ─ a movable part designed to protect the warrior’s face, came into use. In the middle of the 14th century, they became an integral part of any combat armor.
When studying helmets different eras A characteristic difference inherent in Western European samples is striking. It is noted that Asia in all centuries was characterized by open designs that provided soldiers with wide visibility, the same can be said about the helmets of Ancient Rome. In Europe, on the contrary, knights preferred reliable solid protection of the head and face, even in cases where it created certain inconveniences.
"Dog Hood"
Gunsmiths sought to combine reliability with comfort in their products. An example of this is the type of helmet that appeared in the 14th century and was firmly established, bearing the characteristic name “Hundsgugel”, which translated from German means “dog hood”.
Its peculiarity was the presence of a cone-shaped visor extended forward, the shape of which actually resembled a dog’s muzzle. This design served two purposes. Firstly, it made the warrior’s head more protected from enemy arrows and spears that ricocheted down an inclined surface, and secondly, it made it possible to make a larger number of ventilation holes on the enlarged surface of the visor, thereby making breathing easier.
Models of helmets of the Late Middle Ages
In the 15th century, despite the fact that the importance of heavy cavalry in battles had significantly decreased, the design of armor continued to be improved, as the custom of holding knightly tournaments continued throughout Europe. At this time, the most interesting new product was a helmet with a visor, called “armet”.
Unlike the cone-shaped structures that existed at that time, this helmet had a spherical shape and a chin that opened into two halves, fastened with a pin during battle. In addition, it was equipped with a second visor that moved to the back of the head and special devices that reliably protected the throat and collarbones.
Another knight’s helmet, which became widespread in the Late Middle Ages, is also very interesting. It is called “salad” and is a distant relative of the bascinets described above. Characteristic feature These structures had a backplate ─ part of the helmet extended back, which not only protected the warrior from attacks from the rear, but also did not allow him to be pulled off the horse with special hooks designed for this purpose. Salads were made both with and without visors. In the first case, they were intended for mounted warriors, in the second, for infantry.
Combat and tournament helmets
Helmets of the Middle Ages, like all defensive weapons, developed in two different ways depending on their purpose. For tournaments, heavier and stronger samples were forged, which provided greater safety, but did not allow one to stay in them for a long time. In particular, the widely used “toad head” tournament model, which was one of the most reliable in the history of chivalry, but lacked proper ventilation, was designed only for short-term use, not exceeding 5 minutes. After this period, the supply of air in it dried up, and the warrior began to suffocate.
Military weapons, which included the entire set of armor, were made in such a way as to allow the owner to stay in it for a long time. Based on this, when making it, gunsmiths tried to give all the details lightest weight. This requirement fully applied to helmets. Without compromising reliability, they had to be extremely light, well ventilated and provide good visibility.
Judging by historical sources, the most common type of armor in the 13th century was chain mail, consisting of iron rings connected to each other.
However, despite their widespread use, only a few chain mail dating back to before the 14th century have survived to this day. None of them were made in England.
Therefore, researchers rely mainly on images in manuscripts and sculptures.
To date, the secret of making chain mail has been largely lost, although descriptions of some procedures are known.
First, the iron wire was pulled through a board with holes of different diameters. The wire was then wound around steel rod and cut the resulting spiral lengthwise, forming separate rings.
The ends of the ring were flattened and a small hole was made in them. The rings were then woven so that each of them covered the other four. The ends of the ring were connected and secured with a small rivet.
To make one chain mail, several thousand rings were required.
The finished chain mail was sometimes cemented, heated in the thickness of burning coals.
In most cases, all chain mail rings were
riveted, sometimes rows alternated
riveted and welded rings.
| 1 |
Among the armor, chain mail occupied |
| 2 |
Bandaged riveted chain mail rings. |
| 3 |
Iron scale armor. |
| 4 |
Helmet with visor. |
| 5 |
Cylindrical helmet with nasal |
| 6 |
Helmet with chin plate. |
| 7 |
Round helmet with nasal plate. |
| 8 |
Conical helmet with lining. |
| 9 |
Quilted balaclava. |
| 10 |
Chain helmet. |
| Source | |
There were also large chain mail, which reached the knees in length and had long sleeves ending in mittens.
The collar of the large chain mail turned into a chain mail hood or balaclava.
To protect the throat and chin there was a valve, which before the battle was raised upward and secured with a ribbon.
Sometimes such a valve was missing, and the sides of the hood could overlap each other. Usually inner surface The chain mail in contact with the warrior’s skin had a fabric lining.
In the lower part, the large chain mail had slits that made it easier for the warrior to walk and mount a horse.
A quilted cap was worn under the chain mail balaclava, which was held in place with ties under the chin.
| 11 |
Chain mail without surcoat and mittens. |
| 12 |
Surcoat worn over civilian clothing. |
| 13 |
Long shirt with Hungarian sleeves. |
| 14 |
Chainmail gauntlets. |
| 15 |
Chainmail stripe protecting the leg. |
| 16 |
Chain mail shawls tied to a belt. |
| Source : “English knight 1200-1300.” (New Soldier #10) | |
Around 1275, knights began to wear a chain mail balaclava separated from the chain mail, but the previous chain mail combined with a balaclava continued to be widely used until the end of the 13th century.
The chain mail weighed about 30 pounds (14 kg) depending on its length and the thickness of the rings. There were chain mail shirts with short and short sleeves.
Around the middle of the 13th century, Matthew of Paris depicted combat gloves separated from the sleeves of chain mail. However, such mittens were found
infrequently until the end of the century.
By that time, leather mittens with reinforcing linings made of iron or whalebone had appeared.
The pads could be located outside or inside the mitten.
Leg protection was provided by shossa - chain mail stockings. Shos had leather soles and were tied to a belt, like traditional stockings.
Linen underpants were worn under the highway pants.
Sometimes, instead of highways, the legs were protected with chain mail strips, covering only the front side of the leg, and held on by ribbons at the back.
Around 1225, quilted cuisses appeared, which were worn on the hips. Cuisses were also hung from the belt, like chausses.
In the middle of the century, the use of knee pads was noted for the first time, which were attached directly to chain mail chausses or to quilted cuisses.
Initially, the knee pads were small in size, but then they grew sharply, covering the knees not only in front, but also on the sides.
Sometimes knee pads were made of hard leather. The knee pads were held in place by lacing or rivets.
Elbow pads were very rare.
The shins were covered with metal leggings worn over the shins.
| 1 |
Chain mail remains the main type |
| 2 | |
| 3 |
In the middle of the 12th century, a helmet appeared in |
| 4 |
A liner on a figured cap, worn under a large helmet. |
| 5 |
A cap with a shock absorber, worn under a large helmet. |
| 6 |
Internal helmet worn underneath |
| 7 |
Surcoat with sleeves and fringe. |
| 8 |
Quilted cuisses that protect the hips. |
| 9 |
Highway knee brace. |
| 10 |
Knee pad on cuisses. |
| Source : “English knight 1200-1300.” (New Soldier #10) | |
A quilted aketon or gambeson was usually worn under the chain mail.
The aketon itself consisted of two layers of paper fabric, between which was placed a layer of wool, cotton wool and other similar materials.
Both layers, together with the interlining, were stitched with longitudinal or sometimes diagonal stitches. Later, aketons made of several layers of linen fabric appeared.
According to some descriptions, it is known that gambesons were worn over aketons. Gambesons could be made of silk and other expensive fabrics.
Sometimes they were worn on chain mail or plate armor.
Sometimes a long, loose shirt was worn over the chain mail. Shirt
was too mobile to be quilted.
Although chain mail, due to its flexibility, did not hinder the warrior’s movements, for the same reason, a missed blow could cause serious damage from bruise and contusion to a broken bone.
If the chain mail was pierced, fragments of links could get into the wound, which caused additional pain and threatened infection.
In some manuscripts of the 13th century you can find images of foot soldiers in leather armor, reinforced with metal plates.
In some illustrations in the Maciejowski Bible you can see warriors whose surcoats have a characteristic curve on their shoulders. It can be assumed that in this case a shell was worn under the surcoat.
There is another explanation.
Fawkes de Breaute's list (1224) mentions an "epaulier" made of black silk. Perhaps this meant a shoulder-shock absorber or a collar extending over the shoulders.
There were indeed special collars; they can be seen in several drawings depicting warriors with open vests or removed balaclavas. The outside of such a collar was lined with fabric, but the inside could be made of iron or whalebone. Individual collars were quilted.
It is unknown whether the collars were a separate part or were part of the aketon. It is also unknown how the collar was put on.
It could equally well have been in two pieces joined at the sides, or had a joint on one side and a clasp on the other.
| 1 |
By the end of the century, many knights |
| 2 |
Italian helmet. |
| 4 |
The helmet is a bowler hat. |
| 5 |
Balaclava with lacing at the back of the head. |
| 6 |
Elbow pad. |
| 7 | |
| 8 |
Lamellar shell. |
| 9 |
A combat gauntlet with whalebone scales. |
| 10 | |
| 11 | Waist belt with sword sheath. |
| 12 | Great sword. |
| 13 | Sword. |
| 14 | Sword. |
| 15 |
Garnache with hood. |
| Source : “English knight 1200-1300.” (New Soldier #10) | |
At the end of the century, gorgets, which came to England from France, began to be used to protect the neck.
A surcoat was a cape worn over armor.
The first surcoats appeared in the second quarter of the 12th century and spread everywhere by the beginning of the 13th century, although until the middle of the 13th century there were knights who did not have a surcoat. The main purpose of the surcoat is unknown.
Perhaps it protected the armor from water and prevented it from heating up in the sun.
You could wear your own coat of arms on a surcoat, although most often surcoats were one-color.
The lining of the surcoat usually contrasted with the color of the outer layer.
At the waist, the surcoat was usually intercepted with a cord or belt, which at the same time intercepted the chain mail, shifting part of its mass from the shoulders to the hips.
There were surcoats reinforced with metal plates.
In the middle of the 13th century there appeared new kind armor - a plate shell that was worn over the head like a poncho, and then wrapped around the sides and fastened with ties or straps.
The front and sides of the shell were reinforced with a plate of iron or whalebone.
Scaly shells were rare. Scaled armor is sometimes found on book miniatures, but they are almost always worn by Saracens or
any other opponents of the Christian knights.
The scales were made of iron, copper alloy, whalebone or leather.
Each scale was attached to a cloth or leather shirt in such a way that the top row of scales overlapped the bottom.
There were several main types of helmets.
The conical helmet could be forged from a single piece of iron with or without the addition of reinforcing linings, or could consist of four segments connected by rivets, like the old German spangen helmet.
Such segmented helmets were also used in the middle of the 13th century, but even then they were considered obsolete.
By 1200, hemispherical and cylindrical helmets were found. All helmets had a nose plate and sometimes a visor.
At the end of the 12th century, the first primitive large helmets appeared. Originally, great helmets were shorter at the back than at the front, but already on the seal of Richard I there is an image of a great helmet equally deep both at the front and at the back.
Closed large helmets became increasingly popular throughout the 13th century. In front there was a narrow horizontal slit for the eyes, reinforced with metal plates.
The flat bottom of the helmet was attached to it with rivets. Although the bottom of the helmet should have been made conical or hemispherical for reasons of strength, this form of helmet took root and became widespread quite late.
| 1 |
This illustration is based on a miniature in a 13th-century Spanish manuscript. |
| 9 — 11 |
Bridle with mouthpiece. |
| Source : “English knight 1200-1300.” (New Soldier #10) | |
In the second half of the 13th century, the upper part of the walls of the helmet began to be made slightly conical, but the bottom remained flat. Only in 1275 did large helmets appear, in which the upper part was a full rather than a truncated cone.
By the end of the century, helmets with a hemispherical bottom appeared.
By 1300, helmets with a visor appeared.
In the middle of the 13th century, a bascinet helmet or cervelier appeared, having a spherical shape. The bascinet could be worn both over a chain mail balaclava and under it.
In the latter case, a shock absorber was put on the head.
All helmets had shock absorbers on the inside, although not a single example has survived to this day. The earliest surviving ones are shock absorbers
XIV century - represent two layers of canvas, between which horsehair, wool, hay or other similar substances are laid.
Shock absorber or glued to inside helmet, or laced through a series of holes, or secured with rivets.
The upper part of the shock absorber was adjustable in depth, allowing the helmet to be adjusted to the wearer's head so that the slots were at eye level.
For a large helmet, the lining did not go down to the level of the face, as there were ventilation holes there.
The helmet was held on the head by a chin strap.
At the end of the 12th century, a crest appeared on helmets. For example, such a helmet can be seen on the second seal of Richard I.
The crest was sometimes made from a thin sheet of iron, although wood and fabric were also used, especially on tournament helmets.
Sometimes there were voluminous combs made of whalebone, wood, fabric and leather.
“Oh, knights, arise, the hour of action has come!
You have shields, steel helmets and armor.
Your dedicated sword is ready to fight for your faith.
Give me strength, oh God, for new glorious battles.
I, a beggar, will take rich spoils there.
I don’t need gold and I don’t need land,
But maybe I will be, singer, mentor, warrior,
Rewarded with heavenly bliss forever"
(Walter von der Vogelweide. Translation by V. Levick)
A sufficient number of articles on the topic of knightly weapons and, in particular, knightly armor have already been published on the VO website. However, this topic is so interesting that you can delve into it for a very long time. The reason for turning to her again is banal... weight. Weight of armor and weapons. Alas, I recently asked students again how much a knight’s sword weighs, and received the following set of numbers: 5, 10 and 15 kilograms. They considered chain mail weighing 16 kg to be very light, although not all of them did, and the weight of plate armor at just over 20 kilos was simply ridiculous.
Figures of a knight and a horse in full protective equipment. Traditionally, knights were imagined exactly like this - “chained in armor.” (Cleveland Museum of Art)
At VO, naturally, “things with weight” are much better due to regular publications on this topic. However, the opinion about the excessive weight of the “knightly costume” of the classical type has not yet been eradicated here. Therefore, it makes sense to return to this topic and consider it with specific examples.
Western European chain mail (hauberk) 1400 - 1460 Weight 10.47 kg. (Cleveland Museum of Art)
Let's start with the fact that British weapons historians created a very reasonable and clear classification of armor according to their specific characteristics and ultimately divided the entire Middle Ages, guided, naturally, by available sources, into three eras: “the era of chain mail”, “the era of mixed chain mail and plate protective weapons" and "the era of solid forged armor." All three eras together make up the period from 1066 to 1700. Accordingly, the first era has a frame of 1066 - 1250, the second - the era of chain mail-plate armor - 1250 - 1330. But then this: the early stage in the development of knightly plate armor(1330 - 1410), the “great period” in the history of knights in “white armor” (1410 - 1500) and the era of the decline of knightly armor (1500 - 1700).
Chain mail together with a helmet and aventail (aventail) XIII - XIV centuries. (Royal Arsenal, Leeds)
During the years of “wonderful Soviet education” we had never heard of such periodization. But in the school textbook “History of the Middle Ages” for VΙ grade for many years, with some rehashes, one could read the following:
“It was not easy for the peasants to defeat even one feudal lord. The mounted warrior - knight - was armed heavy sword and a long spear. He could cover himself from head to toe with a large shield. The knight's body was protected by chain mail - a shirt woven from iron rings. Later, chain mail was replaced by armor - armor made of iron plates.
Classic knightly armor, which was most often discussed in textbooks for schools and universities. Before us is Italian armor of the 15th century, restored in the 19th century. Height 170.2 cm. Weight 26.10 kg. Helmet weight 2850 g (Metropolitan Museum, New York)
Knights fought on strong, hardy horses, which were also protected by armor. The knight's weapons were very heavy: they weighed up to 50 kilograms. Therefore, the warrior was clumsy and clumsy. If a rider was thrown from his horse, he could not get up without help and was usually captured. To fight on horseback in heavy armor, long training was needed, the feudal lords were preparing for military service since childhood. They constantly practiced fencing, horse riding, wrestling, swimming, and javelin throwing.
German armor 1535. Presumably from Brunswick. Weight 27.85 kg. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
War horse and knightly weapons were very expensive: for all this it was necessary to give a whole herd - 45 cows! The landowner for whom the peasants worked could perform knightly service. Therefore, military affairs became an occupation almost exclusively of feudal lords” (Agibalova, E.V. History of the Middle Ages: Textbook for the 6th grade / E.V. Agibalova, G.M. Donskoy, M.: Prosveshchenie, 1969. P.33; Golin, E.M. History of the Middle Ages: Tutorial for 6th grade evening (shift) school / E.M. Golin, V.L. Kuzmenko, M.Ya. Leuberg. M.: Education, 1965. P. 31-32.)
A knight in armor and a horse in horse armor. The work of master Kunz Lochner. Nuremberg, Germany 1510 - 1567 It dates back to 1548. The total weight of the rider's equipment, including horse armor and saddle, is 41.73 kg. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Only in the 3rd edition of the textbook “History of the Middle Ages” for VΙ grade high school V.A. Vedyushkin, published in 2002, the description of knightly weapons became somewhat truly thoughtful and corresponded to the above-mentioned periodization used today by historians around the world: “At first, the knight was protected by a shield, helmet and chain mail. Then the most vulnerable parts of the body began to be hidden behind metal plates, and from the 15th century, chain mail was finally replaced by solid armor. Battle armor weighed up to 30 kg, so for battle the knights chose hardy horses, also protected by armor.”
Armor of Emperor Ferdinand I (1503-1564) Gunsmith Kunz Lochner. Germany, Nuremberg 1510 - 1567 Dated 1549. Height 170.2 cm. Weight 24 kg.
That is, in the first case, intentionally or out of ignorance, the armor was divided into eras in a simplified manner, while a weight of 50 kg was attributed to both the armor of the “era of chain mail” and the “era of all-metal armor” without dividing into the actual armor of the knight and the armor of his horse. That is, judging by the text, our children were offered information that “the warrior was clumsy and clumsy.” In fact, the first articles showing that this is actually not the case were publications by V.P. Gorelik in the magazines “Around the World” in 1975, but this information never made it into textbooks for Soviet schools at that time. The reason is clear. Using anything, using any examples, show the superiority of the military skills of Russian soldiers over the “dog knights”! Unfortunately, the inertia of thinking and the not-so-great significance of this information make it difficult to disseminate information that corresponds to scientific data.
Armor set from 1549, which belonged to Emperor Maximilian II. (Wallace Collection) As you can see, the option in the photo is tournament armor, as it features a grandguard. However, it could be removed and then the armor became combat. This achieved considerable savings.
Nevertheless, the provisions of the school textbook V.A. Vedyushkina are completely true. Moreover, information about the weight of armor, well, say, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (as well as from other museums, including our Hermitage in St. Petersburg, then Leningrad) was available for a very long time, but in the textbooks of Agibalov and Donskoy For some reason I didn’t get there in due time. However, it’s clear why. After all, we had the best education in the world. However, this special case, although quite revealing. It turned out that there were chain mail, then - again and again, and now armor. Meanwhile, the process of their appearance was more than lengthy. For example, only around 1350 was the appearance of the so-called “metal chest” with chains (from one to four) that went to a dagger, sword and shield, and sometimes a helmet was attached to the chain. Helmets at this time were not yet connected to protective plates on the chest, but under them they wore chain mail hoods that had a wide shoulder. Around 1360, armor began to have clasps; in 1370, the knights were almost completely dressed in iron armor, and chain mail fabric was used as a base. The first brigandines appeared - caftans, and lining made of metal plates. They were used as an independent type of protective clothing, and were worn together with chain mail, both in the West and in the East.
Knight's armor with a brigandine over chain mail and a bascinet helmet. Around 1400-1450 Italy. Weight 18.6 kg. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Since 1385, the thighs began to be covered with armor made of articulated strips of metal. In 1410, full-plate armor for all parts of the body had spread throughout Europe, but mail throat cover was still in use; in 1430, the first grooves appeared on the elbow and knee pads, and by 1450, armor made of forged steel sheets had reached its perfection. Beginning in 1475, the grooves on them became increasingly popular until fully fluted or so-called “Maximilian armor”, the authorship of which is attributed to the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, became a measure of the skill of their manufacturer and the wealth of their owners. Subsequently, knightly armor became smooth again - their shape was influenced by fashion, but the skills achieved in the craftsmanship of their finishing continued to develop. Now it was not only people who fought in armor. The horses also received it, as a result the knight with the horse turned into something like a real statue made of polished metal that sparkled in the sun!
Another “Maximilian” armor from Nuremberg 1525 - 1530. It belonged to Duke Ulrich, the son of Henry of Württemberg (1487 - 1550). (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)
Although... although fashionistas and innovators, “running ahead of the locomotive,” have always been there too. For example, it is known that in 1410 a certain English knight A man named John de Fiarles paid Burgundian gunsmiths 1,727 pounds sterling for the armor, sword and dagger they made for him, which he ordered to be decorated with pearls and... diamonds (!) - a luxury that was not only unheard of at that time, but even for him was not at all typical.
Field armor of Sir John Scudamore (1541 or 1542-1623). Armourer Jacob Jacob Halder (Greenwich Workshop 1558-1608) Circa 1587, restored 1915. Weight 31.07 kg. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Each piece of plate armor received its own name. For example, plates for the thighs were called cuisses, knee pads - logs (poleyns), jambers (jambers) - for the legs and sabatons (sabatons) for the feet. Gorgets or bevors (gorgets, or bevors) protected the throat and neck, cutters (couters) - elbows, e(c)paulers, or pauldrones (espaudlers, or pauldrons) - shoulders, rerebraces (rerebraces) - forearm , vambraces - part of the arm down from the elbow, and gantelets - these are “plate gloves” - protected the hands. The full set of armor also included a helmet and, at least at first, a shield, which subsequently ceased to be used on the battlefield around the middle of the 15th century.
Armor of Henry Herbert (1534-1601), Second Earl of Pembroke. Made around 1585 - 1586. in the Greenwich armory (1511 - 1640). Weight 27.24 kg. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
As for the number of details in the “white armor”, in the armor of the mid-15th century there are total number could reach 200 units, and taking into account all the buckles and nails, along with hooks and various screws, even up to 1000. The weight of the armor was 20 - 24 kg, and it was distributed evenly over the knight’s body, unlike chain mail, which pressed on the person on shoulders. So “no crane was required to put such a rider in his saddle. And knocked off his horse to the ground, he did not at all look like a helpless beetle.” But the knight of those years was not a mountain of meat and muscles, and he by no means relied solely on brute strength and bestial ferocity. And if we pay attention to how knights are described in medieval works, we will see that very often they had a fragile (!) and graceful physique, and at the same time had flexibility, developed muscles, and were strong and very agile, even when dressed in armor, with well-developed muscle response.
Tournament armor made by Anton Peffenhauser around 1580 (Germany, Augsburg, 1525-1603) Height 174.6 cm); shoulder width 45.72 cm; weight 36.8 kg. It should be noted that tournament armor was usually always heavier than combat armor. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
IN last years In the 15th century, knightly weapons became the subject of special concern for European sovereigns, and, in particular, Emperor Maximilian I (1493 - 1519), who is credited with creating knightly armor with grooves along their entire surface, eventually called “Maximilian.” It was used without any special changes in the 16th century, when new improvements were required due to the ongoing development of small arms.
Now just a little about swords, because if you write about them in detail, then they deserve a separate topic. J. Clements, a well-known British expert on edged weapons of the Middle Ages, believes that it was the advent of multi-layer combined armor (for example, on the effigy of John de Creque we see as many as four layers of protective clothing) that led to the appearance of a “sword in one and a half hands.” Well, the blades of such swords ranged from 101 to 121 cm, and weight from 1.2 to 1.5 kg. Moreover, blades are known for chopping and piercing blows, as well as purely for stabbing. He notes that horsemen used such swords until 1500, and they were especially popular in Italy and Germany, where they were called Reitschwert (equestrian) or knight's sword. In the 16th century, swords appeared with wavy and even jagged sawtooth blades. Moreover, their length itself could reach human height with a weight of 1.4 to 2 kg. Moreover, such swords appeared in England only around 1480. Average weight sword in the X and XV centuries. was 1.3 kg; and in the sixteenth century. - 900 g. Bastard swords “one and a half hands” weighed about 1.5 - 1.8 kg, and the weight of two-handed swords was rarely more than 3 kg. The latter reached their peak between 1500 and 1600, but were always infantry weapons.
Three-quarter cuirassier armor, ca. 1610-1630 Milan or Brescia, Lombardy. Weight 39.24 kg. Obviously, since they have no armor below the knees, the extra weight comes from thickening the armor.
But shortened three-quarter armor for cuirassiers and pistoleers, even in its shortened form, often weighed more than those that offered protection only from edged weapons and they were very heavy to wear. Cuirassier armor has been preserved, the weight of which was about 42 kg, i.e. even more than classic knightly armor, although they covered a much smaller surface of the body of the person for whom they were intended! But this, it should be emphasized, is not knightly armor, that’s the point!
Horse armor, possibly made for Count Antonio IV Colalto (1548-1620), circa 1580-1590. Place of manufacture: probably Brescia. Weight with saddle 42.2 kg. (Metropolitan Museum, New York) By the way, a horse in full armor under an armored rider could even swim. Horse armor weighed 20-40 kg - a few percent of own weight a huge and strong knight's horse.
To the old ones good times, which, as we know, were very difficult, clothing was a matter of life and death: simple, flimsy fabric was common, leather was considered a rarity, and for wealthy gentlemen important role only armor was played ...
Henry VIII's Armet, known as the "Horned Shell". Innsbruck, Austria, 1511
There are several versions regarding the appearance of the first armor. Some believe it all started with robes made of forged metal. Others believe that wood protection should also be considered, in which case we need to remember the truly distant ancestors with stones and sticks. But most people think that armor came from those difficult times when men were knights and women languished in anticipation of them.
Another strange shell-mask, from Augsburg, Germany, 1515.
A separate article should be devoted to the variety of shapes and styles of medieval armor:
Either armor or nothing
The first armor was very simple: rough metal plates designed to protect the knight inside from spears and swords. But gradually the weapons became more and more complicated, and the blacksmiths had to take this into account and make the armor more and more durable, light and flexible, until they had the maximum degree of protection.
One of the most brilliant innovations was the improvement of chain mail. According to rumors, it was first created by the Celts many centuries ago. It was a long process that took a very long time until gunsmiths took on it and took the idea to new heights. This idea is not entirely logical: instead of making armor from strong plates and very reliable metal, why not make it from several thousand carefully connected rings? It turned out great: light and durable, the chain mail allowed its owner to be mobile and was often key factor how he leaves the battlefield: on a horse or on a stretcher. When plate armor was added to chain mail, the result was stunning: the armor of the Middle Ages appeared.
Medieval arms race
Now it's hard to imagine that for a long time the knight on horseback was truly terrible weapon of that era: arriving at the scene of battle on a war horse, often also dressed in armor, he was as terrifying as he was invincible. Nothing could stop such knights when, with a sword and spear, they could easily attack almost anyone.
Here is an imaginary knight, reminiscent of heroic and victorious times (drawn by the delightful illustrator John Howe):
Bizarre Monsters
Combat became more and more “ritualistic,” leading to the jousting tournaments we all know and love from movies and books. Armor became less useful in practice and gradually became more of an indicator of high social level and well-being. Only the rich or nobles could afford armor, however only a truly rich or very wealthy baron, duke, prince or king could afford fantastic armor of the highest quality.
Did this make them especially beautiful? After a while, the armor began to look more like dinner wear than battle gear: impeccable metal work, precious metals, ornate coats of arms and regalia... All of this, while looking amazing, was useless during battle.
Just look at the armor belonging to Henry VIII: isn't it a masterpiece of art of the time? The armor was designed and made, like most all armor of the time, to fit the wearer. In Henry's case, however, his costume looked more noble than fearsome. Who can remember the royal armor? Looking at a set of such armor, the question arises: were they invented for fighting or for showing off? But honestly, we can't blame Henry for his choice: his armor was never really designed for war.
England comes up with ideas
What is certain is that the suit of armor was a terrifying weapon of the day. But all days come to an end, and in the case of classic armor, their end was simply worse than ever.
1415, northern France: on one side - the French; on the other - the British. Although their numbers are a matter of debate, it is generally believed that the French outnumbered the English by a ratio of about 10 to 1. For the English, under Henry (5th, forefather of the aforementioned 8th), this was not at all pleasant. Most likely, they will be, to use a military term, "killed." But then something happened that not only determined the outcome of the war, but also changed Europe forever, as well as dooming armor as a primary weapon.
The French did not know what hit them. Well, in fact, they knew, and that made their defeat even more terrible: after all, it was them, the "cream" of the equipment of the French infantry, marching to an obvious victory, their chain mail and plates sparkling in the sun, their monstrous metal armor and the best protection in the world...
Arrows began to fall on them, fired from Henry's secret weapon: the English (Welsh, to be precise) longbow. A few volleys - and the French were defeated by an enemy they could not even get close to, their precious armor turned out to be pincushions, and their army was trampled into dirty ground.
Clothes say a lot about a person. And for a very long time, armor was the most universal garment of that time, suitable for almost all occasions. But times are changing. In our case, this was greatly helped by several people with a few bows and arrows.
World War I armor
Brewster's armor, 1917-1918:
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