Preface
Issues social policy took shape during the 19th–20th centuries in connection with the growing scale of government intervention in social processes, which contributed to the separation of social policy from the entire complex of public regulation as an independent direction.
The emergence of social policy in the second half of the 19th century was associated with two main factors:
- With the formation in Europe of a special type of state - a social state, actively intervening in social processes in order to regulate and stabilize them. In Germany, in the last quarter of the 19th century, for the first time, through large-scale social reforms, concrete steps were taken to form a socially oriented state.
- With the institutionalization of economic and sociological theories as independent areas of scientific knowledge. For example, Pitirim Sorokin singled out social policy as one of the sections social theory along with social mechanics and social genetics 1 . And in 1912, Sergei Bulgakov pointed out the need to elevate social policy to the rank of social science, since “in the state, socio-economic, general cultural sphere, the growing socialization of life and awareness of this socialization, socialism of life and sociologism of consciousness are continuously expanding and strengthening the competence of social policy” 2 .
At the new stage of development of Russian society, social policy must acquire both new content and additional formats for its existence.
1. The problematic situation of strategizing social policy in Russia
Social policy in Russia still remains paternalistic. Essentially, it is a social protection of the population, or, more strictly, a constraint on the development of its (the population's) human potential. Hence the difficulties of a number of social reforms: pension reform, reform on monetization of benefits, housing and communal services reform. Essentially, society lacks humanitarian support from the state to make changes in the social sphere: outreach work, negotiation platforms, discussions, forums, educational programs, and so on. In the regions, at the level of regional authorities, they are beginning to talk about social aggravation and see their task mainly in balancing between the decisions of the federal center, on the one hand, and containing social tension in the territories, on the other.
Human development 3 is an expansion of the population’s capabilities, and specifically today, an increase in territorial mobility, an intensification of professional transitions and the formation of a productive mentality. Accordingly, human development programs should be associated, on the one hand, with the creation of objective opportunities and conditions for the population, and on the other, social and territorial-educational programs should appear that form modern competencies, primarily such as communication, identification, self-organization (in the limit - self-determination).
Human development as a framework in relation to modern social policy should, first of all, be aimed at working with at least five categories of the population, such as:
- Young people during the transition from school to the professional education system and during the transition from the education system to production (the situation of this population group can be characterized as “contradictory adaptation”: increasing territorial inequality of “starting” conditions; increasing diversity of forms of territorial mobility; increasing prestige of higher education and at the same time localization of migration to study due to a decrease in the availability of education; polarization of demographic behavior; strengthening of asocial forms of adaptation: growth of drug addiction in large cities and regions with more high incomes population, especially in the oil and gas districts of Western Siberia; an increase in the incidence of AIDS in large cities and border regions; criminalization of youth, especially in depressed cities and regions; mass unemployment and alcoholism of immobile youth in the regions of Siberia and the Far East).
- Pensioners (the situation of this population group can be characterized as “loss of achievements and hopes”: loss of savings, especially painful for northern pensioners who have lost the opportunity to migrate to old-developed regions; increased poverty of urban pensioners due to the higher cost of living, especially in federal cities; growth forced employment of pensioners mainly in low-paid and low-skilled jobs; minimization of family ties with elderly parents in large cities due to the overemployment of working children; the opposite process of strengthening inter-family ties in small towns and villages, especially in the southern regions, associated with assistance to elderly rural parents in personal subsidiary plot to generate additional income for all family members).
- Children living in reduced living environments: street children, children in orphanages, children living in areas remote from educational centers (“There are from 2.5 to 4 million street children in Russia,” he said live on the “Today” program on June 1 Chairman of the Russian Children's Fund Albert Likhanov, 2001. In his opinion, there are more than 33 million children in Russia, of which 700 thousand are orphans, 600 thousand are drug addicts, 14 million are children born out of wedlock or living in single-parent families). A special category is children focused on record life strategies and high goals (there are practically no productive programs for them today).
- Adults in a situation of changing professional employment (the situation of this population group can be characterized as “work at the limit”: deepening regional inequality of opportunities for adaptation, which resulted in double employment in the largest cities and intensive subsidiary farming as a mass model of survival in small towns and rural areas; adaptation of the population through the growth of self-employment in street trading and shuttle business; the strongest gender inequality, increased unemployment of middle-aged and pre-retirement women. During the crisis, rural women became the breadwinners of families, they bore the brunt of employment in personal subsidiary plots. At the same time, a new fairly widespread type appeared in large cities - unemployed women from wealthy families. There is a polarization of subjective poverty: adaptation to poverty of residents of villages and small towns, who have lowered their claims regarding normal income for them, against the backdrop of significantly higher claims of residents of federal cities . Negative consequences of maladaptation appear: for example, an increase in male mortality, especially in the aging regions of the Center and North-West, due to stress, instability and alcoholism, in addition to increased injury rates in outdated industries).
- “A strong part of the population” that has aspirations and the opportunity to realize it. Post-Soviet social policy traditionally bypasses this group.
Social programs in the territories of Russia have largely remained the same - socialist; as a rule, they come down to the distribution of benefits and so-called additional benefits. This does not expand people’s opportunities, but continues to create social dependency attitudes among the population. The question of changing the content and format of social programs is not being raised today, although this does not require extensive additional funding. Due to the existing consolidated budgets of the territories, it is quite possible new organization social sphere. However, at the level of deputy governors in the regions one can still hear: “When will the order be given to start a new social policy?” The answer suggests itself: “Then when you start doing it yourself.” Within the framework of regional and municipal budgets for education, youth policy, culture, healthcare, social protection, as well as various development funds, it is possible to implement social programs of a new generation.
Individual precedents show that the following social programs are quite possible today: mass transition training for school graduates and students; mass summer educational recreation programs for children; competitions of social and socio-educational projects in the territories; territorial educational programs that form “cross-cutting competencies”; network models of senior specialized schools; intensive schools of record-breaking lifestyles; social and educational complexes; educational and leisure programs for retirees; personnel schools; managerial and tutoring centers supporting individual educational strategies.
However, to date, no fundamental changes in social policy have occurred, since the move towards social reforms in the mass consciousness means a rejection of the practice of ensuring stability that was established in the USSR. Today we can state: the state has lost control over the processes taking place in the social sphere, and the process of degradation of this sphere is largely irreversible. In the psychology of managers, social policy still remains a burden that needs to be gotten rid of.
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At the end of 2004, social unrest noticeably intensified in Russia. Thus, in October there were 80 times more strikes in the education sector alone than throughout 2003. Already about 43 percent of respondents are ready to participate in strikes with economic demands. These are clearly new sentiments, which indicate that the evolution of sentiment is moving towards active discontent in society. The last 10 years have given rise to ever new forms of protest - hunger strikes, blocking of highways, seizure of official buildings by protesters. Increasingly, pockets of protest are emerging among young people (usually on the left, but already on the liberal flank), which can act as the “initiator” of mass protest. Quite respectable media began to write about the possibility of a new Russian revolution 4 .
However, it should be recognized that Russian society has changed in many ways. According to surveys conducted by Igor Klyamkin and Tatyana Kutkovets, only 7 percent of Russians continue to support the basic principles of the “Russian system” - the dominance of the state over the individual, paternalism and the closedness of the country, and 22 percent of respondents support two of the named features of this system. These are mainly older people and people with a low level of education. Meanwhile, supporters of the modernist alternative, who support the priority of the individual, his independence, and the openness of the country, make up 33 percent of the population, with 37 percent ready to support the modernist project. This means that, in general, 70 percent of Russians are ready to support the modernist project. This suggests that the country's population is waiting social change. This is expected by both rich and poor; both left and right; both young and old. How can the state answer them?
2. Basic approaches to social policy and the issues behind them
We distinguish several models of social policy 5 .
1. Model of social policy according to the type of basic process:
Social assistance is direct support for the poorest 6, low-income, socially vulnerable and disabled groups of the population, carried out on the basis of the principles of gratuitousness and charity. In Russia, precisely this approach to social policy has been implemented in recent decades in the activities of the state and emerging structures civil society. This led to the collapse social functions state, to the lack of a national strategy in the field of social policy, as well as to a sharp decrease in the effectiveness of the implemented social policy in general and social costs in particular. Social guardianship is a means of compensating for the negative social consequences of uneven social economic development and market production system. It aims to reduce excessive differentiation between participants competitive relations and the removal of social conflicts arising on this basis.
In general, this model is intended to compensate for certain types of social and economic inferiority, and is predominantly passive in nature. Reform in this area is aimed at ensuring the declarative nature and targeting of social support, as well as increasing individual social responsibility. Social insurance is a kind of social “support” system, built on the principles of universal obligation and/or voluntariness. The dominant direction of social insurance is the formation of a large middle class. A similar approach to social policy was implemented in a number of European states that undertook social reforms. In Russia, social insurance as a model of social policy is just beginning to develop. This model encourages people to be as active as possible in economic sphere, since the financing of social benefits and provided social services is carried out through insurance contributions of employees and employers.
Social development is an improvement in the quality of life most mass layers population. Social indicators of quality of life include: income as a material source of livelihood, employment, health, housing, education, environmental conditions, etc. The main premise of the development model is the idea that improving the quality of life, as well as eliminating social differentiation (poverty and other social problems) cannot be achieved by purely economic means, since they contain a significant socio-cultural component. Therefore, this model places emphasis on the development of the educational and cultural systems, and human resources are considered as basic resources social development. The developmental model of social policy is guided by the fact that the main factor in the development of modern society is the person, and the social balance and socio-economic development in society is determined, first of all, by the level and quality of human potential, the quality of the population.
The key direction of social policy is not so much the expansion of measures social assistance and support of the population, organizing various events that provide starting opportunities for self-sufficiency (microloans, public Works, employment, etc.) as well as the development of human potential, improving the quality of human capital as the basis for economic growth and social dynamics for the long term. This can be achieved by increasing investment in human capital and the development of social infrastructure, through which the formation of personnel, social and overall human potential of society is carried out. The implementation of such an attitude turns social policy into the main factor in the socio-economic development of individual regions and society as a whole.
2. Model of social policy by type of subject of social responsibility:
The liberal model presupposes the principle of personal responsibility of each member of society for his own destiny and the destiny of his family. The role of government agencies in the direct implementation of social policy is minimized; the main subjects of social policy are citizens, families and various non-governmental organizations - social insurance funds and third sector associations. The financial basis for the implementation of social programs is private savings and private insurance, and not funds from the state budget. Therefore, when implementing this model of social policy, the principle of equivalence and remuneration is implemented, which assumes, for example, a direct relationship between the size of insurance premiums and the volume and cost of social services received in the social insurance system, and not the principle of solidarity, which assumes the redistribution of income from one person to another .
The corporate model presupposes the principle of corporate responsibility, that maximum responsibility for the fate of its employees lies with the corporation, enterprise, organization or institution where the employee works. The enterprise, stimulating workers to make the maximum labor contribution, offers them various types of social guarantees in the form of pensions, partial payment for medical, recreational services and education (advanced training). In this model, both the state, non-governmental organizations, and citizens also bear a share of responsibility for social well-being in society, but enterprises that have their own extensive social infrastructure and their own social insurance funds still play a large role. The financial basis in the corporate model of social policy is the funds of enterprises and corporate social funds, so a large role here is played by employing organizations, for which social policy is an essential element of the labor (human) resource management system.
The social model presupposes the principle of joint responsibility, that is, the responsibility of the entire society for the fate of its members. This is a redistributive model of social policy, in which the rich pay for the poor, the healthy for the sick, and the young for the old. The main social institution that carries out such redistribution is the state. The financial mechanisms of redistribution are the state budget and state social insurance funds, the funds of which are used to provide a wide range of state social guarantees, which are provided to the population mainly in a free (non-reimbursable) form. The principle of solidarity involves implementation in several ways: solidarity between different social groups and sectors of society, between different generations, as well as between the state, enterprise and employee through a system of taxes, budget contributions and insurance contributions.
The paternalistic model presupposes the principle of state responsibility. The state centrally and totally takes responsibility for the socio-economic situation of citizens and the use of any administrative levers to achieve social goals. All other possible subjects of social policy (enterprises, public organizations and others) act either on behalf of the state or under its control. The financial basis of the paternalistic model is the funds of the state budget and the budgets of state enterprises. This model implements the principle of equality in the consumption of material and social goods and services, as well as their general availability, which ensures the achievement high degree social equalization
3. Model of social policy according to the type of state participation in the implementation of social policy:
Charitable model - when the state, at the expense of specially accumulated resources, creates certain “supports” for the market in the form of a state social support system and thus helps to neutralize some of the most acute negative social consequences functioning of the market. Funds for charitable assistance provided by the state consist mainly of private donations to public charities and for the maintenance of state social institutions, as well as partially from the state treasury.
The administrative model involves direct, active government intervention in the market and is of an administrative nature. The condition for the implementation of this model is the presence developed systems redistribution of income under state control, as well as mechanisms for intervention in pricing processes, tariff regulation, ensuring employment. Administrative coping mechanisms social problems together with the representatives of the target groups themselves, they turn into a self-perpetuating system that is not interested in solving them, but only has the goal of giving social problems the status of less dangerous for society.
The incentive model assumes indirect, rather than direct, participation of the state in solving social problems, when the state sets the “rules of the game” (legal, credit, financial, tax) to society external to the market and other social entities. This is expressed in the creation of such systems of taxation and public support that make investments and investment in individual social projects and programs, as well as in the social sphere as a whole, profitable for all business entities. Such a model of social policy can be implemented in a situation of a high level of economic development, developed infrastructure of civil society and a market economy.
The model of social policy being implemented in Russia today:
- By type of basic action: social assistance and social guardianship with elements of social insurance.
- According to the type of subject of social responsibility: a paternalistic model with elements of a social model.
- By type of state participation: administrative model.
Promising direction of social policy in Russia:
- By type of basic action: social development with elements of social insurance.
- By type of subject of social responsibility: liberal model with elements of a social and corporate model.
- By type of state participation: incentive model with elements of a charitable model.
3. Human development as a framework for social construction
The “Report on the Development of Human Potential in the Russian Federation for 2002–2003” (UN) states that human potential is the most important factor in reforming the state and society seeking to join the world flows of modern technological, infrastructural, institutional, social, humanitarian and other transformations.
In the early 1990s, a group of experts from the UN Development Program developed a new concept for human development (Human Development). It arose as a counterweight to the traditional understanding of development as an increase in the volume of material goods and services. The concept puts at the forefront not the ability to perform productive work (that is, the economic value of the individual), but the very development of a person through expanding the possibilities of choice due to an increase in life expectancy, education and income. Human development is seen as the goal and criterion of social progress, and not as a means to economic growth. The advantage of the concept is the identification of basic criteria social development(longevity, education, income) suitable for quantitative comparisons.
The influence of the state on human development received a new strong impetus in the last two decades of the 20th century. The latest technological, economic and social trends in the process of post formation industrial society, as already noted, put a person at the center of the ongoing transformations as their primary condition and ultimate goal. Globalization operates in the same vein: the outcome of increasingly intense and diverse competition in world markets for producers of goods and services, and for nation states, increasingly depends on the quality of human potential. In general, over the last four decades of the 20th century, the expansion of the scale of the state in developed countries was more than half associated with an increase in spending on human resource development.
The Human Development Index (HDI) is designed to compare countries and has been published in the annual reports of the United Nations Development Program since 1990. The substantive meaning of the indicator is this: the closer it is to one, the higher the opportunities for realizing human potential due to increased education, longevity and income. The range of values in the 2003 Human Development Report is from 0.944 in Norway to 0.275 in Sierra Leone. The threshold for a high level of human development is 0.800. In the latest UNDP report based on 2002 data, the group of developed countries included 55 countries, Russia ranked 57th (0.795), remaining in the group of moderately developed countries. In Fig. Figure 1 shows the dynamics of Russia since 1980.
Despite the lag compared to many industrial countries) in terms of national wealth per capita (400 thousand US dollars), Russia is in third place in the world after the United States and Japan and is one of seven countries that account for almost two-thirds of national wealth peace.
Currently, the main form of the country's wealth is the advanced level of intellectual and spiritual development of the population, which takes the form of human capital and ensures the innovation process in every sphere of human activity.
| A country | National wealth | Structure of national wealth, % of total volume | |||
| Total volume, $ trillion | Per capita, $ thousand | Human potential | Natural resources | Reproducible capital | |
| World total | 550,0 | 90 | … | … | … |
| 123,6 | 461 | 77 | 4 | 19 | |
| 58,8 | 400 | 50 | 40 | 10 | |
| 53,3 | 423 | 68 | 1 | 31 | |
| 35,4 | 28 | 77 | 7 | 16 | |
| 30,8 | 375 | 75 | 1 | 23 | |
| 21,1 | 359 | 56 | 7 | 37 | |
| 20,8 | 353 | 79 | 2 | 19 | |
In Russian reports, human development indices began to be calculated for the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in 1997.
Significant differentiation of the income index largely determines regional variations in the human development index. The top ten leaders in the ranking are not surprising; these subjects are also highlighted in the typology of regions - the city of Moscow, Tyumen region, St. Petersburg, Republic of Tatarstan, Tomsk region, Republic of Bashkortostan, Komi Republic, Samara region, Belgorod region, Krasnoyarsk region. Almost half of them are leading commodity exporters, in which, despite the use of a reducing formula for calculating income, it still makes a major contribution to the final index. Only in the Tomsk region income is supplemented by a high level of education.
Most large group(about half) are regions in which it is close to the Russian average level (the index is no more than 10 percent below the average). The crisis regions of the European part with a low level of education of the population (Pskov, Bryansk, Ivanovo, Kirov, Arkhangelsk regions, the republics of the Volga-Vyatka economic region and Udmurtia), the most developed republics of the North Caucasus, and also republics or depressed regions of southern Siberia and the Far East (Buryatia, Khakassia, Novosibirsk and Sakhalin regions). The group of regions with a low level of 20–25 percent below the Russian average) is represented by four republics - Ingushetia, Dagestan, Kalmykia and Mari, as well as the Chita region. They are united by a very low level of real income with a reduced or low level of education (the life expectancy index in the republics is higher than in the Chita region). And finally, the “pole” of trouble among Russian regions is Tyva, in which the longevity and income indices are the lowest in the country, and below the Russian average by a third.
The differences between regions with extreme values are enormous: Moscow is ahead of Poland and close to the Czech Republic and Malta, and the Republic of Tyva corresponds to the indicators of Nicaragua and Egypt. Only two subjects of the Russian Federation - Moscow and the Tyumen region (thanks to the income of its oil and gas producers) autonomous okrugs) fall into the developed group according to the world classification; St. Petersburg and Tatarstan are close to this border. At the same time, almost two dozen constituent entities of the Russian Federation have an indicator below the world average (0.722).
Similar scales of inequality are typical for countries with catching-up development, especially Latin America, with which Russia is increasingly being compared. If we conditionally remove Tyva, Dagestan, Ingushetia, Kalmykia, the Mari Republic and the Chita region from Russia, we will move up somewhat in the ranked list of countries in the world. If we “give up” the Bryansk region, Udmurtia, the Ivanovo-Volga-Klyazma interfluve, Sakhalin and a dozen other crisis regions of the federation, then we will definitely enter the top fifty “good countries”. And if we remove everything except Moscow and a couple of oil and gas producing districts of the Tyumen North, then some developed capitalist countries will be the envy of us.
4. Development of human potential as the establishment of cross-cutting competencies of the population
The task of human development should be formulated today as a key state task modernization of a number of modern social sectors - education, culture, healthcare, science, which are considered, first of all, as sectors of capitalization of the human potential of territories. What is human potential today, in the age of globalization and the dramatic expansion of human capabilities. This is the ability to set complex, record-breaking goals and objectives, readiness to modern forms mobility, thinking in geocultural, geoeconomic and geopolitical coordinates, the ability of an artificial, project-based attitude towards one’s own prospects.
At the same time, recently analysts have noted a rapidly growing deficit in Russian society of such seemingly obvious human qualities as will, aspiration, independence in decision-making, and the presence of sustainable interests and goals. Often people, being to one degree or another degree talented and gifted by nature, turn out to be incapable not because of their level of training, but because of their socio-anthropological qualities and mental attitudes, to maintain a high individual “bar” and high standards of activity throughout their lives. Social policy for human development should be an attempt to respond to this challenge.
Today the thesis about the anthropological catastrophe that occurred in Russia does not seem at all an exaggeration. The point is that within a fairly short time in the 20th century, virtually all human institutions, traditionally responsible in the history of European culture for the reproduction of human structures and functions, were destroyed in Russia:
- The institution of private property (remember dispossession and nationalization).
- Institute of Law (remember the status of “enemies of the people” and the “passportless” peasantry).
- Institute of Education / University (remember the famous “Ship of Philosophers”).
- The Institute of the Family (remember the popular “Pavlikov Morozovs”).
- Institute of Religion / Church (let us recall at least the fate of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior).
Unfortunately, the change in attitude towards Man in social policy is opposed to the position of those managers and politicians of local and regional scales, for whom the “residence qualification” and the confidence that a person born on “their” territory is still an unspoken value “is "It also belongs. In the absence of real development programs, forms of support for entrepreneurship, small and medium-sized businesses, rotation of management personnel, and so on, any theses about “patriotism” and love for one’s Small Motherland should be considered as deliberately aimed at reducing the starting opportunities and life chances of people living in territories.
The declared change in attitude towards Man also opposes the position of those ideologists and practitioners of education, youth policy, health care, social protection, and culture who consider the social sphere only as the sphere of global obligations of the state “about its subjects.” Judging by the documents regulating activities in the social sphere and the conceptual apparatus used in them (“people”, “work with the population”), the mass practices implemented today in these areas are practices of direct restraint of human potential.
From this point of view, social programs should be open-type programs and aimed at increasing the starting opportunities and life chances of people living in different territories, at developing their readiness for modern productive forms of mobility, and, above all, educational (determining the future social and professional status), sociocultural (determining the future way of life), territorial (determining the future place of residence). It is necessary to create a system of conditions and mechanisms to overcome the boundaries that arise for people in connection with the geography (place) of residence; ideological ideas and value orientations dominant in the territory; social, material, mental status of the immediate environment; restricting access to information and so on.
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The task of social policy for the development of human potential is the task of forming a modern human infrastructure (anthropological framework) innovative projects and regional and national development strategies. We are talking about the formation at the average and mass levels of a number of so-called “cross-cutting” or penetrating competencies.
By cross-cutting competencies we understand the capabilities that people have to be included in modern processes, as well as specifically human forms of thinking, activity, cooperation and communication that determine the “face” of the modern world and modern economy.
Competencies are a governing authority in relation to a number of human qualities: the amount of knowledge, skills, habits, abilities. And as a rule, this reflexive-control superstructure is absent as a typical one in people, that is, the competences of the population have not been formed. As a result, we are dealing with a huge number of external dependencies. And the social protection sector is forced to provide for these dependencies. Unlike professional (special) competencies, pervasive competencies are what can be counted on when setting and solving large-scale national development-related tasks. In Russia in the 1930s, the cultural revolution posed a similar task as the task of teaching the population to read and write. And today this is the population’s ability to read, write, and count (that is, what primary school provides).
Today there is a huge gap between the formally high level of education in Russia 9 and low labor productivity; there is also a very low level of people’s involvement in various forms of cooperation, a low level of social coherence, and so on. This happens for at least two reasons: objective (no place to work, imperfect legal framework), and subjective, that is, anthropological.
According to P. G. Shchedrovitsky, there are four key contexts that are significant from the point of view of discussing the issues of human potential (competencies) 10:
- The first context is the process of globalization. It is expressed in what is called mobility. We are talking about the growth of mobility for certain social and professional groups, a sharp increase compared to what it was even a few years ago, and, at the same time, about a gigantic gap between those who are included in this global interregional mobility and those who are not cannot turn on. Hence also the sharp increase in educational inequality.
- The second context is the formation of an innovative economy as a new and fastest growing structure, which sets completely new requirements for the types of knowledge and qualifications.
- The third context is the growing importance of network forms of organization, the transprofessionalization of networks and the resulting requirements for human potential that can work in these network forms.
- The fourth context is everything related to synergy, collectivity, cooperation and the ability to be included in systems of cooperative activity.
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We identify three cross-cutting competencies, the formation of which, in our opinion, is on the agenda of the new cultural revolution in Russia today:
- The ability to move beyond labor markets (professional competence).
- Possibility of self-identity (personal competence and competence of personal maturation).
- Possibility of social communication, possibility of inclusion in various social environments(civil competence).
We identify three key areas for human development:
- Development of modern qualifications (knowledge, skills, abilities) in educational systems.
- Creation of training “platforms” for developing competencies and maintaining the competence tone of the population (where, as in fitness rooms, competencies are maintained in a state of readiness).
- Formation of infrastructures for capitalizing human potential not only in the private, but also in the public and public sectors (jobs).
Thus, we believe that today it is necessary to set and solve the following tasks:
- Development of a competence structure (matrix) of the population as management knowledge in social policy for the development of human potential.
- Preparation of a UNDP report on the topic “Human Development: Competencies of the Population”, development and conduct of relevant social research.
- Development of a package of social programs for the development of human potential and methodological recommendations for territories on launching programs with a consolidated budget.
- Launch of a special program of national (mass) competency training for various categories of the population.
- Research of experience and development of new forms of social partnership for new generation programs in social policy.
8.1. People are the wealth of an organization
The basis of any organization and its main wealth are people. There was a time when it was believed that a machine, an automatic machine or a robot would displace humans from most organizations and would finally establish the primacy of technology over the worker. However, although the machine has become the absolute master in many technological and management processes, although it has displaced man almost completely or even completely from individual divisions of organizations, the role and importance of man in the organization not only has not fallen, but has even increased.
At the same time, people have become not only the key and most valuable “resource” of the organization, but also the most expensive. The promotion of firms to new markets and new regions is often caused by this very fact. The quality of labor resources directly affects the competitive capabilities of the company and is one of the most important areas for creating competitive advantages. Good organization strives to make the most efficient use of its employees, creating all conditions for the fullest contribution of employees at work and the intensive development of their potential. This is one side of the interaction between a person and an organization. But there is another side to this interaction, which reflects how a person looks at the organization, what role it plays in his life, what it gives him, what meaning he puts into his interaction with the organization. For strategic management For an organization, both of these directions of establishing interaction between an organization and a person are very important.
The vast majority of people spend almost their entire adult lives in organizations. Starting from a nursery to a nursing home, a person, consciously or unconsciously, voluntarily or under duress, interestedly or with complete apathy, is included in the life of the organization, lives by its laws, interacts with its other members, giving something to the organization, but also receiving from give her something in return. Strategic management is designed to ensure both effective interaction between the organization and the external environment, and mutually beneficial interaction between a person and the organization.
When interacting with an organization, a person is interested in various aspects of this interaction, regarding what he should sacrifice for the interests of the organization, what, when and to what extent he should do in the organization, in what conditions to function, with whom and for how long to interact, what the organization will give him, etc. It depends on this and a number of other factors satisfaction person's interaction with the organization, his attitude to the organization and his contribution to the activities of the organization.
8.2. Interaction between person and organization
One of the most important tasks of strategic management is to ensure the harmonious and effective inclusion of employees in the life of the organization. To do this, it is important to correctly build the interaction between a person and the organizational environment. This requires a lot of work and special knowledge.
In order to understand how a person’s interaction with an organization is structured, it is necessary to understand not only what the essence of the problem of this interaction is, but also what in a person’s personality determines his behavior in the organization and what characteristics of the organizational environment influence the process of a person’s inclusion in the organization’s activities.
1. Approaches to building interaction between a person and the organizational environment
If the starting point in considering the interaction between a person and the organizational environment is a person, then this interaction can be described as follows.
1. A person, interacting with the organizational environment, receives stimulating influences from it.
2. A person, under the influence of these stimulating signals from the organizational environment, carries out certain
actions.
3. Actions carried out by a person lead to the performance of certain jobs and at the same time have an impact on the organizational environment.
Considered this way into the organizational environment includes those elements of the organizational environment that interact with a person. Stimulating influences cover the entire range of possible stimuli: speech and written signals, actions of other people, light signals, etc. In the model, a person appears as a biological and social being with certain physiological and other needs, experience, knowledge, skills, morals, values, etc. Response to stimulation covers the person's perception of these influences, their assessment and conscious or unconscious decision-making about response actions.
When considering the interaction of a person with the organizational environment from the perspective of the organization as a whole, a description of this interaction can be given in the following form. An organization as a single organism that has input, converter and output, interacting with the external environment in a certain way, corresponding to the nature and content of this interaction, includes a person as an element of the organization in the process of information and material exchange between the organization and the environment. In this model, a person is considered as an integral part of the input and acts as a resource of the organization, which it, along with other resources, uses in its activities.
Actions and behavior include thinking, body movements, speech, facial expressions, exclamations, gestures, etc. Results of work consist of two components.
First- this is what a person has achieved for himself by responding to incentives, what problems he has solved caused by stimulating influences.
Second- this is what he did for the organizational environment, for the organization in response to the stimulating influences that the organization applied to him.
Strategic management is characterized by a view of considering the interaction between a person and an organization from the perspective of a person.
The need to develop human potential is due to the fact that by developing it, it can be turned into powerful human capital, which in turn acted as a driving force for the more effective and fruitful development of Russian society. Therefore, the importance of human development cannot be overemphasized. Therefore, it is necessary to pay great attention to issues and problems related to the development of human potential and carry out effective and large-scale work in this direction. Today, the state provides all possible support to talented youth, young families, and specialists in various fields, thereby promoting the development of human potential, both for individuals and for the entire country as a whole. Assistance of this kind is provided through the development and implementation of numerous programs and projects, both at the country level as a whole and at regional levels.
Potential is the totality of all available opportunities and resources in any area or sphere. Speaking about human potential, it can be considered from two different points of view: in relation to the country as a whole or in relation to an individual. The human potential of a country is the totality of the physical and spiritual forces of its inhabitants, which can be used to achieve individual and social goals - both instrumental, related to providing the necessary conditions for life, and existential, including the expansion of human potential and the possibilities of his self-realization.
Human potential of an individual is a person’s ability to multiply his internal capabilities, first of all, the ability to develop. Personal potential is the ability to live a rich inner life and effectively interact with the environment, to be productive, to influence effectively, to grow and develop successfully. Human potential, with due attention, can turn into human capital, which is important.
As for human capital, domestic economists S.A. Dyatlov and A.I. Dobrynin believe that human capital is a combination of certain elements and characteristics. “Firstly, it is an accumulated stock of skills, knowledge, and abilities. Secondly, this is a stock of skills, knowledge, abilities that are expediently used by a person in one or another sphere of social reproduction and contributes to the growth of labor productivity and production. Thirdly, the appropriate use of this reserve in the form of highly productive activities naturally leads to an increase in the employee’s income.”
Having interpreted the definition of human capital given by S.A. Dyatlov and A.I. Dobrynin can say that human capital is a person’s internal resources embodied in something and bringing a certain kind of benefit or income.
Having considered the concepts of human potential and human capital, we can once again trace the connection between them. Effective development of human potential will lead to the formation of human capital, and it will have a beneficial effect on the economy of the entire country as a whole.
Human development involves many various factors. If we talk about the human potential of a country, then one of the criteria for the success of its development is the demographic indicator. Using the example of Russia, the positive trend in this area became especially noticeable in 2012. Compared to 2011, in 2012 the birth rate increased by 80.3 thousand people, and the mortality rate decreased by 35 thousand people. The development of human potential of an individual can be considered based on indicators that reflect people’s desire to receive higher education. According to the 2002 census, the number of people with higher education was 19.4 million people, and in 2010 there were 27.5 million. It should also be noted that the proportion of illiterate people aged 10 years and above has decreased. In 2002, the proportion of illiterate people was 0.5%, and in 2010 it dropped to 0.3%. The above data indicate positive dynamics in the direction of human capital development, but indicators, such as demographics, still leave much to be desired. The demographic indicator is a certain indicator of the effectiveness of the state’s social policy, which in turn is one of the factors in the development of human capital at the level of the entire country.
One of the directions of our country’s social policy is the development of the human personality, maintaining health, raising the cultural level, and providing “natural” services through the social infrastructure system. Work in these areas is carried out through the implementation of programs and projects, such as: the program “Scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel of innovative Russia” for 2009–2013, the program “Culture of Russia (2012-2018)”, etc., development and implementation Such programs certainly contribute to the development of human potential throughout the country. But there are certain difficulties that reduce the effectiveness of social policy, such difficulties include a low standard of living, passive life position citizens, as well as some problems in the field of education, healthcare, etc.
As for the potential of an individual, a huge role can be played here by how much a person can realize himself in a particular area, be it work, study, or creativity. Recently, most universities have strived to provide their students with everything necessary to engage in science, creativity, etc. The example of Sholom Aleichem Priamur State University clearly shows that all conditions are being created for the development of students’ potential. The Scientific Student Society holds conferences, seminars, and training sessions, thanks to which students can find their place in the scientific community. Creative studios allow students to achieve a certain mastery and gain the necessary skills in theater arts, dance or photography. But here, too, there are certain difficulties, the main one of which is the low interest of students in engaging in any activity.
All of the above suggests that, despite the fact that work is being done to improve conditions for the development and realization of human potential (assistance to young families, payment of maternity capital, support for young scientists and creative people, etc.), there are still some unresolved problems and weak points that need special attention.
In order to find out the idea of young people about human potential, we conducted a survey among students of some universities in the Far East (Amur State University named after Sholom Aleichem, Birobidzhan, Pacific State University, Khabarovsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur State Technical University , Amur State Pedagogical University, Komsomolsk-on-Amur.) A total of 44 people took part in the survey. Age limits of respondents: 17-25 years. Table 1 presents the survey questions and suggested answers.
Table 1. Young people's perceptions of human potential
| 1) What does the term “human potential” mean to you? Give your definition of this concept. | |
| 2) What do you think are the conditions necessary for the development of human potential? Choose ONE answer option. | A. only the desire of the person himself B. only state support B. the desire of the person himself and the support of the state D. other conditions (specify which ones) |
| 3) In your opinion, is the development of the human potential of an individual important for the entire society, the state as a whole? Choose ONE answer option. | A. yes V. yes, (explain why) G. no, (explain why) |
As a result of our survey (for each question), we found the following:
- Among the total number of respondents, the majority (70.5% - 31 people) did not answer the first question, while the rest (29.5% - 13 people) gave their own various definitions of the concept of human capital. Among them were the following formulations: human capital is a person’s ability and desire to do something, human capital is a set of properties, traits, abilities of an individual, human potential is what is inherent in a person from birth, this is what he should develop in yourself throughout your life, etc.
- Speaking about the conditions necessary for the development of human potential (43.2% - 19 people) chose option A, thinking that a necessary condition is only the desire of the person himself to develop, and (57.8% - 25 people) chose option B, they considered that the desire of the person himself to develop his potential is not enough, for this the support of the state is also necessary.
- When answering the question about the importance of developing the human potential of an individual for the entire society, the state as a whole, respondents were almost unanimous. The majority (86.4% - 38 people) answered yes, choosing answer option letter A, another (9% - 4 people) also answered yes, but also explained why (answer option B), but (4.5% – 2 people) considered that the development of the potential of one individual is not important for the entire state, choosing answer B.
In general, the survey results showed that young people understand human potential as the special resources (qualities, abilities) of a person, using and developing which he can achieve certain successes. Having analyzed the respondents’ answers, we saw that the majority of students believe that developing the potential of an individual is extremely important for the development of society as a whole, and this development is impossible without the desire of the individual himself and the support of the state.
Strategy for using human potential- a strategy for developing the potential of the organization’s personnel in order to ensure its strategic competitive advantage, presented in the form of a long-term program of action. The strategy should focus personnel on achieving the organization’s goals for its long-term development.
At the present stage, the creation and effective use of the high potential of the organization’s personnel is the main factor in achieving business success and winning in competition. Creating a strong management team with a good combination of personal qualities and sets of skills and abilities is one of the first steps in implementing the strategy. Personnel support for the implementation of the strategy includes the selection of a strong management team, selection and support of highly qualified employees.
The basis for creating a strategy is an adequate understanding of the main types of decisions that are made by an organization in the field of personnel management strategy:
1) selection, promotion and placement of personnel in all key positions of the organization; “create” - the formation of the organization’s personnel, based on the capabilities of the process of attracting, promoting, placing and developing personnel; “buy” - attracting new personnel of exactly the quality that is necessary for each level of the organization. The strategy for each situation is selected individually, depending on the specifics of the business.
2) assessment of a person’s position in the organization; the personnel evaluation system can be “process” oriented - the circumstances that are part of the achievement process are important real results; or “result” - a candidate for a position must meet pre-established special professional indicators.
3) a reward system that provides adequate compensation, clearly defined benefits and motivation for employee behavior; “position-based compensation system” - remuneration is dictated by the nature of the work performed; “a compensation system aimed at individual results and effective activities within the entire organization” - the remuneration system is built on a very differentiated assessment of activities.
4) management development, creating mechanisms for advanced training and career advancement: “informal, intensive” - used by companies that consider management development as the most important task in the field of labor management; "formal, extensive."
Motivation in personnel management of an organization
Motivation is the process of motivating a person to act to achieve goals. Motivation can also be defined as a structure, a system of motives for the activity and behavior of a subject.
There are four main stages in the motivation process.
1. The emergence of a need.
2. Developing a strategy and finding ways to meet needs.
3. Determination of tactics of activity and phased implementation of actions.
4. Satisfying needs and receiving material or spiritual rewards.
Maslow's theory of needs
Need for self-expression
Need for recognition and respect
The need to belong to a social group
Need for security
Physiological needs
Alderfer's theory of existence, connection and growth.
Existence needs;
Communication needs;
Growth needs.
McClellanday's theory of acquired needs
is associated with the study and description of the influence on human behavior of the needs of achievement, participation and power.
Porter–Lawler theory
So, according to the Porter-Lawler model, the results achieved by an employee depend on three variables: the effort expended (3), the person’s abilities and character (4), as well as his awareness of his role in the labor process (5). The level of effort expended, in turn, depends on the value of the reward (1) and on the extent to which the person believes in the existence of a strong connection between the expenditure of effort and the possible reward (2). Achieving the required level of performance (6) may entail internal rewards (7) - such as a sense of satisfaction from the work performed, confidence in one's competence and self-esteem, as well as external rewards (8) - such as praise from a manager, bonus, promotion .
Expectancy theory
A person must also hope that the type of behavior he chooses will actually lead to satisfaction or the acquisition of what he wants.
Stimulating staff. Material and moral incentives labor activity personnel
A stimulus is an incentive to action or a reason for human behavior. There are four main forms of incentives.
Compulsion. IN democratic society Enterprises use administrative methods of coercion: reprimand, reprimand, transfer to another position, severe reprimand, postponement of vacation, dismissal from work.
Material incentive. This includes incentives in material form: wages and tariff rates, remuneration for results, bonuses from income or profit, compensation, vouchers, loans for the purchase of a car or furniture, loans for housing construction, etc.
Moral encouragement. Incentives aimed at satisfying the spiritual and moral needs of a person: gratitude, publications in the press, government awards, etc.
Self-affirmation. Internal driving forces of a person that encourage him to achieve his goals without direct external encouragement (writing a dissertation, publishing a book, authoring an invention, making a film, etc.). This is the most powerful stimulus known in nature, however, it manifests itself only in the most developed members of society
Coordination of the company's strategy and position. Setting Strategic Priorities
The task of adapting the company's strategy to the current situation is quite complex, because At the same time, it is necessary to weigh many external and internal ones. factors. However, while the number of different indicators and variables that need to be taken into account is large, the most important factors influencing a firm's strategy can be divided into 2 groups:
* Factors characterizing the state of the industry and the conditions of competition in it.
*Factors characterizing the competitive capabilities of a company, its market position and its capabilities.
When forming a strategy, first of all, it is necessary to take into account what stage of the life cycle the industry is in, the structure of the industry, the essence and power of competitive forces, and the scale of activity of competitors. The assessment of the position of the company itself depends to the greatest extent on: 1) whether the company is a leader in the industry, an assertive contender for leadership (challenging), constantly on the sidelines or struggling for survival and 2) from the strong, weaknesses the company, its opportunities and the dangers that threaten it. 5 classic Options for the industry situation in aligning strategy with the environment:
Competition in emerging and fast-growing industries.
Competition in mature industries.
Competition in stagnant and declining industries.
Competition in fragmented industries.
Competition in international markets,
as well as 3 classic types of company position in the market:
· The company occupies a leading position in the market;
· The company pursues leaders;
· The company is weak in all respects and is in a state of crisis.
Origin and rapid growth:
Uncertainty of the situation in the new market (number of competitors, market size, growth rate, etc.)
Wide variety of technologies applied to product production, marketing and distribution
Uncertainty of consumer requirements for new products
There is no well-functioning system for working with suppliers and intermediaries
Maturity:
Slower growth of buyers. demand and increased competition in the market
A key characteristic of the modern stage of civilizational development is a sharp increase in the role of man in the system of production factors, which dictates the need for a deep social reorientation of economic priorities. Man is placed at the center of the socio-economic system; the fullest possible satisfaction of the entire range of his needs, including the need for self-realization, becomes both the ultimate goal of production and a condition for its sustainable development. Ensuring the fullest possible development and realization of human potential comes to the fore.
Until recently, when analyzing the reproductive role of a person in the economic process, the emphasis was on labor potential, i.e. the totality of those properties, abilities, knowledge and skills of people that they use or can use in social production at a given stage of its development. Human potential characterizes the population in all the richness of its abilities, knowledge, skills and personal characteristics.
Considered in relation to an individual, labor potential corresponds to his labor force, human potential corresponds to personality. In conditions of the increasing role of creative labor and the increasing share of creative and personal elements in labor processes, the range of abilities, knowledge and skills that an employee uses in the labor process is constantly expanding. Many modern jobs in various fields of activity require not only professional skills, but also personal characteristics employee. As a result, the line between labor and human potential is gradually losing its former meaning and becoming more fluid and blurred.
The difference between labor and human potentials appears clearly when considering the issue of their implementation. The sphere of realization of labor potential is the production of material and intangible goods and services. In modern society, the main place where production takes place is the market sector, and most of productive population is, to one degree or another, included in labor market relations. At the same time, there is a sector where non-market production (including intra-family) predominates, as well as sectors. As a result, market relations (non-profit, state) are weakened. Thus, economic inactivity in the traditional market sense does not necessarily mean a lack of realization of labor potential.
Human potential is realized in a variety of areas, the leading of which, in addition to production, are consumption and leisure. In this regard we're talking about not only about effective demand as a stimulus for production, but also about the complication of consumption and the formation of a structure of needs. The most important function of human potential is the initiation of long-term needs that set the incentives and direction of economic development. Spheres of realization of human potential act simultaneously as spheres of production of labor potential.
The quality of human potential must be assessed on the basis of both individual (average) criteria and its characteristics as a whole, including the structural aspect and the aspect of interaction quality.
Considered from the point of view of its economic return (actual or potentially possible, predicted), human potential takes the form of human capital. The knowledge and skills accumulated by a person in the process of education and work, the abilities that he possesses by nature and which he managed to develop in himself, i.e. his individual potential is able to bring returns in the labor process, being realized in higher labor productivity and higher earnings. The approach from the perspective of the concept of human capital was first proposed in the 1950-1960s. and quickly entered the main methodological arsenal as theoretical research, and applied developments.
In Russian economic literature, human capital is sometimes characterized as a non-economic component of social wealth. This interpretation is inaccurate, since the very fact of capitalization of labor potential indicates its equal inclusion in unified system economic, moreover, market (cost) relations. In this case, it is more correct to talk about the intangible component of social wealth, which includes, along with human capital (education, health, labor skills of the population), accumulated scientific knowledge and social capital.
A different approach to assessing the level of human development has been proposed within the UN. A methodology was developed to calculate an internationally comparable Human Development Index (HDI) based on life expectancy, educational coverage and GDP per capita. Despite all the imperfections of this index, its undoubted advantage is the desire to comprehensively reflect human development, the refusal to approach a person solely as an economic resource, a factor of production.
Along with individual averaged characteristics (level of education, culture, health status, psycho-emotional state
individual people) an important aspect of the quality of human potential, which determines the possibility of its effective implementation, are structural characteristics reflecting the ratio of various professional and qualification categories of the workforce (for example, representatives of technical and humanitarian professions, senior and mid-level specialists), the balance of the corresponding proportions with the needs of the economy in a workforce of varying quality. A shortage of one category or another means a decrease in quality, an excess hinders effective implementation. With generally high levels of accumulated human capital (measured through the summation of individual savings), it is structural imbalances that come to the fore and can lead to a significant decrease in quality.
The most important aspect of human potential, which goes beyond production itself and covers all spheres of people’s life, is the quality of interaction and relationships between people in society. Numerous studies show that the quality of relationships is the most important factor in development, allowing some countries to use the resources at their disposal much more effectively than others. Recently, this aspect, described by the concept of “social capital,” has attracted increased attention from researchers.
An abundance of social capital significantly reduces business costs and, through strengthening trust, coordination and cooperation at all levels, leads to increased productivity. The consequence of a lack of social capital is an increase in conflicts and a decrease in efficiency. The transition to the production of individualized and knowledge-intensive products fundamentally changes the content of competition compared to the situation of predominantly mass production and sets economic imperatives for the socialization of business. Despite the importance of education and qualifications of individual workers, the formation of effective social relations, developing the ability for mutual learning, team work, facilitating the transfer of information across the economy and thereby increasing the volume of human capital and facilitating its more effective implementation. Thus, the formation of intra- and inter-firm social capital becomes a more powerful factor in the innovation process than market competition.
This circumstance forces us to reconsider the ideas traditionally shared by liberal economists about the relationship between economic efficiency and social justice and dictates the need to strengthen the social orientation of modern economies. The less evenly property and income are distributed, the greater the obstacles to the formation of relations of mutual trust. Inequality generated by free markets can have a negative impact on efficiency because it destroys social capital.
Today, in developed economies, insurance and fiscal mechanisms of social protection cover the vast majority of the population and ensure their basic socio-economic security. Through the state budget in most developed countries, it is redistributed from Uzbekistan (USA, Japan) to 1/2 (France, Italy) of GDP. Government social spending in the United States accounts for more than 20% of GDP, and in European countries- at least 30%.
An equally important direction of state policy is associated with its role in ensuring the production of socially significant benefits created in the sectors of non-material production, primarily in education, health care, and culture. The product of these industries not only has independent value for direct consumers, but also provides social benefits for society as a whole and represents an investment in people, the return on which sometimes exceeds the return on investment in the material base. The importance of social capital for ensuring competitiveness is an incentive for shareholders and corporate managers to enter into dialogue with the state on ways to avoid an unproductive equilibrium based on low-skilled labor, in which the quality of education and training is low and, accordingly, unsuitability for professional activity in the economy, acquired knowledge dooms the population to vegetation. There is an increasing role of the state as a strategist, determining the main priorities and directions of development, the formation and development, along with the market, of a vast non-profit sector and the socialization of business, which takes on a significant part of the functions related to the development of employees.
The presence of a significant positive external effect and a long payback period for a significant part of investments in education and health necessitate corrective government intervention market mechanisms. If left to the market, the volume and structure of these spheres would significantly lag behind the real objective needs of the economy and society. This circumstance largely explains the priority of relevant expenditures in the budget policy of developed countries, including those that are traditionally classified as countries with a predominantly liberal model of social policy. In the United States, investments in human resource development account for more than 60% of federal budget expenditures and are almost four times higher than defense spending.
The investment role of the main social sectors is different. From an economic point of view, investments in healthcare are of an infrastructural nature, i.e. create conditions for the normal participation of workers in the production process (physically healthy people take sick leave less often, can work with full dedication, not only live longer, but also stay in the labor force longer). Investing in education, creating a more resilient workforce High Quality, provide direct economic returns through higher labor productivity.
The key function of the state as a subject of social policy is to form a socio-economic environment conducive to the active self-realization of each member of society in the economic sphere itself, guaranteeing a sufficient level of stability and development opportunities. In a socially oriented economy, all elements of economic
politicians solve this problem to the best of their ability. Antimonopoly policy, support for small and medium-sized businesses, programs for balanced development of territories, and the creation of a favorable investment climate have a pronounced social aspect. The maximum burden lies on employment policy and wage policy. Thus, the functions of the state include both the direct implementation of measures for the development of human potential and the general regulation of the social parameters of the economic process.
In Russia, one of the leading, if not the main reason that initiated the reforms, was the inability to ensure, within the framework of the Soviet system, the effective implementation of the human potential of the population and the possibility of its sustainable, balanced development. This does not mean that during the Soviet period human potential was not in demand and its development was not given due attention.
Model achievements Soviet type in the field of human development were due primarily to the fact that increasing the level of general and special education of the population was included in the system of strategic priorities at all stages of the country's development (starting with the solution of the triune task of industrialization, collectivization and cultural revolution). As a result, in a relatively short time it was possible to achieve relatively high international standards values of basic indicators of human development. In the twenty pre-war years, approximately 60 million illiterates were educated. The 1959 census showed that illiteracy in the country was almost completely eliminated. According to the 1994 microcensus, the share of people with higher (complete and incomplete) education in the adult population was about 15%, while the share of people with insufficient education (no more than 8 years) was 34.5%. For comparison: at the start of the reforms, the corresponding figures were in Poland - 5.3% (54.6), in Hungary - 5.8% (66.9), in Bulgaria - 5.7% (75.7), in Czechoslovakia - 3.5% (57.3). The high level of education of the population is a huge potential advantage for Russia in international competition, and it is worth spending some effort to preserve and implement before it is completely lost.
The social contract also played a certain positive role in the development of human potential. Firstly, the stability of the system of basic guarantees ensured a minimally acceptable, but steadily growing level of consumption for workers and members of their families, and also created confidence in the future. Secondly, the same system acted as a prerequisite for the diversification of motivational mechanisms in the world of work (at the present stage, wages “crush everything”).
The most significant shortcomings of the human potential formed during the Soviet period, with which the country entered the transformation process, are associated, firstly, with the specifics of the mentality of the population, which was formed not only during the Soviet period, but has deep roots in the history of Russia. This specificity is manifested in the dominance of the social, including the collective, over the individual, the habit of delegating the right of choice and decision-making (along with responsibility) to the top, and a tendency to opportunistic behavior. All these features were “fed” by the Soviet system, and their negative component became especially acute during the period of “developed socialism.”
Secondly, the structure of human potential with which Russia entered the reform process was formed in accordance with the tasks and needs of a militarized centrally controlled economy, focused on accelerated industrial development, increasing the means of production, strengthening defense capabilities to the detriment of the development and diversification of current and future consumption . Hence the inevitable “technocratic” imbalance: an excess of scientific and technical personnel with an underproduction of specialists in the humanities, economics, and management. In the post-war period, engineers consistently accounted for more than 200,000 specialists with higher education employed in the national economy. At the beginning of the 1970s. in the USSR, engineering students accounted for almost half of all university students, while in the USA - only 7%
Negative phenomena gradually accumulated in the sphere of realization of human potential. Of these, the least painful for the system was the excessively extensive expansion of employment in social production. However, its downside was the impossibility from a certain point to solve the problem of shortage of labor resources in specific industries by attracting additional resources from the family sector and personal subsidiary plots. Since the 1970s The problems of accumulation of hidden unemployment within enterprises, decreased motivation of workers, and low returns on labor have significantly worsened. The gap in labor productivity between the USSR and developed Western countries grew. All this served as an argument in favor of the need for radical economic reform.
Apparently, one of the reasons for the aggravation of the listed problems was the inadequacy of the existing type of employment, which in its main features corresponds to the needs of an industrial society and the imperatives of further economic development. By this time, in the most developed countries of the world there had been a transition to a new type of employment, involving a different distribution of the roles of production factors and other forms of organizing labor relations. In Russia, the growth of negative trends in the labor sphere also set the economic imperatives for the transition to a new employment model, characterized by an increased role of creative labor, increased flexibility of labor relations, and an increase in the share of employees in non-material production and services.
If the previous type of employment, characteristic of mass production, where labor was subordinated to the material and technological factor, was very well, one might say, organically combined with a centrally controlled economy, then new type employment did not fit into it at all. This is precisely the reason for the lag in the competition of the two systems, the crisis of intra-production relations, and therefore the inevitability of the collapse of the totalitarian system and radical transformations.
However, the transition to market relations in the labor sphere is not an end in itself, but a means of building a new employment model that can adequately utilize human potential. As the ten-year experience of Russian reforms has shown, a fairly successful market transformation of the sphere of labor relations in itself does not imply significant progress in solving this problem. In Russia, the spontaneous liberation of the market was not accompanied by the formation of a capable system of social shock absorbers, nor
development of a consistent government policy aimed at developing the intangible investment complex and stimulating the effective implementation of human potential. As a result, a contradiction has arisen and is gaining strength between the still fairly high level of education and professional qualifications of the population, on the one hand, and the deterioration of the conditions and quality of employment, on the other. The inevitable increase in social problems under these conditions is largely due to increased underutilization, depreciation and gradual degradation of human potential.
Throughout the reforms, opportunities for productive employment were narrowed. With a superficial look at the dynamics of structural changes in employment, one can discern seemingly progressive changes associated with the increasing share of the service sector, which brings the ratio of employment in large sectors in Russia closer to the corresponding ratio in the most developed countries. However, a change in the ratio of employment in large sectors is a formal, uninformative criterion (Table 42.1). For a meaningful assessment of trends in the development of the employment structure, two interrelated circumstances are essential: the reasons that led to certain changes, and the specific content of large sectors.
Table 42.1
Distribution of employees by large sectors (1990-2001), % Sector 1990 1995 1997 1998 1999 2001 2002 Agriculture 13.2 15.1 13.7 14.0 13.6 13.4 12.7 Industry 42.3 35 .2 31.8 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 Services 45.5 49.7 55.5 55.8 56.1 56.2 56.8 Calculated from: Social status and standard of living of the Russian population. M.: Goskomstat of Russia. 2002. P. 74; Social status and standard of living of the Russian population. M.: Goskomstat of Russia. 2000. P. 69.
With normal progressive economic development, a change in the employment structure occurs as a result of productivity growth and the saturation of needs at a certain level. This makes it possible to free up some workers to meet higher needs and determines changes in the sectoral and professional-qualification structure of the labor force both in the economy as a whole and within large sectors. In particular, in the sectoral structure of the industry, knowledge-intensive sub-sectors of mechanical engineering are being developed, in the professional qualification category - categories that stand outside production process and those engaged in meaningful creative work to service it (specialists, managers). In the tertiary sector1, the leading role passes to the industries that form the intangible investment complex underlying the modern economy - science, education, information technology, as well as to healthcare.
In Russia, the process followed a completely different pattern. The reduction in the share of people employed in industry was caused by the crisis decline in production, which affected this industry to the greatest extent. At the same time, there are clear regressive shifts in the industrial structure, the direction of which has not changed with the onset of the period of economic growth. With an increase in the share of people employed in primary industries (from 12.5% in 1990 to 21.2% in
1998 and 23.0% in 2001), the share of the industry where scientific and technical progress was primarily materialized was declining - mechanical engineering (from 38.2% in 1990 to 30.1% in 1998 and 27.2% in 2001) and industry aimed directly at satisfying final needs - light industry(from 10.9% in 1990 to 6.7% in 1998 and 6.1% in 2002).
Changes in employment generally reflected changes in the structure of production. Domestic per capita production of staple foods and consumer goods has declined significantly. There was no saturation of basic needs. Workers were forced to leave industry in search of income. In general, the sectoral structure of employment changed in the direction of reducing the share of manufacturing industry due to an increase in the shares of extractive industries, primitive agriculture and primitive services. The growth in employment in the tertiary sector occurred primarily with an increase in the number of people employed in trade and public administration, the share of which increased by more than 1.5 times.
The share of non-material production sectors that ensure the quality of economic growth - the generation of new knowledge and the dissemination of information, the development of human potential and that place demand for the most qualified creative labor - has been steadily declining with a gradual decrease in their already insignificant funding. Annual total government investments in the social sector during last decade did not exceed 20% of GDP, and in 2001 their share decreased to 15.6%. At the same time, investments in education and health care decreased by 2001 to 3.1 and 3.0%, respectively. For comparison: in the United States, direct government investment in health care (excluding investments in research and construction of medical facilities) in 1999 amounted to 6% of GDP, and taking into account the expenditures of insurance funds, this share exceeds 10%. Public investment in education in 1998 amounted to 5.6% of GDP, and total investment in this area was also close to 10%.
Over the years of reforms, employment in the fields of education and culture has decreased, the share of science has sharply fallen, the stability of the share of people employed in health care, social security and sports is associated with the growth of the administrative apparatus of social security in the context of more complicated procedures for the provision of social transfers (Table 42.2). Thus, behind some outward
Table 42.2
Share of employees in certain sectors of non-material production and services (1990-2001), % Industry 1990 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Trade and public catering 17.5 20.2 24.7 26.1 26.0 26.0 27.2 Finance 1.2 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 Management 4.8 5.7 7.3 7.8 8.0 8.1 7.8 Healthcare, sports, social security 12 .6 13.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.4 12.3 Education 18.1 18.7 17.1 17.0 16.6 16.2 15.9 Culture 3.5 3.4 3 .2 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 Science 8.4 5.1 4.1 3.7 3.4 3.3 3.2 Calculated from: Social status and standard of living of the population of Russia. M.: Goskomstat of Russia, 2002. P. 74; Social status and standard of living of the Russian population. M.: Goskomstat of Russia, 2000. P. 69.
A positive shift in the sectoral structure of the economy is not worth qualitative transformations. On the contrary, there is a primitivization of employment.
An extreme form of manifestation of primitivization of employment is an increase in the share of labor spent in subsidiary agriculture. The most important source of livelihood for the country's population is work on household plots and summer cottages, which accounts for a significant part of the total working time. According to a labor force survey by the State Statistics Committee of Russia, in the spring-summer period, employment in subsidiary agriculture reaches more than 40 million people, of which 17-18 million are engaged in this alone. In terms of full-time contingent workers in the season (May-August) - this is 16-17 million people, i.e. approximately 1/4 of total official employmentK
One of the key reasons for the underutilization and gradual degradation of human potential is the low price of labor combined with distorted differentiation of pay that does not correspond to real differences in skill levels. In Russia, the low price of labor developed historically as a result of the late abolition of serfdom, numerous wars, revolutions, natural Disasters, over a long period of time, forming low claims of hired workers. However, in conditions of free action of market levers, the low price of labor leads to consequences opposite to those expected. A threat to the formation and development of the country’s human potential is posed by at least three circumstances that distinguish the current situation from the pre-reform one.
First, during the Soviet period, a significant part of labor costs was reimbursed centrally. Labor was cheap for enterprises, but the state provided free education and healthcare, cheap housing, consumer services, transport, as well as access to cultural values - museums, theaters, cinema, books. It was much cheaper to have and raise children, and the principle of equal starting opportunities was implemented much more consistently than it is today. The sharp reduction in the free and subsidized components of labor costs during the reform process created a threat to the normal conditions of reproduction of the labor force, and this most affected its most qualified categories.
Secondly, the economy has become open. The most qualified workers who meet the requirements of modern production enter the world market, where labor prices are incomparably higher than in Russia. Preserving the elite of human potential is possible only with a significant increase in funding, making it possible to ensure pay and working conditions comparable to socially normal ones (possibly slightly lower - minus compensation for migration costs).
Thirdly, even in the Soviet period, the low price of labor had a disincentive effect on the replacement of labor with capital. However, in conditions when investment decisions were made centrally, and market levers played a subordinate role, the importance of this factor was not as noticeable as it is now. In modern conditions, in full accordance with the laws of a market economy, the traditionally low price of labor leads to a weakening of market incentives for technological transformations, and, consequently, to the consolidation of imbalances, conservation of the backward structure of production, and the accumulation of suppressed unemployment within enterprises. This trend is most clearly evident in industry.
According to a survey of employers as part of a survey on labor relations problems conducted by the Center for Labor Market Research (CIRT) of the Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1999, the wages of workers corresponded to the labor contribution of 35.7% of state-owned enterprises, 46.9% of privatized enterprises and 61 .1% private. The wage scale is being leveled. According to the Labor Market Flexibility Survey (LMFS), during 1994-2000. there was a steady tendency for the earnings of skilled and unskilled workers to converge. The wages of specialists are not much higher than the wages of skilled workers and significantly lag behind the wages of even middle-level managers. The conclusion suggests itself that in Russian industry there is a surplus of specialists associated with the simplification of production.
The deterioration of employment conditions was accompanied by a threefold reduction in average real wages with its redistribution in favor of rent-accumulating export-oriented extractive industries and the financial and credit sector. As a result, a fall in wages in industries financed primarily from the budget, responsible for the reproduction of human potential and innovative development, was much deeper than for the economy as a whole. In certain periods, the entire tariff schedule for public sector employees fell below the subsistence level. In 2000, workers in such important professions as doctors, paramedics, teachers, teachers, and educators earned almost the subsistence level). According to the survey of social security of the population (PSS-2002), conducted by the Center for Research and Development of the Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 2002, among workers with wages below the subsistence level, 28.8% had higher education, and 43.3% had secondary education. special education. Thus, there is a clear trend of depreciation of human potential, especially among the most qualified part of workers.
The decline in income and living standards of a large part of the population as a result of underutilization and depreciation of human potential is the most obvious negative consequence of the reforms. However, there are other aspects to the problem. Significant losses are associated with the opportunities for personal self-realization, the simplification of motivational mechanisms in the world of work and the formation of “survival strategies.” This leads to a primitivization of the structure of needs that sets guidelines for economic development. A serious threat is posed by the erosion of the principle of equal starting opportunities due to the reduction in the scope and quality of free education. A sharp decline in the social security of the population is accompanied by a feeling of injustice of what is happening, a loss of self-confidence and trust in the state. According to PSS-2002, only 8% of respondents believe that their interests are protected by the state, while 56.4% rely only on themselves and their family, and 33.6% said that they have no one or nothing to rely on rely.
There is a point of view that explains the increase in negative phenomena in the social and labor sphere of employment by the slow pace of market transformations and classifies them as “a manifestation of non-market elements of development.” In our opinion, the point is not that the reforms are insufficient or inconsistent, but that the liberation of the market in itself is not enough for a breakthrough into the new economy. To solve this problem, targeted public policy reforming key sectors of the economy that form the system of reproduction of human potential, as well as a consistent employment policy.
In the Russian crisis situation, market levers, combined with the weakness of the state, inevitably had to stimulate undesirable processes. The liberation of the market in conditions of serious structural imbalances, monopolization of the economy, immaturity of civil society, lack of skills among workers to defend their interests with low wages already at the start of reforms led to a crisis, destruction of human and social capital, the replenishment of which is increasingly problematic.
Correcting imbalances involves developing a system of measures to prevent the degradation of accumulated knowledge and skills and adapting the workforce to the changing needs of the economy and society, purposefully influencing the structure of both demand and supply of labor, and the conditions of employment of various categories of workers. At the same time, the policy of employment and human development is naturally “built into” industrial policy and the strategy for the development of infrastructure sectors. The latter largely operate within the public and non-profit sectors, and therefore the direction and pace of development of each of them largely depend on political choices. By leaving the correction of structural imbalances to the market, we, firstly, close the way to taking into account long-term needs (the market does not look ahead), and secondly, we doom a significant part of the human capital accumulated in the population to degradation and depreciation, having voluntarily abandoned modernization, completely real when choosing an alternative strategy; thirdly, we lose the “cream” of human capital as a result of the brain drain that is inevitable in an open economy.
In the current critical situation, the main efforts of the state should be aimed at preserving and restoring human and social capital. Without solving this problem, it is impossible to prevent the outflow from the country of any financial capital, nor elite human resources. Solving these problems requires a revision of both the place of social policy in the system of state priorities and its general concept, and, consequently, the proposed forms and methods of implementation.
The fundamental question is about the subjects of social policy, the distribution of their roles and the mechanism of interaction. The specific solution to this issue depends on the socio-economic situation in a particular country, the maturity of civil society and the level of well-being of citizens. In a stable and dynamic economy with a large share of innovative enterprises, fairly high and evenly distributed incomes of the bulk of the population, investment sectors of intangible production can
be largely incorporated into non-state sectors. However, in this case, the corresponding structures of the non-profit and private sectors receive significant subsidies from the state budget and tax breaks. In Russian conditions, when a large number of enterprises are pursuing a survival strategy, civil society institutions and the non-profit sector are poorly developed; Outside the sphere of direct influence of the state, there are not sufficient resources and incentives for long-term investments in the development of human resources. This is why social sectors of the public sector are so important.
Consistent strengthening of the social component is necessary economic policy and restoring trust in the state on this basis. The key components of such a policy are a focus on ensuring productive employment, protecting weak partners in the social and labor sphere, regulating the general principles of remuneration, and implementing the principle of equality of starting opportunities through facilitating access to quality free education at all levels. The first step towards the formation of an active social policy should be a radical revision of budget priorities in the direction of increasing social investment and improving the general conditions of employment of the population.
Priorities in the distribution of budget money are the most important indicator of the social orientation of state policy. Over the past years, financing of such areas as public administration at all levels, defense, and servicing external debt has come first in Russia. As for the social sphere, it is viewed, rather, as a kind of reserve for saving budget funds, which can be redistributed to other, more important needs of the state.
Increasing government investments in the main investment sectors of the social sphere in accordance with the standards of federal legislation, which generally meet international standards, but are ignored in practice, will solve a number of key problems to ensure sustainable socio-economic development. First, expanding access to education and health care ensures the accumulation and, equally important, equal distribution of human and social capital. Secondly, this will significantly improve employment conditions and wages in public sector sectors, where about 20% of the total workforce is still concentrated, most of them highly qualified. Thirdly, by increasing wages in public sector sectors, the state, as the largest employer, gives impetus to the overall strengthening of the position of qualified labor in the labor market, including outside the public sector. In this way, mechanisms will be launched to gradually overcome the social crisis, restore the population’s trust in the state, and lay the foundation for a system for the reproduction of human potential that is adequate to the requirements of the modern stage of civilizational development.
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